Chapter I: Front Matter (1)

The Magic of Jewels and Charms

“A Volume of Absorbing Interest.”—_N. Y. Sun._

THE CURIOUS LORE OF PRECIOUS STONES

BY GEORGE FREDERICK KUNZ,
A.M., PH.D., D.SC.

BEING A DESCRIPTION OF THEIR SENTIMENTS AND FOLKLORE, SUPERSTITIONS, SYMBOLISM, MYSTICISM, USE IN PROTECTION, PREVENTION, RELIGION AND DIVINATION, CRYSTAL GAZING, BIRTH-STONES, LUCKY STONES AND TALISMANS, ASTRAL, ZODIACAL, AND PLANETARY

With 86 illustrations in color, doubletone and line. Octavo.
Handsome cloth binding, gilt top, in a box. $5.00 net. Carriage
charges extra.

This work represents the observations and discoveries during twenty-five years of collecting on the part of Dr. Kunz, and will be found a rarely interesting galaxy of anecdote, research, and information upon a fascinating subject.

J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
PUBLISHERS PHILADELPHIA

By courtesy of W. Griggs and Sons, Ltd., London.

MODEL OF A HINDU LADY, ILLUSTRATING THE MODE OF WEARING JEWELRY IN
NORTH INDIA

From the Journal of Indian Art.
]

The Magic of Jewels and Charms

BY
GEORGE FREDERICK KUNZ
A.M., PH.D., D.SC.

WITH 90 ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOR, DOUBLETONE AND LINE

PHILADELPHIA & LONDON

J. B. Lippincott Company

COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

PRINTED IN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

TO THE MEMORY OF

THE LATE

PROFESSOR THOMAS EGLESTON, PH.D., LL. D.

OFFICIER DE LA LÉGION D’HONNEUR AND FOUNDER OF THE SCHOOL OF
MINES, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, AN ARDENT LOVER OF MINERALS, KEENLY
APPRECIATIVE OF PRECIOUS STONES, AND A KINDLY FRIEND OF THE
AUTHOR, THIS VOLUME IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED

Preface

Jewels, gems, stones, superstitions and astrological lore are all so interwoven in history that to treat of either of them alone would mean to break the chain of association linking them one with the other.

Beauty of color or lustre in a stone or some quaint form attracts the eye of the savage, and his choice of material for ornament or adornment is also conditioned by the toughness of some stones as compared with the facility with which others can be chipped or polished.

Whereas a gem might be prized for its beauty by a single individual owner, a stone of curious and suggestive form sometimes claimed the reverence of an entire tribe, since it was thought to be the abode or the chosen instrument of some spirit or genius.

Just as the appeal to higher powers for present help in pressing emergencies preceded the development of a formal religious faith, so this never-failing need of protectors or healers eventually led to the attribution of powers of protection to the spirits of men and women who had led holy lives and about whose history legend had woven a web of pious imaginations at a time when poetic fancy reigned instead of historic record. The writer still holds that true sentiment, the antithesis of superstitious dread, is good for all mankind—sentiment meaning optimism as truly as superstition stands for pessimism—and that even the fancies generated by sentiment are helpful to us and make us happier; and surely happiness often means health, and happiness and health combined aid to evolve that other member of the triumvirate, wealth. Do we not often wish for the union of these three supreme blessings?

At all times and in all periods there have been optimists and pessimists, the former animated by the life-bringing sentiment of hope, and the latter oppressed by the death-dealing sense of fear. Let us always choose a happy medium between a foolish excess of hope and an unreasonable apprehension of future troubles. The world’s history and our own experience show us that it is the optimist who has caused the world to progress, and we should trust and believe that the sentiment of hope and faith will always animate humanity.

