Chapter IV

THE STATE OF THE CONTENDING PARTIES—SPECIMEN OF
THE BARBARITY OF SOME OF THE AUSTRIAN OFFICERS—THE
ARMISTICE.

The Austrian army, with its imposing numbers, high military reputation, and menacing attitude a few weeks before, when threatening and afterward invading Piedmont, from the line of the Mincio, had now become vastly weakened, reduced, and disheartened by the successive conflicts and defeats which have been briefly described. The causes of its misfortunes have been accounted for, by an eye-witness, in remarks which we abridge as follows:

"The Austrian military system has been changed
completely within the last six or seven years; yet the
change in part explains the shortcomings of the past few
weeks. The Austrian army, up to this date, has been an
army of very young soldiers, not long under training.
According to the regulations, a fixed number of corps
has to be maintained throughout the Austrian empire. At
a fixed period of every year the youth of that empire
are drafted into the army, and distributed among the
corps. The arrival of these new drafts liberates an
equal number of men who have already served. The latter,
after one, or two, or three years' service, at the
option of the colonels of regiments, retire to their
homes on a furlough of indefinite duration, and are only
called out again in the event of a war. The Austrian
army at Montebello, Palestro, Magenta, and Cavriana was
thus composed of young soldiers. It would have been
wiser, doubtless, had the Austrians thought of this
matter in time. They were aware that Louis Napoleon
would move, if he moved at all, with the flower of his
army. They knew that he had paid high premiums to induce
old soldiers to remain in the ranks after the expiration
of their usual time, and that the picked men of the
French army, tried under the fierce sun of Africa, and
in the hard campaign of the Crimea, would be opposed to
them, and be assisted besides by an artillery of a novel
and most effective kind. They did not take sufficient
heed of these important facts, any more than they
considered that generals who, ten years ago, fought with
ability and success in the campaigns of Italy might
possibly have lost some of their original vigor. The
result has been such as to open their eyes to the
necessity of supplying defects. The question, as far as
the present war is concerned, is this: Which is best, to
risk all the tried men first, and trust to recruits
after, or employ first the young soldiers, and bring up
reserves after? As far as the present campaign is
concerned, the results favor the first of these
alternatives.

"The advisers of his Imperial Majesty Francis Joseph, at
last made up their minds that it was impossible, under
present circumstances, to defend the line of the Mincio.
Accordingly, the headquarters of the 2d Army, under
Count Schlick, came into Verona from Villafranca; the
headquarters of the 1st Army, under Wimpffen, being
transferred to Mantua. Verona, Mantua, and the other
strongholds of this great military quadrangle are very
much stronger than they were ten years ago. There are
great field works to be taken before any approach can be
made to the main defences, and in the meanwhile Austria
may have brought together again an army capable of
risking another general action. The soldiers had one
moment of enthusiasm; that was when the emperor led them
in person on the 23d to the advanced position from which
he intended to attack the enemy; but the events of the
24th seriously affected the _morale_ of the army.
Instead of attacking, as they were led to expect, they
had to repel the assaults of the Allies, who knowing
what was before them, had halted for a meal at two
o'clock in the morning. The Austrians, whose baggage and
cooking utensils accompany the columns even in the
advance, bivouacked on the night of the 23d, and were
attacked before they could get their breakfast. The
baggage and cooking-carts were obliged to return to the
rear out of the fire of the Allies, and the result was
that the army of the Kaiser had to fight on empty
stomachs. Hunger and hard knocks have a tendency to
discourage even the bravest soldier. I was astonished to
see men from the field of Solferino retiring unwounded,
and lying down exhausted when out of the reach of the
enemy's fire. I am told that many so exhausted laid
themselves down only to die. The mystery is explained
when one considers that these cases arose from want of
ordinary sustenance.

"Lichtenstein's corps (the 2d) which should have taken
part in the action of the day, was halted in consequence
of the approach of some French cavalry in its vicinity,
and Prince Lichtenstein, for reasons which he will
doubtless have to explain, returned to Mantua. Again,
General Zedwitz, commanding the cavalry brigade of the
1st Army, instead of advancing, as he should have done,
fell back on Goito, thus depriving the emperor of six
regiments of horse and a considerable amount of
artillery. Thus, while on the part of the allies all the
available guns that could be brought into action were
used, on the side of the Austrians the artillery was
weak and utterly unable to oppose an effectual fire to
that of the enemy. It is true, on the other hand, that
the French artillery did not commit the havoc which it
might have done had its fire throughout the day been
true to the mark, instead of being over it. Still, the
effect of the inferiority under which the Austrians
suffered in this respect, was disastrous, as it
prevented them from repelling the advance of the
infantry opposed to them. Among the wounded, to the
number of 4,000 or 5,000 in Verona and the surrounding
villages, it is remarkable how few suffered from wounds
inflicted by artillery."

