Chapter LXII: Appendix: B. Excavations in Mesopotamia and Their Results

[b] A. H. LAYARD, _Nineveh and its Remains_.

[c] F. HOMMEL, _Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens_.

[d] R. W. ROGERS, _History of Babylonia and Assyria_.

[j] HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS, _The History of the Art of Writing_.

A GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MESOPOTAMIAN HISTORY

BASED ON THE WORKS QUOTED, CITED, OR EDITORIALLY CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THE PRESENT HISTORY, WITH CRITICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

* * * * *

=Ælianus=, Claudius, The Variable History of Ælianus. Translated by A. Fleming. London, 1576.--=Ainsworth=, W., Researches in Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldea. London, 1842; Chaldeans of Central Kurdestan.--=Amiaud=, A., in de Sarzec’s Découvertes en Chaldée. Paris, 1814, 2 vols.; (in collab. with =F. Scheil=) Les inscriptions de Salmanasar. Paris, 1890.--=Aures=, A., Traité de métrologie assyrienne. Paris, 1891.

* * * * *

=Babelon=, E., Manuel d’archéol. orientale. Paris, 1888.--=Bertin=, G., Babylonian Chronology and History. London, 1892; The Pre-Akkadian Semites. London, 1886.--=Bewsher=, Lieut., Mesopotamia: Sheriat-el-Beyta to Tell Ibrahim.--=Bezold=, C., The Tell-el-Amarna Tablets in the British Museum. London, 1892; Catalogue of the Cuneiform Tablets in the Kuyunjik collection in the British Museum. London, 1889; Überblick über die babylonisch-assyrische Literatur. Leipsic, 1886.--=Billerbeck=, A., Susa. Leipsic, 1893.--=Birch=, S., Records of the Past. London, 1873, 12 vols.--=Bonavia=, E., Flora of the Assyrian Monuments. London, 1894.--=Boscawen=, W. St. C., Lectures on the History of Assyria. London, 1886; Assyria and Babylonia. London, 1836.--=Botta=, P. E., and =Flandrin=, E., Monuments de Ninive. Paris, 1849-1850, 5 vols.

_Paul Émil Botta_ was born at Turin December 6, 1802, and died
at Achères, near Poissy, France, March 29th, 1870. He was French
consul at Alexandria, and in 1842 was transferred to the office of
vice-consul at Mosul, of which he was the first titulary consul.
In December, 1842, he studied the tumulus which covered the right
bank of the Tigris opposite Mosul; superficially explored Kuyunjik;
and then at Khorsabad discovered (from March to October, 1843) the
remains of the town and palace of Doursaryonkin, founded by Sargon
II, king of Assyria. The objects found during these discoveries
were transported to France in 1846, and form the main contents of
the Musée Assyrien of the Louvre.

=Brandis=, J., Über den historischen Gewinn aus der Entzifferung der Assyr. Inschriften. Berlin, 1856.--=Brown=, F. T., Assyriology. New York, 1885.--=Bruce=, P., Three Inscriptions of Nabopolassar, King of Babylonia, B.C. 625-604; In Amer. Jour. of Sem. Lang., vol. 16, p. 178. Chicago, 1900.--=Brünnow=, R. E., Classified List of All Simple and Compound Cuneiform Ideographs. Leyden, 1887-1889.--=Bruston=, C. A., Les inscriptions assyriennes et l’Ancien Testament. Paris, 1875.--=Budge=, E. A. W., Babylonian Life and History. London, 1884; The History of Esar-Haddon. London, 1880; Annals of Shalmanasser II, Sennacherib and Assurbani-Pal. London, 1880; A Guide to the Babylonian and Assyrian Antiq. of the British Museum. London, 1900.

* * * * *

=Cara=, P. C. de, Gli Hethei-Pelasgi. Rome, 1895.--=Cartwright=, J., Travels through Syria, Mesopotamia, etc. London, 1911.--=Cassas=, L. F., Voyage Pittoresque en Syrie. Paris, 1799.--=Cavaniol=, H., Les monuments en Chaldée, en Assyrie et à Babylone. Paris, 1870.--=Clercq=, L. de, Antiquités assyriennes. Paris, 1888.--=Cloquet=, L., L’art monumental des égyptiens et des assyriens. Paris, 1896.

* * * * *

=Delattre=, A. J., Esquisse de géographie assyrienne. Paris, 1883; Les inscriptions historiques de Ninive, etc. Paris, 1879; L’Asie occid. dans les inscriptions assyriennes. Brussels, 1885; L’assyriologie depuis onze ans. Paris, 1891; L’exactitude en histoire d’après un Assyriologiste. Louvain, 1888.--=Delitzsch=, Friedrich, Die Entstehung des ältestens Schriftsystems. Leipsic, 1897; Handel, Recht und Sitte im alten Babylonien (in Velhagen and Klasing’s Monatshefte, Jahr. 13, Vol. II, p. 47. Berlin, 1899); Assyrische Studien. Leipsic, 1874.

_Friedrich Delitzsch_, the son of Franz Delitzsch, was born
at Erlangen, September 3, 1850. Professor of Assyriology in
the University of Berlin, he devoted himself to the study of
Assyriology, and attained a wide reputation as an Assyriologist.
He was appointed Professor of Assyriology at the University of
Leipsic. His writings have been mostly upon the subject of Assyria
and ancient Assyrian life, and he has made some translations from
the works of other historians, notably George Smith’s _Chaldean
Account of Genesis_. He made a deep sensation in Germany in 1902
by his lecture on “Babel and the Bible,” in which he pointed out
the similarity of the story of Moses in the bulrushes to the
ancient legend of the birth of Sargon I, king of Babylon; noted
the Babylonian custom of resting every seventh day, the word being
shabattu (whence Sabbath), and many other points in which the
Babylonian influence is shown in the Bible.