We know that for centuries it has been believed that amber necklaces protect children from cold. May we not also now add that to pearls the same qualities are attributed? There must be a reason for this. May not this belief be ascribed to the circumstance that in the wearing of either of these gems their virtue consists in the fact that the necklaces do not cover the neck? In other words, they are worn on the bare throat and the opinion prevails that an exposed neck means less liability to cold. For, where the neck is never overheated and then suddenly chilled, a normal temperature being maintained, there should be protection from colds and from the many ills resulting from them. As to pearls, this might serve to illustrate the poetic fancy that these sea-gems are tears by angels shed to bring mortals joy.

Having collected a large mass of material, ethnological, historical and legendary, in the course of personal observations and study, it was decided that the companion volume, the twin sister of “The Curious Lore of Precious Stones,” need not treat of gems _alone_.

For courtesies, information and illustrations I am indebted to the following to whom my sincere thanks are due: Prof. T. Wada, of Tokyo, Japan; Dr. G. O. Clerc, President of the Societe Curalienne des Amis des Sciences Naturelles, Ekaterineburg, Russia; Dr. Charles Braddock, late Medical Inspector to the King of Siam; Sir Charles Hercules Reed, Curator of Archæology, British Museum, London; A. W. Feavearyear, London; Dr. Peter Jessen, Librarian of the Kunstegewerbe Museum of Berlin; Miss Belle DaCosta Green; Dr. Berthold Laufer, Oriental Archæologist, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago; Dr. Oliver P. Farrington, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago; Hereward Carrington, Psychist, New York; Dr. W. Hayes Ward, Archæologist and Babylonian Scholar; Mrs. Henry Draper, New York; W. W. Blake, Mexico City, who has done so much to encourage Mexican archæological investigation; Dr. Edward Forrester Sutton, New York; Dr. W. H. Holmes of the United States Bureau of Ethnology, Washington; Mr. McNeil M. Judd, Archæologist, United States National Museum; Dr. Arthur Fairbanks, Director of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts; Tan Sien Ko, Government Archæologist of Burma; Dr. Charles C. Abbott, Archæologist, Trenton, N. J.; Edgar T. Willson, of the Jewelers’ Circular Publishing Co.; Dr. Edward H. Thompson, Archæologist, of Progreso, Yucatan, Mexico, and Cambridge, Mass.; Rev. Charles Sadleir of Aurcaria, Chile; Mrs. Nona Lebour of Corbridge-on-Tyne, England; and Dr. Charles P. Fagnani, Union Theological Seminary, New York City.

G. F. K.

SEPTEMBER, 1915

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE
I. MAGIC STONES AND ELECTRIC GEMS 1

II. ON METEORITES, OR CELESTIAL STONES 72

III. STONES OF HEALING 118

IV. ON THE VIRTUES OF FABULOUS STONES, CONCRETIONS AND FOSSILS 160

V. SNAKE-STONES AND BEZOARS 201

VI. ANGELS AND MINISTERS OF GRACE 241

VII. ON THE RELIGIOUS USE OF VARIOUS STONES 277

VIII. AMULETS: ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL, AND ORIENTAL 313

IX. AMULETS OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES AND OF MODERN TIMES 348

X. FACTS AND FANCIES ABOUT PRECIOUS STONES 377

Illustrations

COLOR PLATES
PAGE
MODEL OF A HINDU LADY, ILLUSTRATING THE MODE OF WEARING
JEWELRY IN NORTH INDIA _Frontispiece_.
JADE BELL OF THE K’IEN-LUNG PERIOD (1731–1795) 143
1, 1½. EMERALD THAT BELONGED TO THE DEPOSED SULTAN OF
TURKEY. 2. ALMANDITE GARNET. 3. SARDONYX IDOL-EYE OF
A BABYLONIAN BULL. 4. AQUAMARINE SEAL 159
ILLUSTRATING PRECIOUS STONES AND MINERALS USED FOR
SEALS IN ANCIENT ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA 242
PERFORATED JADE DISK CALLED _Ts’ang Pi_, A CHINESE
SYMBOL OF THE DEITY HEAVEN (T’IEN) 302
TURQUOISE INCRUSTED OBJECTS, PROBABLY AMULETS, FOUND AT
PUEBLO BONITO, NEW MEXICO 353
HILT OF JEWELLED SWORD GIVEN BY THE GREEKS OF THE
UNITED STATES ON EASTER DAY, 1913, TO THE CROWN
PRINCE OF GREECE, LATER KING CONSTANTINE XII 370

