Chapter XI (2)

...It surely cannot be necessary to remind the Directors that the
very unusual stake which as a professional man I have been willing,
perhaps imprudently, to risk on the success of this project--I mean
stake of professional character, not mere pecuniary risk--must
secure a much greater amount of attention to any step, and
supervision of any detail on my part, than any ordinary
professional engagement would obtain; the heavy responsibility of
having induced more than half of the present Directors of the
Company to join, and the equally heavy responsibility towards the
holders of nearly half of the capital, must ensure on my part an
amount of anxious and constant attention to the whole business of
the Company which is rarely given by a professional man to any one
subject, and, as it seems to me, ought to command a proportionate
degree of confidence, or rather command entire confidence, in me,
if any at all, for in such a case there can hardly be any medium.
The fact is, that I never embarked in any one thing to which I have
so entirely devoted myself, and to which I have devoted so much
time, thought, and labour, on the success of which I have staked so
much reputation, and to which I have so largely committed myself
and those who were disposed to place faith in me; nor was I ever
engaged in a work which from its nature required for its conduct
and success that it should be entrusted so entirely to my
individual management and control....

The Directors have a right to expect, and will ever receive, from
me the fullest information and the most unreserved communication
upon all points as they arise, as from one who feels the
responsibility of being their sole professional adviser in a very
important and serious business, in which we are all embarked, and
all deeply interested; but I cannot act under any supervision, or
form part of any system which recognises any other adviser than
myself, or any other source of information than mine, on any
question connected with the construction or mode of carrying out
practically this great project, on which I have staked my
character; nor could I continue to act if it could be assumed for a
moment that the work required to be looked after by a Director, or
by anybody but myself or those employed directly by me and for me
personally for that purpose.

If any doubt ever arises on these points I must cease to be
responsible, and cease to act.

_Letter to the Secretary of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company._

[In explanation of the following letter it need only be stated that
an elaborate article on the great ship appeared in one of the
London newspapers of November 1854. Mr. Brunel’s name was only once
mentioned throughout the whole of it, and in these words: ‘Mr.
Brunel, the Engineer of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company,
approved of the project, and Mr. Scott Russell undertook to carry
out the design.’]

November 16, 1854.

Since I wrote to you I have taken the trouble to read through the
long article in the----, and am much annoyed by it. I have always
made it a rule, which I have found by some years’ experience a safe
and profitable one, to have nothing to do with newspaper articles;
but then, if on the one hand the works I have been connected with
have rarely been puffed (never by me), they have also been rarely
affected by misstatements; as such notices, when not inserted by
interested parties, are always slight and unauthentic, and drop
without producing any effect. This article in the----, however,
bears rather evidently a stamp of authority, or at least it
professes to give an amount of detail which could only be obtained
from ourselves; and if, as I think is the case, copies of it have
been circulated by us, it may acquire the character of being an
authorized statement; and, as such, I am individually much annoyed
by a great deal that is in it, and by the omission of much that
might with propriety have been introduced.

What is constantly repeated or implied, and remains uncontradicted,
is at last received almost unconsciously as fact even by those who
have the means of knowing it to be incorrect, if they thought about
it; and, although from system I have never interfered with
newspaper statements, it has not been from any affected or real
indifference to public opinion, perhaps it was more from pride than
modesty, and therefore I am by no means indifferent to a statement
which would lead the public, and perhaps by degrees our own
friends, to forget the origin of our present scheme, and to believe
that I, happening at the time to be the consulting Engineer of this
Company, which I was not, and having had no peculiar connection
with previous successful improvements in steam navigation, allowed
them to adopt some plan suggested by others, who I suspect, if even
such were the case, would never appear to share with me the
responsibility if any failure should result. Of this certainly I
have no fear, but at the same time I am desirous of something more
than mere immunity from blame.

I not only read this article once, but I was so struck by the
marked care shown in depreciating those efforts which I had
successfully made in advancing steam navigation, and mainly on the
strength of which no doubt I originally obtained the confidence of
the Directors, which induced them to enter upon our present bold
undertaking, that I read the paper a second time, and for the very
reason that I have for so many years shunned public writings,
namely, to escape misstatements, I feel compelled on the present
occasion to take some steps publicly to correct those erroneous
impressions, which must be created by a document having the
appearance of emanating from ourselves....

The objectionable points that I refer to evidently did not strike
you, and that is a strong proof how easily incorrect impressions
insinuate themselves unawares; but I feel strongly that a judicious
friend would not have failed to do justice to the spirited
merchants of Bristol, who, in spite of the strongest condemnation
of the plan by the highest authorities, and the ridicule of others,
persevered in building and starting the first transatlantic
steamer. The circumstances as regards the ‘Sirius’ are coloured so
as to be quite incorrect; and the same friendly hand would not have
thrown ridicule, and that by a positive false statement, upon that
which he at the same time admits to have been the means of almost
introducing two of the greatest improvements in steam navigation. A
writer wishing success to our enterprise would not have omitted to
mention that I had a claim to public confidence on this occasion,
for the reason that I was at least the principal adviser in those
previously successful attempts.