=Dieulafoy=, J., La Perse et la Chaldée. Paris, 1887.--=Diodorus=, S., The Historical Library, London, 1700.--=Duncker=, M., Geschichte des Alterthums. Leipsic, 1878, 6 vols. English translation: The History of Antiquity. London, 1880, 6 vols.

* * * * *

=Edwards=, C., The Witness of Assyria. London, 1893.--=Epping=, C., Astronomisches aus Babylon. Freiburg, 1889.--=Evans=, G., An Essay on Assyriology. London, 1883.--=Evetts=, B. T. A., Cylinders of Sennacherib. London, 1889; Inscription of the Reign of Evil-Merodach, Neriglissar and Laborosoarchod. Leipsic, 1892.

* * * * *

=Feer=, H. L., Les Ruines de Ninive. Paris, 1864.--=Ferguson=, J., The Palaces of Niniveh and Persepolis Restored. London, 1857.--=Fontane=, M., Histoire Universelle. Paris, 1881-1889, 6 vols.

_Marius Fontane_ was born at Marseilles, September 4, 1838. He was
destined to follow a commercial career, and was sent by a French
house in Marseilles to represent it in the Orient. While there
he was brought into relations with M. Ferdinand de Lesseps, and
became his private secretary. Through the efforts of M. de Lesseps,
Fontane was successively associated as secretary-general to the
Suez and Panama Canal Companies. M. Fontane was early drawn into
literary work, and in spite of his official duties found time to
devote much attention to political economy, religion, learning, and
history in all its branches. In his Universal History he devotes
much space to questions of race and primitive religions in the
historical evolution of humanity. Marius Fontane has come into
prominence largely through his writings on the subject of history,
but also through his explorations in the countries lying about the
Isthmus of Suez.

=Fradenburg=, J. N., Fire from Strange Altars. Cincinnati, 1891.--=Fraser=, J. B., Mesopotamia and Assyria, from the Earliest Ages to the Present Time. New York, 1892.

* * * * *

=Gatschet=, A. S., Historic Documents from the XIVth Century B.C. (In Amer. Anthropologist, vol. 10, p. 121. Washington, 1897.)--=Ginzel=, F. K., Die astronomischen Kentnisse der Babylonier und ihre culturhistorische Bedeutung. Leipsic, 1901.--=Goss=, W. H., Hebrew Captives of the Kings of Assyria. London, 1890.--=Guyard=, S., Mélanges d’Assyriologie. Paris, 1883.--=Goodspeed=, George S., A History of Babylonia and Assyria. New York, 1903.

* * * * *

=Halévy=, J., Documents religieux de l’Assyrie. Paris, 1882; La nouvelle évolution de l’accadisme. Paris, 1878; Aperçu grammatical sur l’allographie assyro-babylonienne. Paris, 1885; Essai sur les inscriptions du Safa. Paris, 1882; Recherches critiques sur l’origine de la civilisation babylonienne. Paris, 1876.

_Joseph Halévy_, of Jewish origin, was born at Adrianople, December
15, 1827. He came to study at Paris, and became a naturalised
Frenchman. In 1868 he visited northern Abyssinia to study the
Jewish religion of the Falashas. (The Falashas are a Hamitic tribe
which professes the Jewish religion, and claims descent from Hebrew
immigrants who followed the queen of Sheba.) In 1869 he was sent
to Yemen on a mission of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles
Lettres. He remained there two years, and brought back six hundred
and eighty-three Sabaic inscriptions. In 1872 he received a gold
medal from the Société de Géographie and the Volney prize from
the Institut. He afterwards became Professor of Ethiopian at the
École pratique des hautes études. He was one of the most active
collaborators in the _Journal Asiatique_, and wrote frequently
on the most disputed questions concerning the philology and
the archæology of the East to the Académie des Inscriptions.
His theories as to the origins of the Mesopotamian peoples and
languages made a profound impression on all the scholarly world,
and while they have met with bitter opposition they are entitled
to all the consideration that is due to such deep and tireless
research.

=Harkness=, M. E., Assyrian Life and History. London, 1883.--=Harper=, R. F., Assyrian and Babylonian Letters. London, 1892-1902, 8 vols.--=Havet=, E., Mémoire sur la date des écrits. Paris.--=Heeren=, A. H. L., Historical Researches, etc. Oxford, 1839, 2nd ed., 5 vols.--=Hegel=, G. W. F., Lectures on the Philosophy of History. London, 1857.--=Helm=, O. (in collab. with =Hilprecht=, H. V.), Chemische Untersuchung von altbabylonischen Kupferund Bronze-Gegenständen und deren Alters-Bestimmung (in Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop. Verh.). Berlin, 1901.--=Herder=, J. G. von, Outlines of the Philosophy of History of Man. London, 1803, 2 vols.

_Johann Gottfried von Herder_ was born at Mohrungen, East Prussia,
August 25, 1744. His education was mostly private. His first
writings appeared when he was about twenty years of age. His first
considerable work, _Fragmente über die neure deutsche Literatur_,
appeared in 1767. This work attracted the favourable attention of
Lessing, and made him widely known. In 1776 he obtained the post of
upper court preacher and upper member of the Consistory at Weimar.
At this post he passed the rest of his life. “He possessed a power
of intuition which must be considered in many cases as prophetic,
and which made him a pathfinder whose traces are followed up to
the present day.” His _Study of the Philosophy of History_ will
naturally be compared with the work on the same subject by his
contemporary Hegel. It created almost a furor of excitement in
its day, and may still be read with interest and profit by every
earnest student of history. Its essential attitude of mind appears
peculiarly archaic in our day, evidencing the utterly changed
point of view from which history is regarded in our generation.
Herder, like most other philosophical historians of his time,
saw everywhere the hand of God in history, and was firmly imbued
with the idea that all human events were but the working out of a
divine plan, the broad outlines of which had been fully revealed
to man. The modern historian tries to be a scientist rather than a
philosopher, and he finds scant proof of this basis on which Herder
worked, but views or attempts to view the course of world-history
as a candid or impartial investigator of facts and of rational
human motives, feeling by no means sure that he grasps the full
import of any metaphysical theological bearings of these facts and
motives, if such there be. Yet for this very reason the writings of
Herder have a peculiar value, as they not alone evidence the mental
grasp of the age in which they were written, but serve at the same
time to point out a significant difference between that time and
our own.