DOUBLETONES INDIAN MEDICINE-MEN 18 CHALCEDONY AND AGATE PEBBLES FROM PESCADERO BEACH, SAN MATEO COUNTY, CALIFORNIA 30 PEBBLE BEACH, REDONDO, LOS ANGELES COUNTY, CALIFORNIA 30 HINDU WEARING A COLLECTION OF ANCESTRAL PEBBLES AS AMULETS 37 KILLING A DRAGON TO EXTRACT ITS PRECIOUS STONE 45 NATURALLY MARKED STONE 45 A SIMPLE APPARATUS FOR ILLUSTRATING THE ELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF THE TOURMALINE 54 NECKLACE OF FACETED AMBER BEADS 63 VIGNETTE FROM THE “LAPIDARIO DE ALFONSO X, CODICE ORIGINAL” 69 THE “MADONNA DI FOLIGNO,” BY RAPHAEL 73 THE KAABA AT MECCA 84 “AHNIGHITO,” THE GREAT CAPE YORK METEORITE, WEIGHING MORE THAN 36½ TONS 96 “THE WOMAN,” CAPE YORK METEORITE 97 “THE DOG,” CAPE YORK METEORITE 98 TWO VIEWS OF THE WILLAMETTE METEORITE NOW IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, NEW YORK CITY 99 FLINT AMULETS OF THE PREDYNASTIC PERIOD, EGYPT 108 THE “ORTUS SANITATIS” OF JOHANNIS DE CUBA, PUBLISHED AT STRASSBURG IN 1483 122 FAMOUS PEARL NECKLACE OF THE UNFORTUNATE EMPRESS CARLOTTA, WIDOW OF EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN OF MEXICO 126 JADE TONGUE AMULETS FOR THE DEAD. CHINESE 139 FRONTISPIECE OF MUSEUM WORMIANUM 141 ANCIENT PERSIAN RELIC KNOWN AS THE “CUP OF CHOSROES” 154 BEZOARS OF EMPEROR RUDOLPH II, NOW IN THE HOFMUSEUM, VIENNA 216 FRONTISPIECE AND TITLE-PAGE OF FRANCESCO REDI’S “EXPERIMENTA NATURALIA,” AMSTERDAM 1675, AND TWO SPECIMEN PAGES OF THIS TREATISE 232 FORMS OF TABASHEER 233 SPECIMENS OF TABASHEER 235 ZODIAC MOHURS, COINED BY THE MOGUL SOVEREIGN SHAH JEHAN, ABOUT 1628 246 THE MEDIEVAL CONCEPTION OF THE COSMOS, THE SUCCESSIVE SPHERES OF THE PLANETS, INCLUDING THE SUN, AND BEYOND THESE THE CRYSTALLINE HEAVEN AND THE EMPYREAN 248 THE ANGEL RAPHAEL REFUSING THE GIFTS OFFERED BY TOBIT 250 SANTA BARBARA 258 BLOODSTONE MEDALLION, SHOWING THE SANTA CASA OF LORETO CARRIED BY ANGELS TO DALMATIA FROM GALILEE 267 CHINESE JADE AMULETS FOR THE DEAD 283 LA MADONNA DELLA SALUTE, BY OTTAVIANO NELLI 287 CEREMONY ANNUALLY OBSERVED IN THE MOGUL EMPIRE OF WEIGHING THE SOVEREIGN AGAINST PRECIOUS METALS, JEWELS AND OTHER VALUABLE OBJECTS, WHICH WERE DISTRIBUTED AS GIFTS 301 THE SACRED WELL OF CHICHEN ITZÁ 307 CARVED AND WORKED STONES FROM THE SACRED WELL AT CHICHEN ITZÁ, YUCATAN, MEXICO 308 EYE-AGATES 315 TYPES OF EGYPTIAN SEALS AND SCARABS IN THE MURCH COLLECTION, METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK 316 COLOSSAL SCARAB IN BLACK GRANITE, BRITISH MUSEUM 320 A MEDIEVAL SPELL 328 FROM A PORTRAIT OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 337 COMPLETE VIEW OF THE ANCIENT JADE GIRDLE-PENDANT (FROM KU YÜ T’U P’U) 341 TIBETAN WOMAN WITH COMPLETE JEWELRY 343 “THE LIGHT OF THE EAST” 345 INDIAN MEDICINE-MAN 354 HEI-TIKI AMULETS OF NEW ZEALAND 362 JEWELLED SWORD GIVEN BY THE GREEKS OF THE UNITED STATES, ON EASTER DAY, 1913, TO CROWN PRINCE CONSTANTINE, LATER KING CONSTANTINE XII OF GREECE. TOP OF SCABBARD, SHOWING DIDRACHM OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT 373 SIDE VIEW OF HILT 373 “THE LEGEND OF THE MOONSTONE,” AUTOGRAPHED FOR THIS WORK BY THE AUTHOR OF THE POEM, DR. EDWARD FORRESTER SUTTON 386 CLEOPATRA DISSOLVING HER PRICELESS PEARL AT THE BANQUET TO MARK ANTONY 394