And lastly, I cannot allow it to be stated, apparently on
authority, while I have the whole heavy responsibility of its
success resting on my shoulders, that I am a mere passive approver
of the project of another, which in fact originated solely with me,
and has been worked out by me at great cost of labour and thought
devoted to it now for not less than three years....

The works had been commenced in the spring of the year 1854, and the progress of the ship towards completion was eagerly watched, both by scientific men and by the general public.

The newspapers and periodicals of the day frequently contained descriptions of the work, and statements of the anticipated performances of the ship, often very much exaggerated. The writers seem to have been quite at a loss how to convey to their readers any idea of her size, and they generally attempted to do so by comparing her dimensions with those of some of the well-known streets and squares in London.[152]

In the beginning of the year 1855, the longitudinal and transverse bulkheads, which formed the main framework of the ship, were completed for nearly 400 feet of the centre portion, and the plating was being fixed in place.

As the general design was now settled, it was thought that the time had arrived when it would be desirable for Mr. Brunel to describe at some length the nature of the undertaking, and the manner in which it was being carried out.

_Report to the Directors of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company._

[This Report was published at the time and excited much
attention.[153] The paragraphs which describe the arrangements
proposed for launching the ship have been omitted, as they will
more conveniently be inserted in the following chapter.]

February 5, 1855.

* * * * *

Although the simple description of the present state of the works
of the ship and engines, and of what has been done during the last
six months, may be summed up in a few words, I shall, in compliance
with the request of the Directors, embody in this the substance of
the several other reports which I have from time to time made to
the Court of Directors during this half year, and take this
opportunity of laying before the proprietors the fullest
information upon our plans and proceedings. In doing this it may be
difficult to avoid some appearance of repetition of statements
previously made; but I have thought it better, even at the risk of
this, to refer to the objects we have had in view, and explain
fully the nature of the works we have undertaken, and the manner in
which we are carrying them out.

The construction of the vessel is the portion of our work which,
without being actually novel, involved in all its details the
greatest amount of special consideration and contrivance.

The unusual dimensions, the general form and the mode of
construction of all the parts involved by these dimensions, the
necessity of studying each part in detail, so as to obtain, by
judicious mode of construction alone, the greatest amount of
strength with the minimum amount of material; all these
circumstances, and particularly the last, have rendered necessary a
very large, though unseen, amount of labour in the preliminary
plans and stages of the work; and, although I had for nearly two
years before the contracts were entered into, devoted a great deal
of time and thought to the subject, yet of course until the exact
size of the vessel, and the general plans of the Company, had been
finally determined upon none of these matters could be entered into
in detail. Much time has consequently been required to mature and
prepare these plans; and as I have made it a rule from the first
that no part of the work should be commenced until it had been
specially considered and determined upon, and working drawings in
full detail prepared, and, after due deliberation, formally settled
and signed, the work did not make at the onset that display of
progress which might have been made, if less regard had been paid
to establishing a good system which would prevent delays hereafter,
and ensure a more perfect and satisfactory result. I am not
prepared to say that the work is in that state of progress which
will ensure its completion within the period fixed in the contract;
but I am quite certain that if we had proceeded with less system we
should have considerably delayed the final completion.

I shall now refer to a few of the principal peculiarities in the
construction of the ship.

In the preparation of the detailed plans, I have carried out fully
those principles which I originally described as leading features
of the construction.

The whole of the vessel is divided transversely into ten separate
perfectly water-tight compartments by bulkheads carried up to the
upper-deck, and consequently far above the deepest water lines,
even if the ship were water-logged, so far as such a ship could be;
and these are not nominal divisions, but complete substantial
bulkheads, water-tight, and of strength sufficient to bear the
pressure of the water, should a compartment be even filled with
water; so that if the ship were supposed to be cut in two, the
separate portions would float; and no damage, however great, to the
ship’s bottom, in one or even two of these compartments would
endanger the floating of the whole, or even damage the cargo in the
rest of the ship, or above the main-decks of the compartment in
question, and all damageable cargo would be stowed above that deck.
Besides these principal bulkheads there is in each compartment a
second intermediate bulkhead, forming a coal bunker, and carried up
to the main-deck, which can, on an emergency, also be closed.
There are no openings under the deep-water line through the
principal bulkheads, except one continuous gallery or pipe near the
water line, through which the steam pipes pass, and which will be
so constructed as to remain closed, the opening being the
exception, and the closing again being easy, and the height being
such that, under the most improbable circumstances of damage to the
ship, ample time would be afforded to close it leisurely, and to
make it perfectly water-tight. I have also adopted the system, to
be followed rigidly and without exception, of making no openings
whatever--even by pipes and cocks--through the ship’s bottom, or
through the inner skin below the load water line, and I attach much
importance to this system.