In contrast with the condition of the Austrian army, those of Piedmont and France were in most respects superior, and still more in the principles for which they fought. To mention again Napoleon's rifled cannon, in the words of a late writer:

"The superiority of the French artillery during
the late Italian campaign was obvious to every one
who made himself acquainted with the details of
the great battles. At Solferino the heavy and very
dangerous Austrian cavalry was thrown into disorder and
rendered almost useless at distances to which their own
batteries, more favorably placed, would not carry. The
Austrians never yielded a foot on the hill of Solferino,
till a battery of French rifled cannon was brought to
bear upon them at a distance at which their own balls
fell short. The Tower could not have otherwise been
taken but with an infinitely greater slaughter than that
which occurred. When Niel and McMahon had driven the
Austrians back as far as the large open space known as
the plain of Guidizzolo, there was a fair trial of
artillery, which cost the Austrians dear; it was the
last stand made by the immense left wing of the Austrian
army, and one can well imagine how officers and men grew
dispirited in face of artillery that silenced their own
wherever it showed itself."

The following remarks on the plans and conduct of the war we abridge from the "London Times," of July 8th, 1860:

"As far as the Allies are concerned, their aim was
driving the Austrians out of Italy. With this aim
clearly and distinctly before them, the difficulties and
chances could be more or less calculated in advance, and
all that vagueness and uncertainty avoided which gives
rise to those useless moves in two armies, neither of
which knows what it is to do next.

"The Austrians were in this latter case when they began
the war, nobody knew why, and while they were allowed to
amuse themselves with their harmless offensive movements
you saw all those insignificant skirmishes occur on the
Sesia, which were put a speedy end to by the advance of
the Allies. Since that time the war has been rolling
along in great waves. The Allies went straight toward
their aim, and the Austrians were so hard pressed, that
they endeavored to oppose to a grand plan, executed with
the most determined will, equally grand operations.

"Thus, when the Austrians found themselves outwitted by
the flank movement on the Ticino, they brought up their
troops in all haste to oppose the advance. They were
beaten, and immediately resolved to withdraw behind the
Mincio. The fight at Malegnano only took place in order
to insure this retreat, but from that time they avoided
opposing the advance of the Allies, by making a stand at
the river lines. On the other hand, the Allies, intent
only on carrying out their own great plans, did not
think for one moment of molesting their retreat.

"After the Allies had crossed the Chiese, and made
preparations for the passage of the Mincio, the
Austrians attempted one great blow; and, collecting all
their forces, tried an offensive movement, which was
speedily checked by the battle of Solferino. The battle
lost, the French, whose preparations were not completed,
did not press the retreating Austrians very hard; while
these latter, instead of trying a desultory defence of
the Mincio, opposed no resistance to the passage of it,
but, without wasting any forces, retired between
Peschiera and Verona, to await there the attack of the
Allies, or perhaps watch their time for another great
offensive movement.

"This avoiding on both sides of those little encounters,
deprives the war considerably of its picturesque element
of its individual features, as it were. This whole
campaign resolves itself into an alternation between
preparations and great decisive blows.

"The Mincio passage was effected without any difficulty,
offering by its good arrangements matter of thought to
the military, but otherwise being a subject rather for a
landscape painter than for a painter of battles.
Although the Austrians had gone back from the river, all
the precautions were taken as if there had been a
constant danger from an attack. The whole had very much
the appearance of a field manœuvre in peaceable times,
with the difference, however, that even the thin line
representing the hostile forces on such occasions, was
entirely wanting. But the movements had to be so
combined, that the army should be in readiness to
receive the enemy in case he came down from his position
between Verona and Peschiera. The enemy's position was
on the left flank of the allied armies, facing the
Mincio, with Peschiera just at the angle formed by the
intersection of the Mincio with his extreme right. The
Allies were thus obliged, while crossing the Mincio, to
change their front and face to the left. For this
purpose the Sardinians, who had kept the position of San
Martino, took up the line from Rivoltella, on the lake,
in the neighborhood of Pozzolengo. The 1st French corps,
which had been next to them in the _ordre de bataille_
of the 27th, marched to Pozzolengo, and, occupying
Ponti, faced against Peschiera. The 2d corps, next to
it, kept its original direction toward the Mincio,
joining the 1st corps at Castellaro, where the road
leads down to Monzambano. To the right of this corps was
the 4th, at Volta, likewise facing the Mincio, and the
3d at Goito. The crossing took place at almost all
points simultaneously, with just sufficient interval
between the corps to allow time for that furthest to the
right to accomplish its change of front, and come into
the same direction with the others. Thus, the 4th corps,
which was furthest, with the exception of the 3d,
detached toward Goito, was the first to cross at
Borghetto and Vallegio, to gain the high road to Verona,
and take up its position toward Villafranca. This was on
the morning of the 29th. Since that time, all the corps
have crossed successively, changing their direction from
west to east, and making front against the Austrian
position.

"While we are discussing the progress of the plot and
speculating as to the nature of the catastrophe, the
curtain falls. Yesterday France and Austria were upon
the point of joining in another desperate battle. The
celebrated fortified Quadrangle had been reached,
Peschiera had been invested, Mantua had been masked,
Verona was upon the point of being summoned, Venice was
threatened, and Garibaldi was manœuvering upon the rear
of the great fortresses. The waves of warfare were
undulating and vibrating to another great burst in foam.
To-day the Spirit of Peace has breathed upon the waters,
and the storm is for the moment at an end. Three months
ago we expected peace and were surprised by war. To-day
Europe was waiting in breathless expectation for a great
battle, fought in the very fortresses of Austria, and is
again surprised by the calm announcement that an
armistice has been concluded, and that the two great
armies are for the moment no longer enemies."