LINE CUTS TITLE-PAGE OF ONE OF THE EARLIEST TREATISES ON METEORITES 91 TYPES OF CERAUNIA OR “THUNDER-STONES” 111 INTERIOR OF FIFTEENTH CENTURY PHARMACY 122 EXTRACTING TOAD-STONE 162 TOAD-STONES. NATURAL CONCRETIONS OF CLAYSTONE AND LIMONITE 163 TYPES OF CHELONIÆ (TORTOISE-STONES). NATURAL CONCRETIONS 171 CHELIDONIUS, OR “SWALLOW-STONES” 172 ÆTITES 175 EXTRACTING AN ALECTORIUS 179 ALECTORIUS 180 LAPIS MANATI 182 LAPIS MALACENSIS, STONE OF THE HEDGEHOG OR PORCUPINE 183 LAPIS JUDAICUS. PENTREMITE HEADS 187 GLOSSOPETRÆ. FOSSIL SHARK’S TEETH 188 BELEMNITES. FOSSILIZED BONY END OF EXTINCT CUTTLE-FISH 191 BRONTIA. FOSSIL SEA-URCHINS 193 TROCHITES } FOSSIL } CRINOID 194 ENASTROS } STEMS BUCARDITES TRIPLEX 195 TYPES OF OMBRIA (FOSSIL SEA-URCHINS) 196 CORNU AMMONIS (FOSSIL NAUTILUS) 197 SPECIMENS OF ASTROITES (ASTERIA), OR FOSSIL CORAL 199 APPLICATION OF A BEZOAR TO CURE A VICTIM OF POISONING 202 MONKEY BEZOAR 204 1. HEDGE-HOGSTONE FROM MALACCA. 2, 3. SPURIOUS STONES OF THIS TYPE MANUFACTURED IN CEYLON. 205 CALCULI TAKEN FROM BLADDER OF POPE PIUS V 220 TYPES OF THE OVUM ANGUINUM. ECHINITES (SEA-URCHINS) 222 COBRA DE CAPELLO 236 CANADIAN INDIAN MEDICINE-MAN 357 THE BIRTH OF THE OPAL 374 EAST INDIAN BAROQUE PEARL 392

The Magic of Jewels and Charms

I
Magic Stones and Electric Gems

While the precious and semi-precious stones were often worn as amulets or talismans, the belief in the magic quality of mineral substances was not confined to them, but was also held in regard to large stone masses of peculiar form, or having strange markings or indentations; moreover, many small stones, possessing neither worth nor beauty, were thought to exert a certain magical influence upon natural phenomena. An occult power of this sort was also attributed by tradition to some mythical stones, the origin of this fancy being frequently explicable by the quality really inherent in some known mineral bearing a designation closely similar to that bestowed upon the imaginary stone.