In the majority of cases in which steamboats are compelled to put
into port from failure of bilge-pumps and other really trifling
defects, no such serious consequence would have resulted, but from
the difficulty and almost impossibility of remedying at sea any
defects in the numerous pipes and openings now carried through the
ship’s bottom, wherever convenient, and without much regard to the
danger of doing so.

I have found no great difficulty in carrying out this system
completely, and the advantages, both as regards safety and the
facility of remedying defects without delaying the ship on her
voyage, must be obvious.

Independently of the security attained by the perfect division of
the ship into really water-tight compartments of a sufficient
number, so that the entire filling of one or even two of them will
not endanger the buoyancy of the whole, the chances of any such
damage as can cause the filling of one of them are greatly
diminished by the mode adopted in the construction of the ship’s
bottom. The whole of the vessel (except the extreme stem and stern,
the whole buoyancy of which is comparatively unimportant from the
fineness of the lines), up to a height considerably above the
deepest water line, is formed with a double skin, with an
intervening space of about three feet. This arrangement resulted
originally from the system of construction I adopted, in which the
bulkheads, placed at intervals of twenty feet, form the main
transverse frames or ribs of the ship, and in the intermediate
space the material is disposed longitudinally in webs connecting
the two skins, giving to the whole much greater strength with the
same amount of material; but one of the most important results has
been the great increased security attained, as the outer skin may
be torn or rent against a rock without causing the ship to leak.

The space between these two skins is thus divided, by the
longitudinal beams or webs and the principal bulkheads, into some
fifty separate water-tight compartments, any one or more of which
may be allowed to fill without materially affecting the immersion
of the ship.

Besides the main transverse bulkheads, at about 60 feet intervals,
there are two longitudinal bulkheads of iron running fore and aft,
at about 40 feet in width, adding greatly to the strength of the
whole, and forming, with the transverse bulkheads, being all
carried up to the upper deck, fire-proof party walls, cutting up
the whole into so many separate parts, that any danger from fire
may be almost entirely prevented.

The transverse bulkheads being perfect, there being only one
door--and that of iron--in each, at one of the upper decks, all
currents of air or means of communicating fire may be completely
cut off; and with an additional precaution, which I will refer to
afterwards, besides the most ample means of supplying water, I
believe that all possibility of danger from fire may be completely
prevented.

All these principles of construction being kept in view, the
details of construction--that is, the arrangement and due
apportionment of the strength and sizes of all the plates, and the
mode of fastening them--having been determined separately, the
plates have been made at once of the required dimensions, and the
work has proceeded systematically. This system is the most
important, as securing not only good work, but affecting, to a much
greater extent than might at first be supposed, the total weight of
the ship; which, although the terms of the contract protect the
Company against any excess of expenditure beyond a certain fixed
sum, is yet of the greatest importance, as will be easily
understood when I mention the fact that several merely trifling
alterations in the modes of arranging the plates and other details
have caused an economy of 20 to 50 tons each, and that the vessel
may thus be made capable of carrying 200 to 300 tons more of coal,
cargo, or provisions; or iron to the same amount may be usefully
applied to strengthen other parts or effect useful additions.

The details of the engines have all been settled; and the principal
parts, as already stated, are in an advanced state of completion.

In considering the plans of those engines, the largest that have
yet been manufactured, I have endeavoured to ascertain what may be
termed the weak points of the best engines hitherto constructed by
the same or by other makers--those points in which experience has
pointed out deficiencies--and to provide fully against similar
defects in our case.

Before commencing the boilers, I have taken every means in my power
of profiting by the experience of others, and have collected all
the evidence and opinions as to the precise form and proportions
which have been found most efficient; and particularly such as have
been found best suited to the combustion of anthracite coal. A very
great difference is found to exist in the useful and economical
results of boilers, even of good manufacture. Some are noted for
the power of producing rapidly abundance of steam, at the cost of
great consumption of fuel; others have the opposite qualities, and
some combine successfully both those qualities which are desirable.
It might have been supposed that all points of such a simple
subject would have been long since settled, and that no boiler
would be made inferior to the best. Such is not, however, the case;
and although the differences of construction are in themselves
slight, the difference of result is often considerable.

I have taken some pains to satisfy myself on these points, and have
endeavoured to select and to copy the most successful boilers; and
in order to remove all doubts as to their fitness for the use of
anthracite, I have made an experimental boiler, and, after numerous
trials, determined upon the form and dimensions to be adopted.

In the consideration of these details, as indeed on all other
points affecting the success of this undertaking, I have not
hesitated to consult everybody whose opinions I considered
valuable, and to bring the result of their opinions in aid of my
own and the manufacturer’s experience.

I have only to add, that after giving much consideration to the
question of the diameter of the paddle-wheels and screw, I have
determined them sufficiently for fixing the position of the shafts,
and am now engaged in considering the best form and construction of
the propeller itself, and also the construction of the stern-frame
and rudder of the ship.

