Chapter III: Part 3

As for the two entrances, whether from the Red Sea or the Mediterranean, all that is necessary is, that ships shall be able to approach at all seasons, and find certain and effectual shelter in bad weather. Now the roadstead of Suez is sheltered from every wind except the south-east. It will therefore be sufficient to prolong the eastern jetty to a certain distance beyond the western to render the shelter complete.

All the vessels which now take their stations in the roadstead ride out the bad weather very well, and the magazine corvette belonging to the English Company which has been anchored there for the last two years and a half has suffered no damage.

Thus, at the Suez extremity, it will be sufficient to establish two jetties, forming the entrance channel from the Red Sea, and to prolong them sufficiently far into the roadstead to reach the required depth of water, in order that vessels entering may have a draught of 7 _m._, 50 to 8 _met._ at low water. The eastern jetty must be 150 _met._ longer than the western for the reasons we have just given.

At Pelusium, the two jetties, in order to reach the depth of 7 _m._, 50 to 8 _met._ must be at least 6000 _met._ in length; but if it should be feared that the channel thus formed would not be sufficiently safe for the approach of vessels, and in order to meet objections, the real value of which have yet to be tested, we have projected a sheltered roadstead in front of these jetties by means of a grand mole from 450 to 500 _met._ in length, placed in such a manner as to afford shelter to vessels in bad weather, and to enable them to enter the channel at their convenience.

At all events no one can doubt that the Canal would be really and practically navigable for all vessels willing to avail themselves of the passage. But it will be asked whether jetties extending 6000 _met._ into the sea do not present great difficulties; whether a trench of 65 _met._ in width, dug 16 _m._, 50 deep, a part of which is under water, is not an impossibility; and whether, supposing the engineering difficulties to be surmounted, the results obtained would be in proportion to the expenses incurred. Doubts have also been started on the navigation of the Red Sea; finally, several authors have put the question, without however solving it, whether, even if the Canal were once established, commerce would not prefer the old way by the Cape as the safest and most advantageous.

These questions we are about to examine: these doubts we shall endeavour to clear up.

The Gulf of Pelusium is said to be constantly filled with sand or mud brought down by the Damietta branch of the Nile, and it is objected that the advanced works to be established on that part of the shore would only have the effect of increasing the accumulations. We admit that this portion of the Egyptian shore has been formed by maritime alluvium brought by the ground swell, as we have already proved at the commencement of our memorial. We also admit, that the object of the dykes forming the entrance channel to the Canal, would be to stop the sand thus brought by the waves, and to accumulate it against the dyke opposed to the prevailing wind, namely, against the western dyke.

But most of the ports already in existence are open to the same objections; and if they were sufficient to prevent the construction of a port, we may safely say that very few of those we are at present acquainted with would ever have been formed.

According to our idea the essential question is, to know whether, when once the port is established, it can be maintained without too great an expense.

Now it appears, that for many ages the sands have ceased to extend the Pelusiac shore, as is manifest from the well ascertained position of Pelusium, the ruins of which still remain. Strabo, in his Itinerary, says that Pelusium is situated at the distance of twenty stadia from the sea. The French engineers of the expedition have verified this distance, by measuring 1600 toises, or 3000 _met._ from its remains to the shore.

In 1847, the distance between these two points had not varied, as it is marked on the plan with the figure 3000 _met._, and at the present day it is still the same.

In fact, by reading all the accounts of ancient authors, and comparing them with what actually exists, we arrive at the conclusion that the shores of the Delta have varied very little in historic times.

The sea sands then have long ceased to accumulate, and the fact may be explained by assuming that the destruction of the coasts of Morocco, Algeria, Candia, and other parts,—which destruction, we repeat, alone furnishes the materials of maritime alluvium, —has abated from some cause or other. It may also be assumed, that the sands which were formerly driven by winds and currents into the Gulf of Pelusium, are now cast on the African coast between Tripoli and Alexandria, and driven inland in the shape of downs. The fact is, that no new downs are now seen forming in the Isthmus; those on the seashore being of ancient formation, and nearly all naturally fixed by vegetation. In conclusion, the extension of the Pelusiac shore, if such extension there be, is too insignificant to be taken into consideration.

Now, the direction of the jetties being nearly perpendicular to the shore, in order to be at right angles with the prevailing wind from W. N. W., the sand, when the wind is perpendicular to the shore, will be driven on to the coast and increase its height, as hitherto, no change being occasioned by the jetties. During the parallel winds, which mostly prevail, the littoral current, finding an obstacle in the jetties, will form an eddy to windward, which will increase the force of the current between the points of the jetties and the mole, so that the sand will be carried far away; and the probability is, that the bottom will become deeper.

It is only the oblique winds then, that will carry the sand into the angles formed by the shore and the windward jetty.

In calm weather, the sea-current which flows along the coast from west to east has not sufficient force to affect the equilibrium of the beach. Thus, to sum the matter up, the most that can be feared is the accumulation of a small quantity of the loose sand in the Gulf at the angle of the windward jetty. Supposing that even 10,000 _cubic metres per ann._ should be so deposited, which, according to what we have said, is an exaggeration, it would take 100 years to advance the beach 400 _metres_, and such an advance would produce no perceptible effect at the extremities of the jetties.