=Herodotus=, The History of Herodotus. London, 1806, 2nd ed., 4 vols.--=Heuzey=, L., Un palais chaldéen. Paris, 1888. La construction du roi Our-Nina d’après les levés et les notes de M. de Sarzec (in Rev. d’Assyr. et d’Archéol., vol. 4, p. 87. Paris, 1898).--=Hilprecht=, H. V., The Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania (Old Babylonian Inscriptions), Am. Phil. Soc. Philadelphia, 1896; Recent Researches in the Bible Lands. Philadelphia, 1896; The Recent Excavations of the University at Nippur (in Univ. of Pennsylvania Bul., vol. 2, p. 87, and vol. 3, p. 373, Philadelphia, 1899).

_Hermann Hilprecht_ was born at Hohenerxleben, Germany, June 28,
1859. He is at present professor in the University of Pennsylvania.
Professor Hilprecht was interested from the outset in the
expedition of the University of Pennsylvania to Babylonia, to which
we have more than once referred. At a later stage he was curator
and scientific director of the expedition, in which Mr. Haynes had
charge of the field-work, 1893-95 and 1897-1900, after Dr. Peters’
retirement. Though he spent but a month in actual field-work, he
spent several years in working up at Constantinople or Philadelphia
the ample supply of materials which the various expeditions
procured, and his results, as published from time to time, have
been noted everywhere as distinct and important additions to our
technical knowledge of Assyriology. The greatest popular interest
in these discoveries perhaps grows out of the light that they throw
on the extreme antiquity of Babylonian history. Dr. Peters and
Professor Hilprecht both assure us that the secure records gained
by the excavations of Nippur carry the history of Babylonia back to
a period at least a thousand years earlier than the date ascribed
by Archbishop Usher’s long-famed chronology for the creation of the
world, and Professor Hilprecht’s latest investigations justify the
belief that the earliest records from Nippur are not newer than the
year 7000 B.C.

=Hincks=, E., On the Assyrio-Babylonian Measures of Time. Dublin, 1874.--=Hird=, W. G., Monumental Records. London, 1889.--=Hoefer=, J. C. F., Mémoires sur les ruines de Ninive. Paris, 1850.--=Hommel=, F., Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens. Berlin, 1885; Semitische Völker und Sprachen. Leipsic, 1881; Abriss der babylonisch-assyrischen und israel. Gesch. Leipsic, 1880; Der babylonische Ursprung der aegypt. Kultur. München, 1892.

_Fritz Hommel_ was born at Ansbach, July 31, 1854. Professor of
Semitic Languages in the University of Munich. Professor Hommel is
a distinguished member of that band of German students who have
made orientalism their life-work. His particular studies have had
to do chiefly with the Semitic race. His history of Babylonia
and Assyria is one of the most recent and certainly among the
most comprehensive and authoritative works on the subject that
have yet been written. As Professor Hommel is yet a comparatively
young man, he very naturally belongs to the advanced school of
Assyriologists, and his work may be looked to with confidence for
an expression of the furthest present advance of research. In
particular, Professor Hommel is distinguished as an ardent champion
of the Babylonian or Chaldean origin of the Phœnician alphabet
in opposition to the theory of de Rougé, which ascribed to it an
Egyptian origin. Most of Hommel’s publications are to be had only
in the original German.

=Howorth=, H. H., The Early History of Babylonia (in Engl. Hist. Rev., vol. 13, pp. 1, 209, vol. 14, p. 625, vol. 16, p. 1); On the Earliest Inscriptions from Chaldea (in Proc. Soc. Bibl. Archeol., vol. 21, p. 289, London, 1899).

* * * * *

=Jastrow=, M., The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria. Boston, 1898; Nabopolassar and the Temple to the Sun-god at Sippar (in Amer. Jour, of Sem. Lang.; Chicago, 1899, vol. 15, p. 65).--=Jensen=, P., Kish (in Ztschr. für Assyriologie; Berlin, 1901, vol. 15): Assyrisch-babylon, Mythen und Epen (in Keilschrftl. Bibl.; Berlin, 1900, vol. 6): Die Cosmologie der Babylonier. Strassburg, 1890.--=Johnson=, C., The Fall of the Assyrian Empire (in studies in honour of B. L. Gildersleeve; Baltimore, 1902, p. 113): The Fall of Nineveh (in Amer. Orient. Soc. Journ.; New Haven, 1901, vol. 22, pt. 1, p. 20).--=Justinius=, Justin’s History of the World. London, 1875.--=Jeremias=, A., Hölle und Paradies bei den Babyloniern. Leipsic, 1900.

* * * * *

=Kaulen=, F., Assyrien und Babylonien, nach den neuesten Entdeckungen. Freiburg, 1891, 4th ed.--=Kennedy=, J., Early Commerce of Babylonia with India, etc. London, 1898.--=King=, L. W., Babylonian Religion and Mythology, London, 1899; Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi, etc. London, 1898-1900, 3 vols.