The position of the paddle-shaft, and the diameter of the paddles,
have been questions of some difficulty. It being necessary to
provide for a considerable variation in the draught of water,
though not proportionably so great as with many existing large
steamers, and to balance well the relative advantages of securing
the highest average speed, at all the various draughts, or the
highest speed at a light draught, and to combine as far as possible
the two, so that the vessel may be as well adapted to perform
comparatively short and very quick passages to ports not affording
a great draught of water, as long voyages, heavily laden, at a
more moderate maximum, but still a large average rate of speed.
Although the full advantage of the great capacity of the vessel for
carrying coal for long voyages would not be felt in a voyage, for
instance, to New York, or in other short voyages, yet,
unquestionably, she would exceed all other vessels in speed and
extent of accommodation; and if it should be found desirable to
make such voyages, your vessels ought to be able to command almost
a monopoly by their superior capabilities, and I have therefore
endeavoured so to place the paddle-shaft, and so to construct the
wheels, that they may be adapted to the convenient application of
the full power of the engine at a light draught of water and at
very high speed.

As regards the screw, the same points have to be considered, and a
choice made amongst the various forms and proportions more or less
successfully adopted at the present time. I have always found the
reports made upon the results of various forms of screws and
propellers, and the performance of different vessels, so little to
be depended upon, even when apparently made in good faith, and the
results obtained from good authority, that I have been long since
compelled to adopt no conclusion, unless from results witnessed by
myself or by persons observing for me. I have for some time past
availed myself of every opportunity that offered of observing and
obtaining something like accurate results upon the various points
affecting immersion of paddles or screw, and I am engaged in
considering those results.

I have referred to the subject of protection from fire; it is one
of considerable importance, and I have some hopes that a process,
which has been recently patented by Lieutenant Jackson, may be
successfully applied to rendering wood uninflammable. Some door
panels have been already experimented upon with results which have
induced me to pursue the experiments, and I am about to try the
comparative inflammability of various qualities of wood, both
prepared and unprepared; and if we can succeed in preventing the
wood producing a flame, and thus communicating the fire; with the
numerous metallic subdivisions we shall have in the ship, the
spreading of fire, even from cargo or furniture, would become
impossible. I am also engaged in determining the character and
extent of mast and sail to be carried, as provision must now be
made in the construction of the ship for receiving the masts.

The Directors are aware that I have been in communication with
Professor Airy as to the instruments which may be used in such a
ship, to ensure more accurate and frequent observations, and as to
the nature of these observations; an enquiry into which he has
entered with that liberality and desire to assist all improvements,
in navigation especially, for which he is so well known. Several
new instruments are now making for trials.

Sir W. Snow Harris has promised to turn his attention to the
subject of the lightning conductors; and as soon as the iron work
is a little more advanced, and while the form and position of all
the principal masses are visible, the subject of local attraction
and the adjustment of the compasses will be considered by those
most competent to advise; and I am not without hope that the means
of correction may be rendered much more certain and perfect than
usual. I mention these, as some of the numerous points which
require and are receiving attention.

In the last paragraph but one of this report Mr. Brunel mentions that he proposed to adopt a system for obtaining continuous observations in order to determine the position of the ship.[154]

His first letter to the Astronomer Royal, which is dated as early as October 1852, explains the object with which he began his investigations:--

October 5, 1852.

You may possibly have heard of a project in which I am engaged, of
building some _very large_ steamboats.... Among the several
requirements, which it appears to me are involved in such a large
project, is one in which I hope for your advice and assistance, and
I trust you will consider the subject worthy of your attention. In
such a voyage, where so much depends upon perfect navigation, and
with such a capital at stake, no means can be too perfect and no
expense or trouble must be spared to ensure the constant
determination, with the greatest attainable accuracy, of the ship’s
position and course. The determination of her speed, the effect of
winds and currents, and the variation of her compasses, together
with meteorological observations, are all involved in this; and I
propose to have an observatory and establishment of observers,
whose duty it will be to be constantly engaged, day and night, at
any moment when anything can be visible in the heavens, in taking
such observations as will determine more or less accurately,
according to the nature of the observations that the state of the
weather or other circumstances may admit of, the several points to
be ascertained. Now, the questions to be determined are, what is
the nature of the various observations that can best be made under
all the different, and the favourable and unfavourable
circumstances that may daily arise? what the instruments required,
and what the character and extent of the staff of observers
required; and even whether any, and if any what, new tables might
be useful for such a purpose? The primary object being to be
_constantly_ determining either correctly or approximately the
ship’s true position, and in like manner _constantly_ checking the
compasses and giving her true course. I will not unnecessarily
expose my ignorance in such matters by stating what I have assumed
to be practicable. I will only remind you that experience proves
that in a vessel of such size there will be great steadiness of
motion, and therefore unusual facilities for accurate observation.

Mr. Airy entered very warmly into the subject, as did also Professor Piazzi Smyth, the Astronomer Royal for Scotland; and a long and interesting correspondence passed between them and Mr. Brunel. Experiments were conducted, principally with the view of obtaining a stand for astronomical instruments by means of the contrivance known as the gyroscope, the principle of which had been already adopted by Mr. Brunel in a level designed by him in 1829.