It may be objected, that by all these movements of the sands, some portion will necessarily find its way into the channel, and thus, by degrees, end in obstructing it. To obviate this inconvenience we have at our disposal dredging machines, and the most powerful means of clearance derived from a mass of 700,000,000 _cubic metres_ of water, which can be stored up, above the level of low water in the two Seas, throughout the whole extent of the Canal, and in the immense reservoir of the Bitter Lakes.

But are jetties extending 6000 _metres_ into the sea possible? and if possible, would they not require so much time and such an expenditure of money as, practically, to cause the undertaking to be given up?

With regard to the possibility, there can be no doubt, for more than a century ago the Dutch Government constructed a jetty 8000 _met._ in length in the Bay of the Lion, near the Cape, in water more than sixteen _met._ deep, in spite of the continued tempestuous weather which succeeds the settled calms in those latitudes. Such a work, considering the depth of water, must have required a quantity of materials at least four times as great as that required for the two jetties and the mole at Pelusium. It was undertaken by a nation not over rich, at a time when steam was unknown, and before the invention of machinery, which saves so much time, expense and labour. There can be no doubt then, that if the cutting of the Isthmus is admitted to be advantageous, it will be easy to overcome all difficulties.

With regard to the method of constructing these works, opinions are no less divided. Some engineers, grounding their opinions on ancient constructions, recommend that the moles should be formed of immense blocks of stone of thirty to forty _cubic metres_. Others are of opinion that the only means of preserving the roads from the accumulation of sand, is to construct the moles and dykes of open masonry. There are also some in favour of walls in hydraulic masonry with vertical facings. But, our own opinion is, that in so important an enterprise, every theoretical hypothesis should be discarded, and that we ought to be guided solely by the experience we have acquired in works of an analogous character already executed. And this is what we have done in adopting the system of loose stones, as it has been carried out with success: 1. For the dyke at Cherbourg which is 3768 _met._ long in a depth of water of 14 _m._, 80; 2. For the jetty at Plymouth which is 1364 _met._ long in a depth of 11 _met._ and more; 3. For the dyke in the Bay of Delaware 1200 _met._ long, with a depth of 14 _met._; 4. For that of the Bay of the Lion 8000 _met._ long, in depths of more than 16 _met._

Objections to this system may, indeed, be raised on account of the damage sustained at Cherbourg and Plymouth as well as at Algiers, before the introduction of factitious blocks, but it is necessary to observe, that both at Cherbourg and Plymouth, the tidal current is exceedingly strong, its velocity being as much as 4 _met._ per second; that the sea at these points is very rough, and that there is reason to suppose that the damage would not have occurred had the blocks been rather larger, and the interstices well filled up. With regard to the roadstead at Algiers, it is, as is well known, constantly beaten over by heavy seas, no other point in the Mediterranean presenting such difficult conditions. We have in favour of our system most of the moles erected in the various ports of the Mediterranean, Genoa, Cannes, Barcelona, Valencia, Cadiz, &c. &c., all of which are constructed of natural blocks, the largest not exceeding 2 _m._, 50 cube, and which are nevertheless established at considerable depths of water. Finally, we have on our side the opinions of the most distinguished English engineers; opinions which have prevailed in Parliament, and in accordance with which, all the moles in the harbours of refuge in course of construction are being made, according to the system of natural blocks sunk into the sea, at certain slopes.

The bottom of the beach, descending by a very gentle inclination, will, moreover, have the effect of abating the waves, and diminishing their action against the jetties. This is a well ascertained fact, and one which may, indeed, be easily conceived; for, supposing that the bottom of the sea, from a depth below the limit of the motion of the waves, rises by an extremely gentle slope, until it meets that limit; this meeting taking place at a very small angle, the bottom will be almost insensibly substituted for the limit of motion.

At the point of this meeting the undulating motion is _nil_, it is very feeble at the adjacent points, and easily abated by the resistance and friction which the molecules experience against the bottom. The abatement will thus extend vertically up to the surface, and the waves will then gradually diminish in volume as they approach the shore.

We have, therefore, adopted the system of loose stones for the jetties and for the mole, with but slight modifications suggested by our own experience, modifications which consist in making the jetty-heads in hydraulic masonry to a certain height, as well as the interior surface of the windward jetty, which is to serve for the towing of vessels.

What we have said of the gulf of Pelusium we may repeat, still more forcibly, with regard to the roadstead of Suez. The sands have long ceased to accumulate in any perceptible manner. And if maritime alluvium is still brought up by the ground swell and the current, it is driven by the west and south-west winds on to the eastern shore, without reaching the extremity of the gulf. In fact, the plan of the roadstead was taken in 1799, and the soundings of the channel are marked, as well as the shape of the sandbank, which forms a kind of bar at its extremity towards the roadstead. In 1847, the plan was taken again with the same soundings, and it is impossible to find the least difference between the two results, which also agree with those given by Commander Moresby, in his excellent chart of the Red Sea.