To certain stones has been attributed the power to produce musical tones, the most famous example being the so-called “Vocal Memnon” of Thebes. This colossal statue was said to emit a melodious sound when the sun rose, and according to Greek legend this sound was a greeting given by Memnon to his mother, the Dawn. It appears, however, that the statue was a respecter of persons, for when the Emperor Hadrian presented himself before it, he is said to have heard the sound three times, whereas common mortals heard it but once, or at most twice, while occasionally the statue withheld its greeting altogether. A modern traveller relates a personal experience that may cast a side-light upon this matter. His visit to Thebes was made in the evening, but a fellah who was standing near the statue asked him whether he wished to hear the musical sound. Of course the reply was in the affirmative. Thereupon the man climbed up the side of the colossal figure and hid himself behind the elbow. In a moment sharp metallic sounds became audible; not a single sound, but several in succession. Knowing from their quality that they could not proceed from the stone, the traveller asked his donkey-boy for an explanation and was told that the man was striking an iron bar. In ancient times the priests probably performed this or a similar trick in a much more skilful way than did the poor fellah, so that the mystery of the statue was carefully guarded.[1]

The river Hydaspes was said to furnish a “musical stone.” When the moon was waxing, this stone gave forth a melodious sound.[2] This should be understood in the sense that when the stone was struck at that season the sound was different from what it was at other times—a fanciful idea based on some supposed sympathy between the stone and the moon. As moonstones are rarely larger than a silver dollar, they would not emit a sound upon being struck, and it is probably a rock known as “chinkstone” (phonolite) that is referred to, an igneous rock, very hard and resonant, that has been found in elongated and flat pebbles of large size; they ring with the resonance of bells when struck. A sonorous stone at Megara is reported by Pausanias[3]; when struck, it emitted the sound of the chord of a lyre. This was explained by the tale that, while helping Alcathous to build the walls of his city, the god Apollo had rested his lyre on the stone.

The term sarcophagus is to us so clear and precise in its significance, that we do not stop to think that its etymology reveals it as literally meaning body-devourer. Tradition taught that a stone of this type was to be found near Assos in Lycia, Asia Minor, and also in some parts of the Orient. If attached to the body of a living person it would eat away the flesh. Another type, already noted by Theophrastus in the third century B.C., had the power of petrifying any object placed within receptacles made from it. If a dead person were buried in a “sarcophagus” of this material the body would not be consumed, but would, on the contrary, be turned to stone, even the shoes of the corpse and any utensils buried with it, would undergo a like wonderful change. Possibly actual observations of changes in the bodies of those long buried, their partial disintegration in some cases, and their hardening in others, may have given rise to the fancy that the stone receptacle in which they had reposed was directly the cause of this, whether it implied destruction or petrifaction.[4]

Of the substance named galactite, Pliny gives some details. He states that it came from the Nile, was of the color and had the odor of milk, and when moistened and scraped produced a juice resembling milk. The liquid derived from the galactite when taken as a potion by nurses was said to increase the flow of milk. If a galactite were bound to a child’s arm the effect was to promote the secretion of saliva. To these favorable effects must be added an unfavorable one, namely, loss of memory, which was said to befall occasionally those who wore the stone. A kind of “emerald with white veinings” was sometimes called galactite, and another variety had alternate red and white stripes or veins.[5] Perhaps this “emerald” was a variety of jade, or a banded jasper.