In connection with the observers’ department, Mr. Brunel paid much attention to designs of sounding apparatus and means for accurately measuring the speed of the ship. He also intended to have a stream of surface water constantly pumped up through the observers’ cabin, which should, by its change of temperature, immediately indicate the presence of icebergs, instead of the plan of an occasional bucketful being hauled up on to the deck according to the humour of the officer of the watch.

Mr. Brunel made a very curious contrivance for enabling the man on the look-out to keep his eyes open in a gale of wind. This consisted of two sets of vertical plates of tin placed one behind another, diverging from the direction of the wind, with a clear wide passage between the two sets of plates. The wind, entering at the end of the apparatus, became separated by the first two inclined plates, and the residue that passed on in the direct line was again subdivided, so that at the end of the last set of plates there was no rush of air between them, and a man looking through the aperture, with his face to the wind, was in a perfect calm. This was a useful arrangement, the look-out man’s eyes being as well protected as though behind a glass. A glass would not answer the purpose, as it would become obscured with spray.

The unfortunate circumstances which attended the completion of the ship prevented the introduction of these and many other arrangements which Mr. Brunel had originally proposed.[155]

In November 1855, the Directors proceeded to appoint a commander to the ship; and their choice fell upon Mr. William Harrison, one of the most distinguished of the captains of the Cunard Company’s steamers.

This appointment gave Mr. Brunel great satisfaction; he found in Captain Harrison a warm and faithful friend, and an able adviser on all matters connected with the completion and equipment of the ship.[156]

Before they came to a decision, the Directors asked Mr. Brunel to communicate to them his views on the considerations which ought to influence them in their choice.

The memorandum he drew up on the management of the great ship, and a letter on the duties of the chief engineer, are inserted at length, as forming a complete record of the principles which, in his opinion, should be followed ‘in the use of this new machine,’ while employed on the voyages which she was specially designed to make.

_Memorandum on the Management of the Great Ship._

October, 1855.

The question of the principles to be followed in the use of this
new machine, for such it must be considered, and the character and
the qualifications of the man to whom it is to be entrusted, and
the points to which his attention must be particularly devoted,
have long been subjects of deep and serious consideration with
me.[157]

And the difficulties are complicated by the consideration that
public opinion, and those established and universally received
opinions which, being the result of experience, cannot be called
prejudices, have to be considered, and must be yielded to to a
great extent, even when somewhat opposed to sound reasoning, or to
conclusions deliberately formed upon a due consideration of the
novel circumstances under which we have to act; but, while
conceding much to past experience, and to preconceived opinions,
the real requirements of the case must have the first
consideration.

Thus, as it is a ship that we have to navigate, public opinion, if
nothing else, requires that we should have a sailor of undoubted
experience and skill to command her; but although seamanship may be
one of the essential conditions or qualifications for the
commander, I think we shall find, upon examination, that the work
we have to do, and the duties to be performed, and the
qualifications we consequently require in the man who is to conduct
this work, are so peculiar that mere seamanship, in the ordinary
sense of the term, if it were to be solely relied upon, would be
even a disadvantage rather than otherwise, and that we require much
that is not necessarily found in the most perfect specimen of a
seaman, and much that is far more difficult to find than the
ordinary qualifications.

I wish particularly to impress this upon you: the subject has
occupied long, frequent, and serious deliberations. I have come to
the conclusion which you will no doubt readily acquiesce in, that
our first practical mechanical success, upon which so much of our
financial success hangs (although others might reap the benefit
even of our failure in the first instance), will depend mainly upon
the skilful management in our earliest voyages of the machine we
are about to set afloat; but I have also come to the conclusion,
the correctness of which may not be so immediately apparent to you,
that this machine, though nominally a ship, not only admits of, but
requires, a totally different management from that which may have
successfully navigated ordinary ships, and that most of the habits,
feelings, and sensations, amounting to instinct, possessed by a
good sailor, and the peculiar power of skilful adaptation of
expedients to emergencies, which constitute the merits of a
first-rate sailor, have to be put aside for a time rather than
applied in the first instance to make a successful commander of the
vessel.

In navigating a small vessel, a man has to study the appearance of
the weather, the direction of the wind, and that of the seas; to
consider the probabilities of change; to vary his course more or
less with reference to any of these causes, and according not only
to the then state of all these operating causes, but also with
reference to the probabilities of change; and with their
consideration his mind is principally occupied, and it is in the
exercise of judgment and foresight in these points that he shows
his skill.

Steam navigation, and the gradual increase in the size of vessels,
have no doubt materially modified this, but much still remains to
occupy the mind of the commander of a steamer, with which not only
we shall have nothing to do, but too much attention to which, from
previous habits, would divert his attention from that which, under
the different circumstances, will become much more important.