There is, then, nothing to fear on that side, either from the sand or the violence of the sea. The jetties will be of the simplest construction, and as the materials are, as it were, at hand, their erection will present no difficulty.

With regard to the excavation of the Canal to a depth of 6 _m._, 50 below low water in the Mediterranean, in a very porous soil, the task, at first sight, presents what appear to be considerable difficulties. We cannot, indeed, hope to accomplish the whole of the excavation in the dry, or by pumping, on account of the nature of the ground. It will be necessary, then, for all that portion below water, to have recourse to dredging; and, as the quantity of earth to be removed by this means is 57,205,342 _cubic metres_, at first sight it is difficult to conceive how the work is to be accomplished. But, upon examining the matter more closely, nothing is found to frighten the most timorous. In fact, a single steam dredging machine, of twenty horse power, such as those which have been employed on the Nile, working night and day, can, in twenty-four hours, raise 1000 _cubic metres_ of sand, from a depth of seven _metres_. According to this calculation, and supposing the year to consist of only 270 working days, it would take forty dredging machines five years to complete the labour; but if, instead of such small machines, dredges of thirty to thirty-five horse power were adopted, it would be easy to raise 1500 _cubic metres per diem_, and the dredging would be more economical.

The quantity of earth to be raised by manual labour amounts to 17,473,790 _cubic metres_, and the deepest cutting does not exceed 10 _metres_ above the water. This is a small matter when compared with the earth-works performed in many canal and railway undertakings, and even with those accomplished before the present century; such, for example, as the one mentioned by Michel Chevalier, in his investigations concerning the maritime canal of the Isthmus of Panama (_Recherches sur la Canalisation maritime de l’Isthme de Panama_).

“It required,” says he, “the treasure which the Viceroys of Mexico had at their disposal to undertake the cutting at Huehuetoca, the total length of which is 29,585 _met._, with a depth of from 45 to 60 _met._, for a length of 800 _met._, and from 30 to 50 _met._ for 3500 _met._ The expense was 31,000,000.”

Farther on, he adds:—

“Nowadays, however, in a case of necessity, by displaying the improved appliances at the command of engineering art, it would be possible to effect cuttings of great depth, and to remove large quantities of earth at no extraordinary expense. On the Arles canal, at Bouc, for instance, the plateau of the Lecque was cut through by a trench 2100 _met._ in length, by 40 to 50 _met._ in depth, at the culminating point. The expense was under 4,000,000, and yet the cutting was performed by the old method. In cuttings of magnitude, the soil is now broken by instruments of enormous power, and the earth is removed by means of railways and locomotives. All that has to be done by manual labour is to collect the loose earth and load the waggons. For so important an object as the uniting of two seas, even the impossible might be attempted.”

Supposing each labourer to do 1 _m._, 50, on an average, _per diem_, it would only require 8000 labourers for five years to complete the earth-works; and not a year passes without a levy of between 30 and 40,000 men being commanded by the Viceroy, in several provinces at once, for the service of the canals alone.

As soon as the project of a ship canal across the Isthmus of Suez is ascertained to be useful and advantageous, no difficulties of execution, however great they may be (and we have proved them trifling), will be considered obstacles to its being carried out.

It would appear at first sight superfluous to demonstrate the utility of such an undertaking, for what especially strikes the imagination, is the magnitude of the results promised by the Canal, and the reiterated efforts made at several epochs, even in times of ignorance, to open this communication between the two Seas.

But since the publication of M. Lepère’s memorial, so many objections have been brought forward and so many doubts raised, that public opinion is undecided, and it becomes necessary to re-establish the question in all its integrity. We will therefore examine the principal objections raised against the direct communication between the two Seas.

It has been said that the navigation of the Red Sea is so dangerous, and that the monsoons cause such delays, that even if the Canal were established and freely traversed by ships, commerce would not follow that route, which would in fact, from these peculiar circumstances, be the longest and most perilous.

In the first place, there can be no question here about steam navigation, the circle of which extends daily more and more, for the projected Canal will be the triumph of steam; it will greatly increase the use of the screw, and give a new stimulus to British navigation, which will be charged with the delivery of English coal throughout the whole line from London to Australia. We will therefore only examine the case of navigation by sailing vessels. Now, we learn from history, that from the most distant ages, this navigation has flourished in the Red Sea, and that after the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope (in 1497), the Portuguese considered it necessary to have a fleet, which, in 1538, destroyed all the merchant vessels of the Turks and Venetians. If in later times commerce took the way of the Cape, we have only to thank the Turkish sovereignty of the period, which allowed the arts, sciences, and industry to perish, at the same time that it forbade the navigation of the Red Sea to the European nations. How can this navigation be considered full of danger at the present day, when nautical science and the art of ship-building have made such great progress, and when everything relating to the winds, the currents, and the coasts of the Red Sea, is perfectly well known?

To leave no doubt on the subject, we will repeat the most important observations which have been made on the Red Sea and Indian Ocean.