This so-called galactite, which enjoyed such an extraordinary reputation in ancient and medieval times, is not, properly speaking, a stone, but a nitrate of lime. The strange and famous relics of the Virgin preserved in many old churches and called “the Virgin’s milk,” were merely solutions of this nitrate. Possibly pieces of this so-called galactite were sometimes found by pilgrims in the grotto of Bethlehem, and were supposed to be petrified milk.[6] As everything in this sacred spot was regarded as connected in some way with the miraculous birth of Christ, it is easy to understand why the devout pilgrims came to believe that the milky-hued substance represented the milk of the Virgin, which had been preserved for future ages in this extraordinary way.

A kind of galactite, evidently a finely deposited form of carbonate of lime and perhaps absorbent, is mentioned by Conrad Gesner.[7] This was found on the Pilatus Mountain, Lake Lucerne, and is described by Gesner as being a “fungous and friable” substance, white and exceedingly light in weight. The natives called it _Mondmilch_ (moonmilk) and it was sold in the pharmacies of Lucerne. The powder was used by physicians in the treatment of ulcers, and, like all the other galactites, it was supposed to increase the flow of milk and to develop the breasts. Besides this it was credited with somniferous virtues.

An old Mohammedan tradition, cited by Ibn Kadho Shobah in his Tarik al-Jafthi, relates that Noah, after the deluge, on setting out with the members of his family to settle and populate the regions to the eastward and northward of Mt. Ararat, confided to their care a miraculous stone known to the Turks as _jiude-tash_, to the Persians as _senkideh_ and to the Arabs as _hajer al-mathar_, or the “rain-stone.” On it was impressed the word Aadhem or Aazem, the great name of God, by virtue of which whosoever possessed this stone could cause rain to fall whenever he pleased. In the long lapse of time this particular “precious” stone was lost, but some of the Turks were said to have certain stones endowed with a like power, and the more superstitious among these Turks solemnly asseverated that their “rain-stones” could beget progeny by a mysterious kind of generation.[8]

Among the many stones or concretions endowed by medieval belief with wonderful powers, may be reckoned the “rain-making” stones. Some of these were to be found in Karmania, south of Khorassan. The miraculous effect was produced by rubbing one against another. The Arabic author who reports this declares that this rain-making power was a well-known fact. He adds that similar stones might be secured from near Toledo in Spain and also in the “land of Kimar,” inhabited by Turkish tribes.[9]

The Oriental rain-stones noted by pseudo-Aristotle and by many other Arabic writers of medieval times, can be paralleled by similar rain-making or rain-inducing stones in many other parts of the world and among many primitive peoples even in modern times. The rain-makers of the African tribe of Wahumas, dwelling in the region bordering on the great Albert Nyanza Lake in Central Africa, use a black stone in the course of their magic rites. This is put into a vessel and water poured over it; the pulverized roots of certain herbs and some blood drawn from the veins of a black goat are then mixed with the water, and the resulting liquid mixture is thrown up into the air by the rain-maker.[10] The sorcerers among the Dieri in Central Australia place such trust in the efficacy of these conjurations as to believe that all rainfalls are produced thereby, generally through the intermediate action of ancestral spirits. If rain falls in a locality where no proceedings of the kind have taken place, then it is supposed that they have been initiated in some contiguous territory, a merely spontaneous and natural rainfall being out of the question. The clouds indeed generate the rain, but it will not be brought to the earth except by magic art. In the complicated magic ceremonies of these Dieri rain-makers, two large stones are employed; after a ceremonial, in the course of which the blood drawn from the two chief sorcerers is smeared over the bodies of the others, the stones are borne away by these two sorcerers for a distance of about twenty miles, and there put far up on the highest tree that can be found, the object evidently being to bring them as near to the clouds as possible.[11]

Rock-crystal as a rain-compeller finds honor among the wizards of the Ta-ta-thi tribe in New South Wales, Australia. To bring down rain from the sky one of them will break off a fragment from a crystal and cast it heavenward, enwrapping the rest of the crystal in feathers. After immersing these with their enclosure in water, and leaving them to soak for a while, the whole is removed and buried in the earth, or hidden away in some safe place.[12] The widely spread fancy that rock-crystal is simply congealed water may have something to do with the choosing of this stone as a rain-maker.