In the same manner, in manœuvring such a vessel in harbour, the
ordinary modes would be totally inapplicable; whereas, by entirely
discarding all previous practices, and keeping in his mind and
making use of the peculiar powers which are at command in this
vessel, and judiciously attending to the immense effect of the _vis
inertiæ_, or momentum of such a mass, so far beyond that of
anything now afloat that it becomes a totally _new_ influence, this
machine may be managed by a skilful man with a facility which is
not attainable with small craft; while such a mass would be
destruction to itself or to anything that comes in contact with it,
if treated at all in the same manner as even the largest steamers
are now handled.

Another peculiarity to be attended to in the management of this
mighty mass is that by no possibility must she be allowed to touch
the ground.

Our ship will be found, I believe, if tried, to possess unusual
strength: no combination of circumstances within the range of
ordinary probabilities can cause such damage to her as to sink her,
even if she were to be run on sharp rocks with deep water around;
and I believe she might remain for months aground, exposed to the
heaviest seas without serious damage. The lives of the passengers,
and even the cargo generally, will be safe, almost perfectly safe,
and so far she will be very different from and very superior to any
vessel now afloat; but there will also be another great difference,
although she may remain safely aground, she will probably remain so
for a long time.

If she were to ground at high water or where there is a little
tide, and when she happens to be rather light of coal, and should
take in any water so as to deepen her, no ordinary appliances in
the power of the crew will get her off, or, at all events, not
without great loss of time, and at very heavy sacrifices. Such an
event in the first year of her career would probably ruin our
Company, as the grounding of the ‘Great Britain’ did the Great
Western Steam-Ship Company, although it proved the good qualities
of that ship, and thus advanced iron ship-building. A sailor will
no doubt receive with disgust and as an insult the suggestion of
the possibility of his running his ship ashore. We cannot afford,
however, to rest contented with this expression of feeling, natural
and praiseworthy as it may be: our circumstances are totally
different; and that which is considered certainly as a serious
evil, but still only an evil more or less serious, would be to us
fatal; it is no longer a question of degree of injury--it is death.
I have had some costly experience; I have had to do with many
steamers--several remarkable for their size and their value,
according to the ideas of the time, and two of them each in their
day considered Leviathans, more wondered at than even ours, and
exciting much more anxiety on the part of their promoters, and
there was as much care taken in the selection of commanders as I
ask you to take now; nevertheless both of these, to the ruin of the
Company in one case, and almost every other steamer I have had
anything to do with, has not merely touched, but been aground. Not
a season hardly passes without a case of even a Queen’s ship going
ashore, although navigated by men educated for the purpose, with
the advantage of every appliance hitherto thought necessary and
sufficient, and with fearful responsibility attached to them. All
these are published cases known to the world; and if the log books
of all the steamers were searched, I believe the result would be a
list in which the ships that had not been aground would form the
exceptions, and, in the majority of cases, the blunder is so gross,
that the most far-fetched excuses of errors of compass and unknown
currents, although in well-known channels, are obliged to be
invented.

The real explanation is a simple one. Ships are navigated with far
too reckless a confidence in the mere personal instinct and skill
of those in command, and in their ability to get out of a scrape in
time. Methodical systems and mechanical means of ensuring accuracy
are far too much neglected, or rather have not kept pace at all
with the great improvements in speed and the power of locomotion
which science has introduced, whether in the construction of steam
vessels or even of sailing ships, and which the advance of the day
now calls for. There are no means at present used of taking
soundings worth having while a ship is going fast through the
water, or in time to be of any use if the soundings shoal rapidly;
the trouble is so great and the operation so slow that it is not
resorted to sufficiently often. The steering by compass is so rough
and so coarse, that no real accuracy is attained. Good observations
to determine position are taken at too long intervals of distance
run, and consequently are subject to be interrupted for too long a
period by what is called and supposed to be continual bad weather;
although it would rarely happen, if persons were continually on the
watch, who had nothing else to do or to think of, that twenty-four
hours would pass without some glimpses of a star or of the sun.
Thus with a speed of ten or fifteen knots, and cloudy weather, and,
above all, with that unfortunate confidence of seamen to which I
have referred, there is never any certainty just at the time when
it is really required. No doubt, skilful seamen do generally arrive
at an astonishing approximation in their estimates, and the results
on the average are most successful, and remarkable proofs of the
skill brought into action. But the instrumental means of attaining
accuracy are lamentably in rear of the improvements that have been
made in the means of locomotion, and have not at all kept pace with
the vast increase of capital embarked in each individual case.