This is what the English traveller, Bruce, says in 1769:—

“Those who are at all acquainted with the history of Egypt, are aware that the north wind, there called the Etesian wind, prevails during the six hottest months of the year. The two chains of mountains, which confine Egypt to the east and west, compel this wind to follow precisely this northerly direction. It is reasonable to suppose that it would be the same for the Arabian Gulf, if the course of that narrow sea were parallel to the land of Egypt. But the Red Sea extends nearly from north-west to south-east, from Suez to Mocha; there it alters its course, and proceeds nearly from east to west, as far as its junction with the Indian Ocean at the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb.

“Thus the Etesian wind, which is due north in Egypt, follows the course of the gulf, and blows with force in that direction all the summer; that is to say, that from the month of April till the month of October, the north-east wind prevails over the whole extent of the Red Sea, descending as far as the straits; and that from November to March, the wind has quite a contrary direction, and ascends the gulf from the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, up to the Isthmus of Suez.

“It is observed, then, that a vessel starting from Suez, in any of the summer months encounters a very violent north-west wind, which will carry it direct from the gulf to Mocha. At Mocha the coast goes from east to west, as far as the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. Thus a vessel sailing from Mocha will, in a short space of time, experience variable winds but mostly blowing from the west, and these winds will soon carry it to the straits. It therefore no longer wants the monsoon of the gulf, which blew from the north; and when it has passed into the Indian Ocean, it meets with another monsoon blowing in an opposite direction, during the six summer months, to the one which had favoured its progress in the Red Sea. This monsoon is no less favourable; it blows from the south-west, and carries the ship full sail, without delay or obstacle, into any required port of India.

“Returning, the same advantages may be secured by setting sail during the winter months with the monsoon peculiar to that sea, which then blows from the north-east, and will carry the ship to the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. When the straits are passed it will meet with a south-east wind in the gulf, exactly contrary to the one in the ocean, but the course of the ship is also contrary, and this south-east wind, following the direction of the gulf, will bring it to Suez. All this is clear, simple, and easily understood, and thus it is, that in the earliest ages the commerce of India was carried on without any difficulty.

“Thus the philosophy, the observation and the indefatigable perseverance of man, who endeavours to carry out every project which his interest suggests, triumphing over difficulties, have taught the navigators of the Arabian Gulf, that those periodical winds which they had, at first, regarded as insuperable obstacles to the trade of the Indian Ocean, are, when understood, the safest and the quickest means of performing the voyage.”

Mr. Rooke, an English officer, speaks in these terms, of the navigation of the Red Sea in a letter dated April 25, 1782.

“The construction and management of the vessels are equally singular, and I fear any description will fall infinitely short of the original; they were, I believe, designed by those who built them, to bear some resemblance to ships, but, having few of the properties of those machines, proceed on a principle totally different from any I before beheld; that _primum mobile_ to which ships of other countries are indebted for their voyages is here of little use, and calms are more favourable than wind to forward their progress; ... they ... seem equally averse to a fair as to a contrary wind, remaining at anchor until it subsides into a calm, their busy scene then commences, the anchor is weighed and the vessel put in motion by means of the boat with about twenty oars in it, towing till a breeze springs up; when this begins to be more than what our seamen call a light air, they hurry to the shore and let go their anchor, and for this purpose always choose a berth the most environed by rocks and shoals, never thinking themselves secure but when in the midst of danger; their common time of anchoring was about two o’clock in the afternoon, for about that time the breeze generally freshened, and in proportion as that increases they put out anchors, till they have six in the water, and two or three hawsers besides, to tie them to the surrounding rocks: ... in what they called good weather, we had not above two anchors out, and if it fell calm after sunset they ventured to get one of them up, that they might be ready for the land breeze in the morning, which generally sprung up at two o’clock and blew till nine or ten.... I believe, without these land breezes we should never have arrived at Suez; a circumstance that very frequently happens to many vessels of this annual fleet, for if they do not make good their passage before the latter end of May, the northerly winds blow so constantly as to render it impossible, for vessels that cannot work to windward, to get up the narrow channel from Tor to Suez.

“When it is remembered that the journey from London to Madras has been performed in sixty-three days, it is surprising to see the English neglect so great an advantage when they have the power of securing it.”

Vice Admiral Rosily, who navigated the Red Sea in 1789, on board the frigate Venus, and who was consulted by M. Lepère, was far from admitting the dangers and difficulties of the Red Sea to be as great as is usually supposed. In fact, these dangers, conjured up solely by the ignorance of ancient and modern navigators, have been accredited by general opinion, or rather by general mistake. The frigate Venus traversed the Red Sea in all directions without experiencing either damage or difficulty. We may therefore rest assured, that no merchant vessel will encounter any difficulties but those which are inseparable from all narrow seas; the Adriatic, which is still narrower than the Red Sea, has never been considered impassable.

The coasts alone of the Red Sea are dangerous, but the number of anchorages is so great that the sailors of the country never navigate at night, but anchor every evening. In rough weather they remain at anchor sometimes for a week or a fortnight at the same place, without daring to gain the open sea or take advantage of any wind that would be favourable to an European ship.