_Leonard William King_ was born in London, December 8, 1869, and
educated at Rugby and King’s College, Cambridge. As assistant in
the department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquity of the British
Museum, he has made very extensive studies in the literature of
Babylonia and Assyria. He has collected and arranged many series
of cuneiform inscriptions, besides adding much to the literature
on both Babylonia and Assyria. His writings are for the most part
rather technical.

=Kinns=, S., Graven in the Rock. London, 1891.--=Knudtzon=, J. A., Assyr. Gebete an den Sonnengott. Leipsic, 1893, 2 vols.--=Kohler=, J., and =Peisser=, F. E., Aus dem babylonischen Rechtleben. Leipsic, 1890.--=Koldewey=, R., in Zeitschrift für Assyriologie. Dec., 1887.--=Krall=, J., Grundriss der altorientalischen Geschichte. Wien, 1899.--=Krüger=, J., Geschichte der Assyrier und Iranier, vom XIII, bis zum V. Jahrh. v. C. Frankfurt, 1856.

* * * * *

=Langlois=, V., Le Dunuk-Dasch, tombeau de Sardanapale à Tarsovo (in Rev. Archéol.; Paris, 1853, vol. 10).--=Laurent=, A., La Magie et la Divination de l’Orient. Paris, 1894.--=Layard=, A. H., Nineveh and its Remains. London, 1849, 2 vols.; Nineveh and Babylon. London, 1853; Early Adventures in Persia, Susiana and Babylonia. London, 1887; Monuments of Nineveh. London, 1849-1854.

_Sir Austin Henry Layard_ was born in Paris, of English parentage,
March 5, 1817. He spent the years of his early youth in Florence.
On returning to England he began the study of law. In 1839 he
took an extended tour, chiefly within the Turkish Empire. Here
he learned Persian and Arabic. In 1842 he spent some months in
exploring the antiquities of southwestern Persia. It was during
this expedition that he became interested in the excavations
being made at the supposed site of Nineveh by M. Botta. In 1845
he returned to Mosul and began his series of researches. The
material that he gathered in this expedition greatly enriched
the oriental department of the British Museum; and by means of
the cuneiform inscriptions found the ancient oriental history
was completely reconstructed. In 1852 he made a second series of
excavations in Assyria, adding largely to his former discoveries.
The same year he was elected to Parliament. In 1854 he visited
Crimea, witnessing some battles there. He was chosen lord rector of
Aberdeen University in 1855, and in 1866 became a trustee of the
British Museum. Shortly after this he was elected foreign member
of the Institute of France. In 1869, Ambassador to Spain; in 1878,
to Constantinople. He died July 5, 1894. The name of this famous
Englishman will always be indelibly associated with the origin of
the science of Assyriology. To Layard it was chiefly due that the
once famous but long almost forgotten city of Nineveh was exhumed
and its buried treasures given to the world. The story of these
exhumations is a part of the history of Assyria-Babylonia, and has
already been told.

=Lehmann=, C., Altbabylon, Maass und Gewicht. Berlin, 1889; Beiträge zur alten Geschichte. Leipsic, 1901; Shamasshumukin, König von Babylonia, 668-669 v. C. Leipsic, 1892; Zwei Hauptprobleme der altorientalischen Chronologie und ihre Lösung. Leipsic, 1898.--=Lenormant=, F., Les dieux de Babylone et de l’Assyrie. Paris, 1877; Lettres assyriologiques, 2nd series; Études accadiennes. Paris, 1879-1880; Chaldean Magic: Origin and Development. London, 1877; Premières civilisations. Paris; in collab. with =Chevalier=, E., A Manual of the Ancient History of the East. London, 1869-1870, 2 vols.; in collab. with =Babelon=, E., Histoire ancienne de l’Orient. Paris, 1881-1886.

_François Lenormant_ was born in Paris 17th January, 1837; died
there 10th December, 1883. His education was private. Early in
life he showed a special aptitude and liking for the study of the
oriental languages. He travelled extensively in Egypt, Turkey, and
Greece, and became prominent for his researches in the Accadian
languages. In 1874 he was appointed Professor of Archæology at the
Bibliothèque, Paris. The son of an archæologist of distinguished
merit, Lenormant grew up in an atmosphere of scholarship, and
early evinced a keen taste for all that pertained to archæology.
He entered the field of Assyriology in its infancy, and soon
became known as a leader among the masters in that field, and his
early death was regarded everywhere as one of the severest blows
which oriental archæology could have received. Lenormant was
regarded by his fellow-workers as having a peculiar genius for his
task, and his taste for literary work was no less keen than his
scholarship. The fact that his great work on Oriental History was
at once translated into English vouches for its popular interest.
Unfortunately he did not live to complete his still more important
work on the same subject, to which the last years of his life were
devoted.

=Lincke=, A. A., Bericht über die Fortschritte der Assyriologie, 1886-1893. Leipsic, 1894.--=Lindl=, E., Die Datenliste der ersten Dynastie von Babylon; in Beiträge zur Assyriologie. Leipsic, 1901.--=Loftus=, W. K., Chaldea and Susiana. London, 1857.--=Lotz=, W., Die Imschriften Tiglathpileser I. Leipsic, 1880.--=Lyon=, G., Keilschrifttexte Sargon’s, Königs von Assyrien, 722-705 v. C. Leipsic, 1883.