The cruelties practised by Austrians in Italy will be disgraceful to the memory of their government, its officers and soldiers. A single instance of the crimes of General Urban, in Lombardy, in 1859, will suffice. By his order, a whole family were butchered. It consisted of seven persons, including a grandfather, eighty-two years of age, a boy of fourteen, and a girl of twelve. Merely for the purpose of striking terror into the people; it appears, and without any pretext of fault in them, he had them all put to death, and left their mangled corpses unburied. This atrocious act has been denied; but the king's government have since instituted a regular legal investigation, ascertained its truth, and erected a monument in memory of it.

THE ARMISTICE.

The war, its progress, results, and prospects were not less unexpected or surprising than the armistice which Louis Napoleon, without any warning, suddenly concluded, in an interview with the Emperor of Austria, on the 11th of July. The cause of it still remains a matter of conjecture. It was followed by a treaty, by which the war was terminated and harmony restored, but the promise of Louis not fulfilled, of driving out the foreigners from Italy. Austria was left in possession of the four great fortresses of Lombardy, as well as of Venetia.

The armistice was first announced to France by the following telegram:

"VALLEGIO, _July 11, 1859._

"THE EMPEROR TO THE EMPRESS.

"Peace has been signed between the Emperor of Austria
and myself.

"The bases agreed to are an Italian confederation, under
the honorary Presidentship of the Pope.

"The Emperor of Austria cedes his rights over Lombardy
to the Emperor of the French, who hands them over to the
King of Sardinia.

"The Emperor of Austria preserves Venetia, but
that country forms an integral part of the Italian
Confederation.

"General armistice."

It was made known to the army on the following day, by this proclamation:

"SOLDIERS—The bases of peace have been arranged with the
Emperor of Austria; the principal object of the war has
been obtained; Italy is about to become for the first
time a nation. A confederation of all the Italian States
under the honorary Presidency of the Holy Father, will
unite them together as the members of one family.
Venetia, it is true, remains under the sceptre of
Austria. It will, nevertheless, be an Italian province,
constituting a part of the confederation.

"The union of Lombardy with Piedmont creates for us on
this side of the Alps a powerful ally, who will owe to
us his independence. The governments unconnected with
this movement, (_en dehors du mouvement_), or recalled
to their possessions, will comprehend the necessity of
salutary reforms. A general amnesty will cause to
disappear the traces of civil discord. Italy, henceforth
mistress of her destinies, will only have to blame
herself if she do not regularly progress in order and
liberty.

"You will soon return to France. The grateful country
will welcome with transport those soldiers who have
borne so high the glory of our arms at Montebello,
Palestro, Turbigo, Magenta, Mariguan, and Solferino, who
in two months have emancipated Piedmont and Lombardy,
and only paused because the struggle was about to assume
proportions inconsistent with the interests of France in
connection with this formidable war.

"Be also proud of your success, proud of the results
obtained, proud, above all, of being the well beloved
children of that France which will ever continue a great
nation, so long as it shall have a heart to comprehend
noble causes, and men like yourselves to defend them.

"At the Imperial Headquarters of Vallegio, 12th of July,
1859.

"NAPOLEON."

The following considerations are suggested by the peace just concluded:

The cession of Lombardy to Piedmont comprehends that of the two fortresses, Mantua and Peschiera. The superfices of Lombardy is 8,538 square miles. Its population is 2,800,000 souls. Lombardy has hitherto been divided, administratively, into nine provinces or delegations, viz.:—Milan, Pavia, Lodi, Corma, Cremona, Como, Mantua, Sondrio, Breschia, and Bergamo. The fortified towns of Mantua and Peschiera form part of the province of Mantua. The fortress of Pezzighettone is comprised in the province of Cremona. After the annexation of Lombardy and Piedmont, this kingdom (the island of Sardinia both included) will contain a superfices of 37,640 square miles, with a population of 7,800,000. As regards territorial extent, it will occupy a tenth rank in Europe, and will come immediately after the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and before Portugal and Bavaria. With respect to population, Sardinia will stand in the ninth rank, on a level with Naples, and will be above Sweden and Norway, Belgium, and Bavaria.

The following table completes the comparison as regards Italy:

Area Sq. M. Population.
New kingdom 37,640 7,800,000
Venetia 9,525 2,200,000
Papal States 17,218 2,900,000
Tuscany 8,741 1,750,000
Parma 2,268 500,000
Modena 2,090 410,000
Two Sicilies 42,000 8,400,000

Although disappointed, by the imperfect accomplishment of the work of securing all Italy to the Italians, there was much reason to rejoice, that the overflowing fountains of human blood, which had exhibited a spectacle shocking to humanity, had been stopped. The terms of peace were settled by the Treaty of Villafranca.

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