The excellent work of Commander Moresby and Captain Rogers on the Red Sea, written by command of the East India Company, to resolve the question of its navigation, and in consequence of which the steam service of the Red Sea was established; this excellent work, we say, if it does not represent the monsoons to be as regular as is stated by Bruce, does not contradict the generality of the facts given by that traveller, as may be judged from the following extracts:—

OF THE WINDS AND CURRENTS BETWEEN SUEZ AND GEDDAH, BY CAPTAIN
MORESBY.

“From Suez to Geddah, during the whole course of the year,
the wind is generally north, and blows, at times, with great
violence; but it abates usually at the change of the moon.
During the winter months, from December to April, the south
wind prevails, sometimes for a few days, and occasionally blows
fresh, more particularly in the Sea of Suez, where it sometimes
attains the force of a moderate gust. At this season gusts from
the west are not uncommon in the Sea of Suez, and are much
dreaded by the inhabitants in consequence of their violence. On
the Arabian coast, near Geddah, to the south and north of that
port, the north and north-west winds sometimes blow with great
violence during the winter months, and bring with them clouds
of dust from the land.

“The south wind, which blows sometimes from October to May,
generally occasions a current of twenty or thirty miles a day.
After a gust from the north-west, when there is a light breeze,
there is generally a current towards the north. It is then
better to beat along the Arabian side than the Egyptian, as was
the practice of ancient navigators, who considered the latter
coast more healthy.

“The average length of the passage from Geddah to Cosseir
depends so much on circumstances, that it is impossible to
assign any fixed term for it. It is, however, rarely more than
twenty or less than ten days. With the boats of the country it
takes from twenty-five to thirty days, and sometimes more.”

ON THE WINDS AND CURRENTS OF THE RED SEA THROUGHOUT THE YEAR,
BY CAPT. ROGERS.

“From the beginning of October to the end of April, during
what we may call the winter months, between the straits of
Bab-el-Mandeb and Gebel Tor, in about latitude 15° 30´ north,
the wind may be said to blow continually from the south, with
the exception of a day or two at the time of the new or full
moon, when it sometimes blows from the north. But frequently,
for two months at a time, there is no change.

“From Gebel Tor to latitude 19° or 20° the winds are variable
at the same period, and blow as much from the north as from the
south. One or other of these winds respectively prevails as you
approach one or the other of these limits.

“From 21° to 27° the north wind prevails during the same
season, but half a lunation seldom passes without there being
one or two days of south wind, especially from the end of
November to the beginning of March.

“From 27° to Suez, the wind is, almost constantly, north, and
seldom interrupted by any wind from the south, unless it be in
the months of December, January, and February.

“In June, July, August, and September the north wind prevails
without interruption, throughout the whole extent of the Red
Sea, from Suez to Bab-el-Mandeb. Occasionally a change takes
place, from the land side, principally in August and September,
and during these months a fast sailer can make thirty-five
miles a-day, beating from Mocha to Suez. In December, January,
and February, a vessel will sometimes meet with a good wind
from Mocha to Cosseir, and accomplish the run in six or seven
days, whereas it is impossible to do the same from Cosseir to
Mocha except in summer.”

It appears from these extracts that the Red Sea is easily navigable, at all seasons, by sailing vessels, and that it is always possible so to arrange the periods of departure as to traverse it in both directions.

We ought also to take into account the inconveniences experienced in the voyage round the Cape, resulting from the settled calms succeeding the continued tempests, the diseases which decimate the crews, and the disasters which are so frequent on passing the equator. We should also take into consideration that, if the difficulties are greater during a good part of the year for vessels going up the Red Sea, vessels coming down are, for that very reason, sure to meet with favourable winds.

To leave no doubt on so important a question, and on which depends, in part, the success of the enterprise in contemplation, we will give a passage from a paper communicated to the _Société de Géographie_, by Count d’Escayrac de Lauture, the motto of which is,

“Aperire terram gentibus.”

“If the _minimum_ distances which separate the ports of Europe
from those of India, on the one part by the Cape of Good Hope,
and on the other by the Canal of the two Seas, be compared with
each other, enormous differences in favour of the latter route
will be made manifest. These differences become still greater,
when it is recollected that, in navigation, a straight line is
far from being the shortest way from one point to another, and
that navigators only reach their destination by successively
following a certain number of courses, which form greater or
lesser angles with each other.

“So that instead of steering directly for the Cape of Good
Hope, mariners starting from Europe or the Atlantic ports of
North America to go to India, must make the Canaries or the
Azores; get into the track of the trade winds of the northern
hemisphere, reach the coast of Brazil, and make Cape Frio, or
put in at Rio Janeiro. It is only then that they can make for
the Cape of Good Hope, better named, perhaps, Cape Tempestuous.
They clear at length the Agulhas Bank, reach Bourbon or the
Mauritius, and thence proceed to India in the track of the
monsoon.