* * * * *

=Maccalester=, S. H., Babylon and Nineveh. Boston, 1892.--=Macphail=, S. E., Monumental witness to Old Testament History. London, 1879.--=Martin=, G., La campaigne de Sennakerib en Palestine, etc. Montauban, 1892.--=Martin=, F., Textes religieux assyriens et babyloniens. Paris, 1900.--=Maspero=, G. C. C., Histoire ancienne des peuples de l’Orient. Paris, 1886; The Struggle of the Nations. London, 1896; The Dawn of Civilisation. London, 1897; Life in Ancient Assyria. London, 1892.--=Meissner=, B., Beiträge zum altbabylonischen Privatrecht. Leipsic, 1893.--=Menant=, J., Babylone et la Chaldée. Paris, 1875; Découvertes assyriennes. La Bibliothèque du palais de Ninive. Paris, 1880; Empreintes de cachets assyrio-chaldéens relevés au Musée britannique sur des contrats d’intériet privé. Paris, 1883; Les pierres gravées de la Haute-Asie. Recherches sur la glyptique orientale. Paris, 1883, 1886; Les noms propres assyriens; recherches sur la formation des expressions idéographiques. Paris, 1861; Hammourabi (King of Babylon) Inscriptions. Paris, 1873; Les langues perdues de la Perse et de l’Assyrie. Paris, 1890; Annales des rois d’Assyrie. Paris, 1874; Ninive et Babylone. Paris, 1888; Les fausses antiquités de l’Assyrie. Paris, 1888.

_Joachim Menant_ was born at Cherbourg, France, 16th April,
1820. The life of this famous orientalist furnishes yet another
illustration of the practical man of affairs who finds also time
for the most abstruse scholarship. Throughout a long life until
1890, when at the ripe age of three score years and ten, he was
retired with the title of Honorary Councillor. Menant lived the
practical everyday life of a magistrate, and practised this
profession with such assiduity and judgment as to attain the
highest distinction. Yet, at the same time, he found leisure hours
enough to make himself everywhere recognised as one of the most
accomplished of Assyriologists. A comparatively young man, when
the discoveries of Botta and Layard and their successors first
brought the Assyrian treasures to the attention of the world,
Menant seemed from the very first to have been seized with a
desire to investigate the strange inscriptions from Nineveh. He
was among the first who undertook the investigation of the strange
cuneiform writing and from then till now he has kept well in the
van of the constantly growing company of Assyriologists. The list
of his works is little more than a succession of papers on one or
another of the subjects most intimately connected with this field.
Most of them are of a technical character, and, therefore, have
necessarily appeared only to a limited audience. In one or two
instances, however, and notably in the case of the little book
on the library of Asshurbanapal, he has descended to the popular
level, and has shown himself capable of handling the most abstruse
topics in a way to make them delightfully interesting to the least
scholarly of readers. Strange to say, this beautiful little book
has never been hitherto translated into English, and a like neglect
has attended nearly all the other publications of the author. It
is difficult to find an explanation of this neglect unless it be
the author’s well-known attitude towards the status of the ancient
Hebrew records. On more than one occasion he has expressed the
opinion that to single out the Jews among the peoples of antiquity
as the one important race of their time is wofully to distort the
perspective of history. Needless to say such an opinion as this
throws one counter to the prejudices of a large proportion of
people, including the mass of Assyriologists among the rest.

=Ménard=, L., Histoire des anciens peuples de l’Orient. Paris, 1883.--=Meyer=, E., Geschichte des Alterthums. Stuttgart, 1884, etc., 5 vols., in progress.--=Monaco=, A., Orientalia. Rome, 1891.--=Muecke=, Ch., Von Euphrat zum Tiber. Untersuchungen zur alten Geschichte. Leipsic, 1899.--=Mueller-Simonis=, P., Relations des missions scientifiques. Washington, 1892.--=Mürdter=, F., Gesch. Babyloniens und Assyriens. Stuttgart, 1891.

* * * * *

=Niebuhr=, B. G., Lectures on Ancient History. London, 1852, 2 vols.--=Niebuhr=, M., Geschichte Assurs und Babels. Berlin, 1854.--=Niebuhr=, C., Die erste Dynastie von Babel (in Vorderasiat. Ges. Mitt., vol. 3, p. 43). Berlin, 1897; Studien zur Geschichte des alten Orientes. Leipsic, 1894; Die Chronologie der Geschichte Israels, Aegyptens, Babyloniens und Assyriens von 2000-700 v. Chr. Leipsic, 1895.--=Nikel=, J., Herodot und die Keilschriftforschung. Paderborn, 1896.

* * * * *

=Oppert=, J., Babylone et Chaldée. Paris, 1874; L’immortalité de l’âme chez les Chaldéens. Paris, 1875; The Real Chronology of the Babylonian Dynasties. London, 1888 (in collab. with J. =Menant=); Documents juridiques de l’Assyrie et de la Chaldée. Paris, 1877; Histoire des empires de Chaldée et d’Assyrie. Versailles, 1865 (in collab. with J. =Menant=); Fastes de Sargon. Paris, 1863; Expédition scientifique en Mésopotamie. Paris, 1859-1863, 2 vols.; Fragments mythologiques. Paris, 1882; Fragments de cosmogonie chaldéenne. Paris, 1879; La fixation de la Chronologie des derniers rois de Babylone. Paris, 1893; La condition des esclaves à Babylone. Paris, 1888; Les inscriptions assyriennes des Sargonides et les fastes de Ninive. Paris, 1863.

_Jules Oppert_ was born at Hamburg, 9th July, 1825. Professor
Oppert is a German by birth but a Parisian by adoption. His
whole oriental studies have been not alone made in Paris, but
many of them under the direct auspices of the French Government,
so that Frenchmen are perhaps justified in claiming him almost
as a fellow-countryman. Professor Oppert has that comprehensive
scholarship which is characteristic rather of the German than
the Frenchman. He is a philologist and linguist of the broadest
type. Unfortunately for the general public the German cast of his
mind shows itself still further in his apparent contempt for the
literary graces. He is a scholar who works for scholars, and it is
but seldom that he has written anything which comes well within the
grasp of the general public. His is, therefore, a name which one
meets everywhere in pursuing the literature of Assyriology, but the
results of whose investigations must usually come to the general
reader, as it were, through an interpreter.