All these deficiencies are, however, easily remedied; the means do
exist, or can be devised, and might be applied if we insisted on
their application. We have seen numerous instances where the
difficulties are admitted and grappled with systematically, and
with what patience and skill a fleet has been piloted up unknown
rivers full of shoals in China, and through intricate channels with
covered rocks in the Baltic. In our case, the object to be attained
is a vital one to us; and what I most dread is the confidence of
our commander resulting from his previous experience preventing his
appreciating the peculiarities of the case, and applying that
greatly increased amount of method and system which is essential to
change that, which is now rendered only highly probable by the
skill of man, into mechanical certainty. The man who takes charge
of such a machine, in which is embarked so large a capital, must
have a mind capable of setting aside, without forgetting, all his
previous experience and habits, and must be prepared to commence as
an observer of new facts, and seize rapidly the results. A man of
sense and observation, with a good mechanical head, and with
decision and courage, would succeed without much previous nautical
knowledge; but, unquestionably, a man familiar with all that is
going on around would be much more competent, provided he does not
allow his habits derived from former experience to induce him to
neglect any of the new means of information in his power, to all
which his former knowledge should be made subservient.

If much has to be unlearnt, or rather carefully set aside for the
time, as generally inapplicable in its present shape, there is also
much to be learnt in the navigation of such a vessel; and one of
the most essential qualifications of the commander would be a
belief in his want of experience, and a readiness to see the
novelty of his position, and a cautious and sound but quick
perception of the new and powerful influences and _new_ effects of
those same causes with which he may have been familiar under very
different circumstances.

The great mass and size of this vessel must necessarily render it
so much less affected by the ordinary disturbing causes of wind and
sea, that, practically, little attention ought to be paid to these,
at least not as expecting the ordinary results; but other effects
may be produced which must be carefully studied and learnt in the
early voyages, so that they may be met and counteracted as they
have been by experienced men under the present system. Thus, as an
example of this class of effects to which I would refer, there is
reason to believe that this vessel, although apparently unaffected
by a wind on the beam, or a cross sea, which would be very
noticeable even with the largest of the present steamers, would
nevertheless have a steady and rather strong tendency to come up to
the wind. A certain direction of a cross sea is not unlikely to
produce a contrary effect. It is quite possible also that the
apparent lee-way, or the deviation of the axis (or keel) of the
ship from the line of the course, will be greater with the wind on
the beam than with smaller vessels, although the actual drift or
lee-way may be less; and all these effects will result from her
great length (unless counteracted by causes I do not now foresee),
and will probably be totally different in degree from any similar
effects now felt. These effects must be carefully studied, and with
a mind prepared to consider them as new, for they will be new and
distinct from anything now experienced. In the same manner, and to
a much greater degree, the effects of the speed which we must hope
to attain will upset all the usual methods of determining
accurately the position and the course of the vessel, and still
more the precautions to be taken in approaching land. A 24 hours’
run, at 20 miles per hour, without a good observation, and with a
possible error of estimate, or a doubt, at all events, of the exact
effect of the set of currents, or of the speed of the ship through
the water, or of the precise amount of lee-way, may easily make an
error of 20 or 30 miles in position at the end of the day’s run.

On the other hand, by almost abandoning the present modes, and
adopting measures which I shall point out presently, adapted to the
new circumstances, a much greater degree of certainty and accuracy
may be attained than is now even sought for. I have had the best
advice on these points, both astronomical and nautical: the
Astronomer Royal, Mr. Airy, who both as a man of science and a
practical man, and by his official position, is the first authority
on such matters, and Professor Smyth, of the Edinburgh Observatory,
Captain Beecher of the Admiralty, and several other scientific
naval men, have assisted me; and, under their advice, instruments
are being constructed, and a system devised, which will admit of
continuous observations being made with great accuracy at all times
of the day, and particularly at night, and by means of which also a
continuous correction of the ship’s compasses with the most minute
accuracy can be kept up, and her position be ascertained with
almost the same accuracy as a point on land; and I have their
authority for saying that such improved means are desirable, and
are attainable.

The importance and advantage of continuous observation throughout
the twenty-four hours, whenever a glimpse can be obtained of any
object which will answer the purpose, and even when the horizon is
invisible, may not at first be evident, but it cannot be
over-estimated. An exact knowledge of the ship’s movements will be
soon acquired that would almost replace observation, and the
average of numerous observations secures an accuracy which cannot
be approached by any other method.

By a careful and continuous comparison of the exact distances run,
with accurate records of the speed of the engine and of the ship
through the water, registered by good instruments (the performance
of which has been tested, and which are being made), and having
proper reference to the varying draught of water of the vessel, the
most precise measure of the speed of the vessel through the water
can be learnt; and by careful observation of the force and
direction of the wind, the effect of any given wind, and an
accurate measure of her drift or lee-way, may be obtained; and
then, by adhering strictly, without regard to wind or weather, to a
course previously laid down on good charts, having upon them the
sets of currents, as already observed, the true position of the
ship may be determined at any moment, and there need never be the
slightest hesitation, or any time or distance lost by doubts.

In addition to the instruments above named, I hope to be able to
provide the means of sounding at moderate depths while the ship is
going her full speed.

Having the means, then, of determining the ship’s course and
position with much greater accuracy than is now practised, we must
seek to make that course, or the distance to be run, the shortest
possible, that is to say, the course which will occupy the least
time.