“Vessels from the Mediterranean have still greater
disadvantages to contend against. It frequently takes them a
fortnight to pass the straits of Gibraltar, in consequence
of the west wind which prevails in those straits, and the
rapid current which pours the waters of the ocean into the
Mediterranean.

“The consequence is, that the passage to India takes at least
from five months to five months and a half. The passage back
is rather more direct, without being to any perceptible degree
shorter. The coast of Africa may then be followed more closely,
thanks to the trade winds of the southern hemisphere. The place
to put in at, in this case, is St. Helena.

“If we now examine the conditions to which navigation is
subjected in the three seas nearest to Suez, that is to say,
the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the Gulf of Oman, we shall
find that in the Mediterranean the winds blow from the north
during the greater part of the year, change to the south by
east towards the spring, and return to the north, passing by
the west and north-west. The case is nearly the same with
regard to the Red Sea, where the north wind, which is the most
frequent, drives the waters in the direction of Bab-el-Mandeb,
so that when the calm succeeds, a current is observed running
north. This is evidently produced by the waters which had been
raised in the south endeavouring to regain their level. The
south wind usually succeeds the calm.

“The Gulf of Oman has two monsoons, that from the north-east,
which prevails with more constancy in the winter, and that from
the south-west, which blows with force in summer. The change
from one monsoon to the other is effected, there as elsewhere,
by a series of calms and gusts of wind.

“From these circumstances it would appear most advantageous to
sail to India by the canal in summer and autumn, and to return
towards the spring.

“The great shortening of the distance between the ports of
Europe, and those of India, is not the only advantage which
commerce will derive by frequenting the canal of the two Seas.
In fact, vessels will not only reach their destination in a
shorter time, but will meet on their route with numerous ports
to put in at, and, what is more important still, considerable
markets. The voyager, after having followed the easy track of
the Mediterranean, will sell a part of his cargo in the Canal
of Suez, or at Geddah; will buy ivory at Massaoux, Souken and
Berbera, which he will either exchange in India, for opium, or
carry on to China to obtain silk or tea.

“He will complete his homeward cargo with the colonial produce
of Manilla, the Sunda Islands, and Ceylon, with cotton from
India, or Egypt, with coffee from Abyssinia, or Yemen, with
gum from Soudan or Hedjaz, with corn from Lower Egypt, or with
rice from Damietta. And these multifarious operations, which
now require years, will be safely and rapidly accomplished with
little capital and small ships.

“In fact, by reducing the time required for commercial
operations we also reduce the general costs, make a much
greater number of these operations possible in a given time,
and, by that means, give facilities to small traders, by far
the most numerous class.

“By opening to navigation an easier and safer route, we bring
into use ships of less tonnage, and more economically equipped;
in one word, we throw open the road to India to the coasting
trade—WE DEMOCRATISE COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION.”

To these details, we will add our own personal observations. We may say that the navigation of the Red Sea is always easy, from the straits to Raz Mohammed, because there are no rocks in the middle of the gulf, and it being always possible to beat when the monsoon is not favourable, and if some danger is to be feared at Raz Mohammed, from whirlwinds, currents and rocks, they will disappear as soon as a good lighthouse is erected, and a station of steam tugs established to assist vessels against the contrary winds.

Sailing may then be said to have attained the limit of its advantages, for it will profit by favourable winds to perform the transport service with economy; and in those parts of the passage where difficulties are to be encountered, steam will come in aid, by which danger and loss of time will be avoided.

Another objection which has been raised against the direct canal is, that being cut through moving downs, it will soon be encumbered by them, and that the expense of keeping it in order, will consequently be so great, that it will be necessary to abandon it, if it ever be undertaken.

To refute this objection we will recapitulate the facts in their actual integrity.

From Suez to the extremity of the Bitter Lakes, the soil is, it is true, sandy at the surface, but however sandy it may be, the winds do not produce any modification in the superficial state of this part of the Isthmus.

This is to be accounted for by the fine sand being kept moist by the sea water, which reaches the surface by percolation and capillary attraction; the sand, which is out of reach of the moisture, is coarse sand, or rather small gravel, bound together by magnesian earth, in such a manner that the wind has no effect upon it. So true is this, that at several places in this desert we found, in December, 1854, the traces left by the tents of the engineers who were employed there in 1847.

The best proof that can be given of the stability of the soil in this part of the desert is the situation of the banks of the ancient canal, which still remain all along, as far as the Bitter Lakes. The torrents of rain which sometimes fall in this locality, may well, in 1200 years, have worn ravines in these banks, and partly filled the canal. In some parts even, the banks have been carried away by sudden torrents, but nowhere are they buried by the sand. Vestiges of antiquity, two or three thousand years old, may still be seen at the surface of the soil on the very line through which the canal is to pass. It is only on approaching Lake Timsah that moveable downs are met with, which surround and cut it in several places, changing their shape rather than their position; all the other downs which are met with in the form of chains of hillocks, and which occupy the space comprised between the bar of El Guisr and Pelusium, have long been naturally fixed by various plants, which have sprung up there under the influence of heat and moisture. It is, then, only the downs in the vicinity of Lake Timsah which require to be fixed artificially. Now, the fixing of downs has already become a special branch of industry presenting great advantages. The hills of sand which devastated the _Landes_ of Bordeaux, and advanced every year into the interior of the country, rendering it barren, are now transformed into magnificent pine forests, which yield turpentine, pitch, various kinds of resin and timber.