* * * * *

=Peiser=, F. E., Keilinschriftliche Aktenstücke. Berlin, 1890; Studien zur Oriental. Alterthumskunde. Berlin, 1897. (In Vorderasiat, Ges. Mitt. 1897, 4 vols.); Babylon, Verträge. Berlin, 1890; A Sketch of Babylonian Society (in Smithsonian Institute. Annual Report, 1898. Washington, 1899).--=Perrot=, G., A History of Art in Assyria. London, 1884.--=Peters=, J. P., Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures, etc. New York and London, 1897, 2 vols.; Some Recent Results of the University of Pennsylvania, Excavations at Nippur (in Amer. Jour. of Archeol., vol. 10, pp. 13, 352, 439, Princeton, 1895); The Seat of the Earliest Civilisation in Babylon and the Date of its Beginnings (in Amer. Orient. Soc. Jour., New Haven, 1896).

_Dr. John Punnett Peters_ was formerly professor of Hebrew in the
University of Pennsylvania; at present rector of St. Michael’s
Protestant Episcopal Church, New York City. For more than a
generation after the discoveries of Botta and Layard and their
successors in Mesopotamia had been furthered by companies of
English and French and German explorers, America had taken no part
in the work, but in 1880, the University of Pennsylvania determined
to make amends for this neglect by sending out a fully equipped
exploring party. The leader of this movement, and the man who
personally conducted the explorations of the first two years in the
field, was Professor J. P. Peters. Through his energetic efforts
the numberless difficulties that such an enterprise involves were
overcome, and some most important discoveries were made. The chief
of these was the location of the Babylonian city of Nippur, the
site of that ancient temple of Bel, which was, as Dr. Peters points
out, to many generations of old Babylonians and Assyrians what
the temple of Jerusalem has been to the peoples of Christendom.
His discoveries at Nippur have added greatly to the work that has
been carried on at Babylon and Nineveh, and “helped to carry our
knowledge of civilised man two thousand years farther back than
was known less than half a century ago.” At Nippur he discovered
what is probably the oldest known temple in the world. Both his
expeditions met with very bitter and determined opposition from
government officials and wandering inhabitants in the vicinity of
Nippur, and it is mainly due to his fearless determination that
successful excavations were finally made.

=Pinches=, T. G., Religious Ideas of the Babylonians. London, 1893; Notes. London, 1892; Sumerian or Cryptography (in Royal Asiatic Soc. Jour.; 1900, p. 75, 1900); The Babylonian and Assyrian Cylinder-Seals of the British Museum (in Jour. Brit. Archeol. Assoc.; vol. 41, p. 396, London, 1885). The Bronze Gates of Balawat in Assyria (in Jour. Brit. Archeol. Assoc.; vol. 35, p. 233, London, 1879); The Temples of Ancient Babylonia (in Proc. Soc. Bibl. Archeol., vol. 22, p. 358, London, 1900).--=Place=, V., Ninive et l’Assyrie. Paris, 1867-1890.--=Pognon=, H., Inscription de Meron-Nerar, roi d’Assyrie. Paris, 1884. Les inscriptions babyloniennes du Wadi Brissa. Paris, 1887.--=Prévost-Paradol=, L. A., Essai sur l’histoire universelle. Paris, 1890, 2 vols.

* * * * *

=Radau=, H., Early Babylonian History. New York, 1900.--=Ragozin=, Z. A., The Story of Chaldea (Stories of the Nations). London, 1888; Media, Babylon and Persia. London, 1889; Assyria. London, 1888.--=Ranwolf=, L., Journey into Syria, Armenia, Mesopotamia.--=Rassam=, H., Excavations and Discoveries in Assyria. London; Asshur and the Land of Nimrod. Cincinnati, 1897; Babylonian Cities. London, 1883.

_Hormuzd Rassam_ was born of Chaldean Christian parents at Mosul,
Turkey, in 1826. In 1845 he became acquainted with Austin H.
Layard, who was then exploring Assyrian ruins, and becoming much
interested in the work of Layard, he accompanied him to England
in 1847, continuing his studies in that country. In 1864 he was
sent by the British Government on a mission to Abyssinia to
secure the release of several Europeans who were held prisoners
by King Theodore, but he was himself imprisoned for two years
by that king. Shortly after securing his release he visited the
Babylonian-Assyrian region for the British Museum, and while on
this expedition and others following, he made many important
discoveries. Notable among these discoveries are the bronze gates
of Balawat, from the time of Shalmaneser II (858-824 B.C.), and
the Abu-Habba tablet, recording the restoration of the temple
by Nabu-apal-iddin, a contemporary of Shalmaneser II. The name
of Rassam is associated with that of Layard, and with the early
history of Assyriology. Rassam was primarily an explorer; he
assisted Layard in his earlier work at Nineveh, and himself
carried on the investigations for the British Government after
Layard had been called to other fields. Rassam has never become an
Assyriologist in the technical acceptance of the term, contenting
himself generally with securing the material on which the
investigations of numerous scholars have been based. The greatest
single feat which he accomplished was the discovery of the now
famous library of Asshurbanapal. He has himself told the story
of his discoveries in books that are not so widely known as they
deserve to be.

=Rawlinson=, G., The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient World. 2nd ed. London, 1871; A Manual of Ancient History. Oxford, 1869; Herodotus. London, 1858-75, 4 vols.; Papers in Jour. Royal Asiatic Soc.; vols. X, XI, XII. London, 1885; The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia. London, 1861-1891.