The exact course to be taken by such a vessel must be determined
upon and laid down upon the charts after a due consideration of all
the circumstances which can possibly affect the time occupied in
the voyage between any two points, and particularly by examining
and considering well all the information which scientific observers
have collected and recorded as to the currents, probabilities of
fogs, or of ice, and other impediments, the chances of meeting
vessels, which must be avoided as much as possible, the average
direction of prevailing winds, varying such course, perhaps, in
certain latitudes with the season of the year, but certainly not
with the temporary direction or force of the winds or state of
weather at the moment; for the speed which we shall attain renders
these causes of secondary consideration, and would interfere with
all ordinary calculations derived from present experience of the
probable state of the wind in the new position which the ship would
attain after a few hours’ run. The business of the commander would
be, therefore, to adhere rigidly to the exact course previously
deliberately determined upon, and not to be tempted to deviate
except slightly, and even then only according to rules which he
shall have previously laid down for himself.

The importance of adhering strictly to this rule cannot be
over-estimated. The period occupied in a voyage will be materially
influenced by the exact course followed, and as such course must
be determined upon only by a calm and somewhat laborious study of
documents, it cannot be safely determined upon except in the
closet, that is, _before the voyage_, and uninfluenced by the
excitement of hopes or by disappointments caused by difficulties.

The safety of the ship and of the enterprise may also mainly depend
upon the rigid adherence to this rule.

With the means at his disposal for checking that course, and with
the method and regularity involved by a rigid adherence to it, and
a correction at once of any departure from it, a degree of
certainty will be attained as to the ship’s position which will
almost preclude the possibility of an accident, and which I
consider practically invaluable as affecting the safety of our
vessel. This rigid adherence to an exactly prescribed course will
prevent any risk of that which is the cause of the greater number
of losses. No inducement of fine weather, or a happy state of mind
and body of the captain, or a desire to save time, or to show the
beauties of a coast, or any other temporary cause, will lead to a
nearer approach to dangerous points than had been previously
determined upon as safe. The shortest and best route, the safest
from all dangers, and giving the widest berth to all shores or
shoals, having been laid down, must be kept to against all
temptations.

Economy of fuel is another consideration of the highest importance.
The engines are of power sufficient, if fully worked, to consume
considerably more than the cargo provided. Large as may be the
supply which the ship is capable of carrying, it is no more than
that which is calculated as necessary for the voyage intended, with
a moderate allowance for contingencies; and it must be borne in
mind that the ordinary means of making up any deficiencies would be
totally inapplicable in our case, since no supply capable of being
drawn in an emergency from other sources would be sufficient.

The precise quantity calculated and provided must be made
sufficient, or the consequences would be serious. The usual
practice, therefore, of going ahead as fast as the engines will
take the ship must be entirely abandoned. Careful observations,
systematically pursued, will show the speed which, under different
states of immersion, can be attained without a disproportionate
expenditure of power, and to this speed the engines must be
limited. A little experience will probably show that, under certain
circumstances of immersion of the ship, or of the state of the sea,
it may be economical to force the screw or the paddle engine, the
one more than the other. This can only be determined by somewhat
delicate and very precise and accurate observations. These must be
made. It is not merely a question of degree, but our whole success
depends upon the application, not of one, but of all these
refinements.

A close study of the relative speed of the ship, as ascertained by
the self-registering logs, and by continuous astronomical
observations, compared with the expenditure of power in the engines
as indicated by the number of revolutions constantly registered,
and the power expended as measured and recorded by the chief
engineer, will be necessary for some time to come, and until indeed
the management of such large ships becomes as much a matter of rule
as it is now, or perhaps ought to be more than it is, with smaller
ones.

As to the use of the sails, while the engines are nevertheless in
full action, it must be entirely a matter of experiment, and an
experiment in which, again, all previous habits and prejudices must
be set aside.

Whether a sail steadies such a ship usefully or not can be, and
must therefore be, positively determined by measurement with proper
instruments, and not by the sensations; and the result upon the
speed of the vessel as compared with the power expended must, in
like manner, be ascertained by positive observations and
measurements. No past experience can do other than mislead. It is
quite possible that the same means which improve the rate of the
present large steamers may be prejudicial to our performance.

The commander must appreciate the necessity of all this study and
attention to what is rather mechanical than nautical, or our voyage
will be a failure. The difference between the peculiar qualities of
such a floating mass as compared with those of the largest steamer
now afloat, is likely to be as great as between the last and a
100-ton cutter; and the most prejudiced believer in the acquired
skill of an old sailor who had learnt to manage the small vessel in
the most perfect and masterly manner, would not expect him to be
able to handle one of the present large steamers, still less to
elicit the best performance out of her. In the same degree the man
who takes the command of our ship must, if he is to succeed, enter
upon his duties with a belief that he has nearly all to learn, at
the same time that this feeling is perfectly consistent with a
proper confidence in his own powers to master the new
circumstances, and to succeed with this as he may have done with
other vessels.