This change, or rather this miracle, was effected by the simplest means. After an attentive examination of the facts, M. Bremontier, engineer-general, to whom we are indebted for the fixing of the downs, had observed that, in digging at the summit of the most elevated downs, the sand was moist at a few _centimetres_ from the surface.

Struck by this circumstance, he saw at once that vegetation would be possible, if the sand could be prevented from being displaced by the wind. He consequently imagined various means of obtaining this result, and his efforts were crowned with complete success. He sowed on several downs the seeds of the maritime pine, which have now become magnificent forests.

After being assured, by long experience, of the advantages which might be derived from the fixing of the downs, M. Bremontier addressed a report to the Government of the Republic, in which are found the following valuations:—

“The surface of the downs, which form the _Landes_ of Bordeaux,” says he, “being equal to 337,000 _Bordeaux journaux_, of 840 _square toises_, the amount required to fix the whole of these downs would be 8,000,000 _livres_. Now, a _journal_ (0 _hect._, 33) of sand planted with pines, gives an annual return of fifteen _livres_, that of 337,000 _journaux_ would therefore be of 5,055,000 _livres_. It is supposed here that the _Journal_ planted with pines only yields three quintals of resin, and the price may be taken at five francs the quintal; but the plantations, at the end of seven or eight years, will produce an immense quantity of combustibles, and afterwards charcoal, boards, timber for building, and finally tar. It is true that the pines are not of full value until twenty or twenty-five years after planting; there will be, however, an interest of twelve and a half per cent. as a deduction from all expenses.”

Much more simple means are employed at present, to fix the downs by sowing, for it is mostly considered sufficient to plant branches of broom, furze, or pine in quincunx upon the down to be sown and to scatter various seeds broadcast, and cover them lightly with a rake. These are called _tufted seed plots_. The expense of a _hectare_ is 66 _fr._, 80, which is made up as follows, as appears from the accounts kept by the engineers entrusted with these works:—

460 faggots at _fr._ 2,50 per C. _fr._ 11,50
16 _Kilos._ pine seeds 0,45 7,20
2 rush 2,50 5,00
2 furze 0,25 0,50
6 hay 0,10 0,60
Labour 1 day, 90. for a gang 22,10 41,99
-----
Cost of 1 hectare _fr._ 66,79

The gang is composed of—

A Foreman _fr._ 2,00 _fr._ 2,00
6 Workmen 1,25 7,50
12 Women 0,75 9,00
6 Children 0,60 3,60
-----
Total _per diem_ _fr._ 22,10

At the eighth year they begin to yield interest on the capital and cost of keeping up (which is almost nothing), from the combustible that is obtained by removing the surplus, from making charcoal, &c. &c. At twenty years they begin to extract resin from the trees, at thirty years the produce is most abundant, and continues up to eighty years, when the wood is fit for building purposes. Then new seed plots are formed in proportion as the old trees are removed.

The annual produce of resin gathered from a _hectare_ of pines is an average of five _metric quintals_, which, at the rate of twenty-two _francs_ per quintal, gives a revenue of 110 _francs_, and represents at least seventy per cent. of the capital employed.

It will be seen by this statement, that the fixing of the downs has become one of the most productive operations of Silviculture, and that it offers one of the most advantageous investments for capital.

It was therefore necessary for us to know, whether the downs which cover the northern part of the Isthmus could be fixed by the same process. Now, we have ascertained, 1st. That the greater part of these downs are naturally fixed by a multitude of different plants, which have found sufficient moisture for their support; 2nd. That the moveable downs of the basin of Lake Timsah conceal moisture at a very little depth below their surface; they may, therefore, be fixed by seed plots, and to do it there is the immense quantity of bushes and shrubs which grow in the low parts surrounding the lake, and which give to that region the appearance of a copse.

Not only will sufficient branches be found on the spot for the tufted seed plots, but moreover, all the combustibles for the lime, and for the wants of the workmen, will be furnished abundantly.

It is true, that at the time we made our observations (January, 1855), tolerably abundant rains had recently moistened the soil; the success of the seed-plots, which would be destitute of moisture for the rest of the year, might therefore be doubted; but what is there to prevent the moist season being chosen for making these plots? and the seed once risen, the abundant moisture which is felt in this region, especially during the summer nights, will suffice to support vegetation, as is seen by the downs fixed naturally. Finally, to remove all objections, the fresh water canal which will end at Lake Timsah, will supply, if required, the means of affording, during the early days of the seed-plots, sufficient moisture for the success of the undertaking.