_George Rawlinson_ (brother of Sir Henry Rawlinson) was born at
Chadlington, Oxfordshire, England, in 1815. He was educated at
Swansea and at Ealing School. He graduated from Trinity College,
Oxford, with classical honours, in 1838. He was elected Fellow of
Exeter College in 1840. In 1859, as Bampton Lecturer, he delivered
his famous lecture on _Historical Evidences of the Truth of the
Scriptural Records_. He was chosen Camden Professor of Ancient
History in 1861, and in 1872 was made Canon of Canterbury. His
historical writings cover nearly the entire history of the Ancient
Orient. Some one has said of Canon Rawlinson that his scholarship
is of a peculiarly German type, and the criticism would seem to
be essentially just. Few other Englishmen of our generation have
covered so wide a field of history, and covered it so thoroughly as
has Professor Rawlinson. The whole field of southwestern Asia in
antiquity he has made peculiarly his own, and in a series of widely
circulated books he has imparted his knowledge to the world, some
of them, as that on the Parthian Monarchy, dealing with nations
that other historians had very much neglected. All of this work,
as has been said, is based upon scholarly investigations that
might justly be said to be profound. If in his estimate of certain
portions of this history, in particular as regards the newer ideas
of the chronology of the remoter periods, Professor Rawlinson has
hardly kept pace with the leaders of the newest generation, this
is certainly not more than one should expect in one whose memories
carry him back to the very beginnings of the “time” controversy.
The Canon died in 1902.

=Rawlinson=, H. C., Outline of the History of Assyria. London, 1852.--=Records of the Past= (=Birch=, S.). London, 1873, 12 vols.--=Revue d’Assyriologie=. Paris, 1886, etc.--=Rich=, C. I., Babylonia and Persepolis: Memoirs on the Ruins of Babylon. London, 1818.--=Robertson=, H. S., Voices of the Past from Assyria and Babylonia. London, 1900.--=Rogers=, R. W., History of Babylonia and Assyria. London, 1901, 2 vols.

* * * * *

=Sachau=, E., Reise in Syrien und Mesopotamien. Leipsic, 1885; Am Euphrat und Tigris. Leipsic, 1900.--=Sarzec=, G. C. E., de, Découvertes en Chaldée. Paris, 1884-1893, 2 vols.

_Gustave Charles Ernest Chocquin de Sarzec_ was born 11th August,
1836. After the discoveries of Botta and Layard had shown the
scientific world what neglected treasure-houses were to be found
in Mesopotamia, it was natural that explorers should seek out
the other fields of ancient activity, in particular those to the
south in Old Babylonia, and yet older Chaldea. Among those who
went into the latter field most successfully was M. de Sarzec. His
explorations at Tello, one of the oldest seats of Mesopotamian
civilisation revealed a vast quantity of most interesting
antiquities of a type in many ways different from those of the
comparatively recent Assyrian period. In particular the statues
in the round, which seem to have been a common form of artistic
expression with the ancient Chaldeans, have interest because of
their difference from the bas-reliefs that were the favourite
sculptures of the artists of Nineveh. In the interpretation of the
large store of material which De Sarzec secured he had had the
assistance of M. Layon Heuzey and M. Amiaud.

=Sayce=, A. H., Lectures on the Religions of Ancient Assyria and Babylonia. London, 1888; Ancient Empires of the East. London, 1884; Assyria: its Princes, Priests, and People. London, 1882; Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Customs. New York, 1899; Social Life among the Assyrians. London, 1893; Primer of Assyriology. London, 1894; The Races of the Old Testament. London, 1891; Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments. London, 1884.

_Archibald Henry Sayce_, born at Shirehampton, near Bristol, 25th
September, 1846. Deputy Professor of comparative Philology at
Oxford from 1876 to 1890; at present Professor of Assyriology at
Oxford. The well-known Oxford Professor has been one of the most
versatile and active of orientalists. He seems equally at home
whether the field be Egypt, Mesopotamia, or Assyria, and he is a
writer of such indefatigable industry that scholarly works on one
subject or another are constantly coming from his pen. Professor
Sayce is by no means a closet student only but is a traveller of
wide experience, and latterly it has become his custom to spend his
winters and springs house-boating in Egypt. He has a rare merit
of combining the utmost scholarship with a capacity for clear
presentation of his subject, and his works are therefore almost as
well known to the general reader as they are to the specialist.
In each generation there are but a few men who combining these
traits act as interpreters between the land of scholarship and the
abiding place of ordinary mortals and among these in our generation
Professor Sayce takes a foremost rank.

=Saulcy=, L. F. J. C., de, Recherches sur la chronologie des empires de Ninive, de Babylone et d’Ekbatane. Paris, 1854.--=Schäfer=, B., Die Entdeckungen in Assyrien und Aegypten in ihrer Beziehung zur heiligen Schrift. Wien, 1896.--=Schmidt=, V., Assyriens of Aegyptens gamle Historie. Copenhagen, 1872-1877.--=Schrader=, E., Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament. London, 1873, 2 vols.; Die Höllenfahrt der Istar ein altbabylon. Epos; Giessen, 1874; Eine Sammlung von Übersetzungen der wichtigsten Texte (Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek). Berlin, 1889-1901, vols. 1-6; Keilinschriften und Geschichtsforschung. Giessen, 1878.

_Eberhard Schrader_ was born at Brunswick, Germany, 5th January,
1836. He studied at the gymnasium in Brunswick and in the
University at Göttingen. Shortly after finishing his studies
in Göttingen he was appointed Professor of Hebrew and Semitic
Languages at Zürich, and later he filled corresponding chairs
at Giessen and Jena. In 1875 he was given a professorship and
made a member of the Royal Academy at Berlin. He also edited
_Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek_. Only a few of his works have
been translated into English, most notable among these being _The
Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament_.

=Smith=, G., Assyrian Discoveries. London, 1875; Assyria, from the Earliest Times. London, 1875; The Chaldean Genesis. London, 1881; The History of Babylon. London, 1877; History of Sennacherib (from inscriptions). London, 1878; History of Asshurbanipal (from inscriptions). London, 1871; Assyria from the Earliest Times to the Fall of Nineveh. New York, 1876.

