Chapter C: A. Sharp

_Answer._—This is still a matter of dispute among Biblical scholars of the highest reputation. Some have endeavored to locate it by means of the fruits and mineral productions named in the description given in the second chapter of Genesis, verses 8-17. But the main question in the opinion of most investigators is, What are the four rivers mentioned? The weight of tradition and scholarly study inclines to an agreement that the Tigris and Euphrates, which, after flowing in a southeasterly direction, unite and empty into the Persian Gulf, are the third and fourth rivers mentioned in the sacred word. But those who agree so far differ widely as to what rivers should be regarded as the Pison and Gihon. Some affirm that the River Pison is the Ganges, and the Gihon the sacred river of Egypt: others that the Garden of Eden was located on the high table-lands of Armenia, from which rise the Tigris and Euphrates. By choosing two rivers which flow into the Caspian Sea, or by giving the name Gihon to one river, and the name Pison to the sea, and extending the boundaries of Eden so as to take in these waters and the head-waters of the Euphrates and Tigris, they consider that they have solved the mystery that veils the cradle of our race. The fact that all the European races of the Aryan family, and also the Semitic races, trace back their origin to this region gives color to this solution. A few scholars of some distinction have argued that the Adamic paradise was in the vicinity of the mountains of the Moon in Africa, regarding the Nile as the Pison, and the Niger as the Gihon, and reconciling it with the views of former scholars by affirming that the Assyrian rivers at that time had their source in the mountains of the Moon, but flowed underneath the ground to their apparent source in the continent of Asia. Others locate Eden in the vicinity of the ancient city of Babylon, considering the doubtful rivers as the two channels by which the united Tigris and Euphrates empty into the Persian Gulf. But two things have not been explained by any of these theories. The four rivers flow from one river, and the River Pison “compasseth the whole land of Havilah.” Until these questions are solved the location of the Garden of Eden will continue to remain a mystery.

THE GLACIAL PERIOD.

HEBRON, Neb.

Please give some information in regard to what geologists term the
ice or glacial period. What evidence have they that such a period
ever existed?

JAMES KNOX.

_Answer._—The loose soil which covers so large a part of the surface of the northern continents to a depth varying from 30 to 100 feet, over which lie the vegetable deposits of later ages, is considered by geologists the effect of glaciers that in the quaternary, or latest geological age, slowly moved southward across the country. Upon examination it is found that the erratic boulders scattered over the Western prairies and other northern regions are unlike the native rock of the same region, being entirely foreign to the localities where they now appear. Sometimes the nativity of the rock is traced hundreds of miles north of where it now rests showing that some powerful agency has carried it southward. Again, if the native rock be uncovered and closely examined, it will be observed to be polished and grooved with parallel marks, running north and south, as if chiseled out by some coarse and heavy instrument. These marks are attributed to sharp, hard rocks projecting through the lower surfaces of the moving glaciers. That glaciers do produce such markings is proven by examination of the rocks which the moving ice fields of Switzerland and other glacial regions have worn and are marking to-day; also, the general appearance of the loose, unstratified, heterogeneous deposit is similar to that of the moraines that the modern glaciers leave as they slowly melt away. Geologists are generally agreed that long before the advent of man parts of the northern hemisphere were elevated several thousand feet higher than they are at present, causing the cold of the arctic zone to extend far southward into the present temperate regions, and that a vast glacier rising in the vicinity of Hudson Bay covered our whole continent north of the 40th parallel. In New York and other Eastern States the rocks are scratched from a northwesterly direction, in Ohio from a northerly, and in Iowa from a northeasterly direction, showing in each State the direction of the origin of the glacier. Afterward there followed a subsidence to a few hundred feet below the existing level, followed by a gradual elevation to the situation of the present era. These elevations and subsidences are evidenced by stratification and fossil remains.

MAYORS OF NEW YORK.

CHICAGO, Ill.

How long has New York City enjoyed a city charter? How many mayors
has it had, and who have held this office since the villainous
Oakey Hall, under whom Boss Tweed flourished?

E. D. WALKER.

_Answer._—The lower portion of Manhattan Island was incorporated as a city under the original Dutch regime, in 1652. Charles II. of England, claiming all the country from the French possessions south to Florida and west to the Pacific as belonging to the English crown, granted a charter covering New York to his brother, the Duke of York, who suddenly appeared before New Amsterdam and took unopposed possession in August, 1664. The name of the city was changed to New York. The Dutch recovered the place in August, 1673, and changed its name to New Orange. The next year it was restored by treaty to the English, and ever since it has kept the name of the city of New York. Since the office of mayor was created there have been seventy-two mayors, of whom the first one elected by the people was Cornelius W. Lawrence. Since Oakey Hall’s administration the following persons have held this office: Wm. F. Havemeyer, Wm. H. Wickham, Smith Ely, Edward Cooper, Wm. R. Grace, and the present Mayor, Franklin Edson.

TENDENCY OF DUTIES TO INCREASE.

DOW CITY, Iowa.

When were the present tariff duties passed? Was it not when
Congress was Democratic? Are the duties now greater or less than
formerly?

_Answer._—The first United States tariff law on imported goods was approved July 4, 1798. A small tax was then imposed, according to the suggestion of Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, upon sugar, coffee, tea, salt, manufactured iron, glass and wool, silk goods, and several articles of minor importance. While the rate of duty has fluctuated, the general tendency has been toward an increase. This is shown by the different enactments from 1832 to the present time. In the latter year the duty on sugar was made 2½ cents per pound; in 1841, 20 per cent; in 1842, 2½ cents per pound; in 1846, 30 per cent; in 1857, 24 per cent; in March, 1861, ¾ cent per pound; in August, 1861, 2 cents per pound; in December, 1861, 2½ cents per pound; in 1862, 3 cents per pound; while the present rate ranges, according to grade, from 57½ to 61¾ per cent. In 1832 the duty on woolen manufactures was 50 per cent; in 1841, 20 per cent ad valorem; in 1842, 40 per cent; in 1857, 24 per cent; in March, 1861, 25 per cent and 12 cents per pound; in 1862, 30 per cent and 18 cents per pound; in 1864, 40 per cent and 24 cents per pound; in 1867, 35 per cent and 50 cents per pound, while the present duty upon woolen imports ranges, according to value, between 41 and 80 per cent. The same gradual increase is observable in silks, which in 1832 were admitted on an ad valorem duty of 10 per cent; in 1841, 20 per cent; in 1842, $2.50 per pound, changing in the same year to 25 per cent. In 1857 it was 19 per cent; in March, 1861, 30 per cent; in August, 1861, 30 per cent; in 1864, 60 per cent, and in 1881, 58 to 70 per cent. With the exception of a few years when Andrew Jackson was President, the different Congresses, Democratic as well as Republican, have sustained the duties upon the imports of this country. While the Republicans are mainly responsible for whatever is good or bad in our present tariff laws, Democratic Representatives from manufacturing districts have of late years, as a rule, given cheerful aid to the maintenance of a protective tariff.

WHAT IS A CARAT.

CHICAGO.

Is a carat a measure of weight or fineness?

J. A. YOUNG.

_Answer._—It is used by jewelers to express both. A carat weighs 4 grains, or the 120th part of an ounce, troy. In determining the fineness of a precious metal 24 carats is considered the standard of purity; hence an 18-carat gold ring would be a ring containing 18 parts in 24 of pure gold.

INSTITUTIONS FOR FEEBLE-MINDED.

HOWARD CITY, Mich.

Do any of the States support asylums for weak-minded or imbecile
persons?