There is no possible doubt then as to the success which will be obtained in the fixing of the moveable downs, nor as to the pecuniary advantages which result from it, for the maritime pine answers well in Egypt, and other kinds of trees may be found still more productive. The cost of sowing will be less than in France, on account of the low price of labour, and the profits will be more considerable and more quickly obtained, on account of the hotter climate, and the consumption on the spot of all produce now wanting, and which is obliged to be procured from a distance.

We estimate the superfice of the downs to be fixed in this part of the Isthmus at about 2000 _hectares_, but if seed-plots and replantations were made upon all the downs naturally fixed, 100,000 _hectares_ of forest might thus be formed. It is for the Company to decide what extent of country it will be suitable to cultivate in this way. A final objection has been made to the Canal by assuming that steam navigation, by the agitation of the water which it produces, would quickly destroy the banks of the Canal,—banks formed in a moveable soil which would fill up the trough.

To guard against this inconvenience, which might, in fact, be apprehended, we have adopted very gentle slopes (two on the base line to one in height); then we have covered these slopes with stones for the whole height on which the agitation caused by the passage of steam-vessels could be felt. We have in our favour the example of the Caledonian Canal, thus furnished with a covering of stones formed of simple materials. This is what M. Flachat says, in the description that he gives of this Canal, according to the reports of the Commissioners of the House of Commons: “Steam navigation especially demands attention. Difficult, perhaps even impossible, upon ordinary canals, where it causes an agitation which rapidly destroys the banks, it is organized on the Caledonian Canal, and presents nothing but advantages. With a speed of 11,000 to 12,000 _met._ per hour, all that has been observed is _a general plashing, which is not more than that produced by a moderately gentle wind_. The only precaution taken was, to collect on the banks and made ground all the large pebbles with which the land is filled, and to cover with them for a foot in height below the line of the water, the banks which, from the coarse composition of the soil, were too easily disturbed by the agitation of the waves. But wherever the ground had a good proportion of sand, there was nothing to be done.” Finally, it has been assumed, that the Government of Great Britain, yielding to a national prejudice, would put obstacles in the way of the project of cutting through the Isthmus, if it should be ascertained to be feasible, and that the English capitalists would not be disposed to concur in the undertaking. The future alone can show what truth there is in this assumption; we cannot at all conceive the opposition of the Government of a great nation to a project to which the English have especially, in these latter times, drawn the attention of the commercial world and their own Government on account of the special advantages which it offers to England. We have already referred to the writings of the traveller Bruce and those of Captain Rooke. We will now cite other names.

Captain James Vetch, of the corps of Royal Engineers, author of a very remarkable pamphlet published in London in 1843, and Mr. Clarkson, Civil Engineer, propose to trace the Canal in a single straight line from Suez to Tineh.

The editor of the Engineers’ and Architects’ journal (1844) in giving an account of the labours of these engineers, adopts in starting from Suez, the line of the ancient canal as far as the Bitter Lakes, and from the head of these lakes at Katieh he takes the direction of the Mediterranean in passing by the great lake Sulak el Bardoil.

The author adds, “It is hardly reasonable to reckon upon a union of the European powers to effect an undertaking in which England has such a preponderating interest, in the point of view of our domination in India. It is true that all the Nations bordering on the Mediterranean would find large profit therein, but much inferior however to ours.”

The Foreign Quarterly Review, one of the most esteemed periodicals of England, in an article where it treats of the cutting of the Isthmus, says that—“the expense compared with the grandeur of the result is so trivial, that it is astonishing that the thing has not yet been done, either by a company or by the Viceroy. The advantages of this undertaking would be immense; for, independently of the great commerce which would be done there, independently of the opening of Abyssinia and of the interior of Africa to the arts and civilization, the Red Sea abounds in natural riches, and the fishermen of the Mediterranean would transport themselves thither in crowds in pursuit of pearls, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, sponges (the finest in the world), coral, fish oils, &c. &c.”

Mr. Anderson in his pamphlet already quoted, says: “In a political point of view, the advantages which the English Government will derive from the Canal are almost incalculable. From Malta troops could be transported to Bombay in three weeks, to Ceylon and Madras in four weeks, and to Calcutta in thirty-five days at most, instead of the four or five months now required by a sailing vessel. Under such circumstances it would require scarcely half the number of English troops for the efficient government of India. The facility for despatching ships of war with munitions and men would thus increase the stability of the British power, while the cost would be considerably diminished.”

“In a commercial point of view, the advantages would be still more considerable: British India contains a population of 150,000,000, including, with the subjects of the British Crown, its allies and tributaries. China does not contain less than 350,000,000 of inhabitants: to say nothing of the other rich and populous countries of the East. Let us suppose that in consequence of the progress and developement of commerce, each Indian and Chinese should augment his outlay in the purchase of English produce by one shilling; this modification alone, insignificant as it appears, would augment the amount of exports by 25,000,000. Now is it not evident that the opening of the Maritime Canal will greatly facilitate commercial relations, and tend to lower the price of all merchandize? the 500,000,000 of human beings peopling India and China are still sunk in ignorance and superstition. With steam navigation, which will be developed beyond all conception by the opening of the Canal, these people, brought into daily communication with European ideas, will enter by degrees into the current of science and civilization.”