_George Smith_ was born in London, England, 26th March, 1840. He
is said to have first become interested in Assyriology from having
to engrave some cuneiform plates for publication. He at once took
up the study, and a little later was appointed to a position
in the Assyrian department of the British Museum. He very soon
became one of the great promoters of Assyriology. With Sir Henry
Rawlinson he edited vols. III-IV of _The Cuneiform Inscriptions
of Western Asia_. In 1872 he discovered among the clay books of
the British Museum fragments of a story of the Deluge, similar to
the biblical version. Soon after this he visited Nineveh to make
further search for clay books in Asshurbanapal’s palace, and his
expedition was very successful. The Deluge story proved to be
part of a great poem written on twelve tablets. He made two other
expeditions for the Museum, but on the last one was stricken with
fever and died at Aleppo, 19th August, 1876. George Smith was
known among orientalists as a man who had a peculiar instinct for
the translation of obscure texts. He devoted his entire life to
oriental studies, and came to be recognised as one of the foremost
of orientalists.

=Spiegel=, F., Die altpersischen Keilinschriften 2nd ed. Leipsic, 1881.--=Strabo=, The Geography of Strabo. London, 1854, 3 vols.--=Strassmaier=, J. N., Babylonische Texte. Leipsic, 1889; Inschriften von Nabuchodonosor, König von Babylon (609-561). Leipsic, 1889.--=Streck=, M., Die alte Landschaft Babylonien nach den arabischen Geographen. Leyden, 1900, 2 vols.

* * * * *

=Talbot=, W. H. Fox (in Records of the Past). London, 1856, 18 vols.; Inscription of Tiglath Pileser I, King of Assyria, B.C. 1150 (in Jour. Royal Asiatic Soc.). London, 1857.

_William Henry Fox Talbot_ was born 11th February, 1800, at Laycock
Abbey, near Chippenham, England. He was educated at Harrow and at
Trinity College, Cambridge, gaining the Porson prize there in 1820.
Contributed papers to the Royal Society in 1822, and in the same
year began a series of optical researches and experiments which
afterward played an important part in photography. In connection
with his scientific studies he devoted much of his time to the
study of archeology, and in later life gave his entire time to it.
He shares the honour with Sir Henry Rawlinson and Dr. Hincks of
being one of the first to decipher the cuneiform inscriptions of
Nineveh. He died at Laycock Abbey, 17th September, 1877. Talbot was
a master in the field of Assyriology. He was, indeed, one of the
first to gain distinction in this line, and in a peculiar sense one
of the founders of the science.

=Taylor=, W. C., Students’ Manual of Ancient History. London, 1882.--=Tiele=, C. P., History of Assyria. London, 1886; Eastern Asia according to the most recent Discoveries. London, 1894; Comparative History of Egyptian and Mesopotamian Religion; Babyl.-assyr. Geschichte. Gotha, 1886-1888, 2 vols. (in Records of the Past). London, 1873, 18 vols.

_Cornelis Petrus Tiele_ was born at Leyden, Holland, 16th December,
1830. He was educated in the university of that city, giving
especial attention to the study of philosophy and history. In
1877 he was appointed to the chair of History and Religion in the
University of Leyden. His numerous publications on history and
philosophy have been widely translated. Professor Tiele enjoys
the distinction somewhat rare among his countrymen of a quite
cosmopolitan reputation. As an authority on ancient religions he
has no superior, and his writings are almost as well known in
Germany, France, England, and America as in his native Holland.

* * * * *

=Valbuena=, R. F., Egipto y Asiria resucitados la parte. Madrid, 1895.--=Van den Berg=, E., Petite histoire ancienne des peuples de l’Orient. Paris, 1883.--=Vaux=, W. G. W., Nineveh and Persepolis. London, 1880.--=Vigoroux=, F., La Bible et les découvertes en Assyrie. Paris, 1887.

* * * * *

=Wachsmuth=, C., Einleitung in das Studium d. alten Geschichte. Leipsic, 1895.--=Wahrmund=, A., Babylonierthum und Christenthum. Leipsic, 1882.--=Ward=, W. H., Notes on Original Antiquities. Baltimore, 1887; Report on the Wolfe Expedition to Babylonia. Boston, 1886; The Babylonian Caduceno (in Amer. Orient. Soc. Jour., vol. 14). New Haven, 1890; The Story of the Serpent and the Tree (in Amer. Antiq. and Orient. Jour., vol. 20, p. 211). Chicago, 1898.--=Weber=, G., Allgemeine Weltgeschichte. Leipsic, 1857-1880, 15 vols.--=Weiss=, J. B. von, Geschichte des Orients. 1886.--=Weissbach=, F. H., Zur Lösung der sumerischen Frage. Leipsic, 1897; Über einige neuere Arbeiten zur babyl. pers. Chronologie (in Deutsche Morgenland. Ges. Zeitch., vol. 55, p. 195. Leipsic, 1901).--=Wernicke=, C., Geschichte des Alterthums. 1890.--=Wilberforce=, R. F., The Five Empires. London, 1899.--=Winckler=, H., Sammlung von Keilschrifttexten. Leipsic, 1893-1894; Untersuchungen zur altorientalischen Geschichte. Leipsic, 1889; Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens. Leipsic, 1892; Altorientalische Forschungen, Leipsic, 1893-1897; Völker und Staaten des alten Orients. Leipsic, 1900.--=Woltmann=, A. K., History of Painting. London, 1880, 2 vols.--=Wood=, R., The Ruins of Palmyra.

* * * * *

=Zimmern=, H., The Babylonian and the Hebrew Genesis. London, 1901.

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