Sumatrans of Kota Gadanz use a stone whose form roughly resembles that of a cat in their invocations of rain, a live black cat being supposed in some parts of this island to have certain rain-producing virtues.[13] Perhaps the electric fur of the animal may have suggested a connection with thunder-storms. Stones of this type, indeed a great many of those to which magic properties are attributed, are in many cases smeared with the blood of fowls, or have incense offered to them, this treatment of such stones being observed by the peasants in Scandinavia and other parts of Europe as well as in the Far East.

Stone crosses have sometimes been utilized as rain-bringers, as in the case of one belonging to St. Mary’s Church in the Island of Uist, one of the outer Hebrides, off the Scottish coast. When drought prevailed here the peasants would set up this cross which usually lay flat on the ground, in the confident belief that rain would ensue. Of course, sooner or later, it was sure to come, and then the cross, having done its duty, was quietly replaced in its former horizontal position.[14]

A mysterious stone mentioned in Rabbinical legend is called the _shamir_. This word occurs three times in the Old Testament (Jer. xvii, 1; Ezek. iii, 9; Zech. vii, 12), and in each signifies a material noted for its hardness. In the first of these passages there is express indication that the _shamir_ was a pointed object used for engraving, and the word is translated “diamond” in our Bible; in the two other cases it is rendered “adamant” and “adamantine stone,” respectively, thus leaving the determination of the substance an open question. However, as it is almost certain that the Hebrews were not familiar with the diamond, _shamir_ most probably signifies one of the varieties of corundum, the next hardest mineral to the diamond, and extensively used in classic times for engraving on softer stones.

In the luxuriant growth of legend that sprang up in Rabbinical times, the _shamir_ is not forgotten. It is said to have been the seventh of the ten marvels created at the end of the sixth day of creation. In size, it is described as being not larger than a barley-corn, but it had the power to split up the hardest substances, if brought in contact with them, or even in their neighborhood. Some of the legends ascribe to it even more wonderful magic powers, so that, like Aladdin’s lamp, great buildings could be constructed by its help, Solomon having used it in the erection of the temple and other buildings. The etymology of the word indicates a pointed object, similar to our diamond-point, but in legend it is almost invariably described as a small worm, probably because of a fancied connection between this word and another designating a species of worm. Many have associated the Hebrew _shamir_ with the Greek σμίρις, or emery.

The Hebrew _shamir_ and the Greek ἀδάμας were both used metaphorically of hardness of heart and implacability. The Hebrew prophet Zechariah (vii, 12) says of the disobedient Jews that “they made their hearts as an adamant stone” (_shamir_), and the Greek poet Theocritus (fl. 228 B.C.) calls Pluto, the god of the infernal regions, “the _adamas_ in Hades.” This clearly shows that invincible hardness was the common characteristic of the material designated by these words. However, it appears probable that while _shamir_ signifies a form of corundum, the word _adamas_, as used by the early Greek writers, denoted a hard, metallic substance. Possibly, when iron first became known to the Greeks, the adjective ἀδαμάντινος, “indomitable,” was applied to it, and later the noun _adamas_ was formed from this adjective and was used by the poets to signify an imaginary substance even harder than iron; hence, when the diamond became known in Greek lands, its extreme hardness suggested the application to it of this name.[15]

An Arab legend concerning the fabled _shamir_ stone is related by Cazwini in his cosmography. When King Solomon set about building the temple in Jerusalem, he commanded Satan to dress the stones that were to be used, but the work was performed with such demoniac energy that the people round about complained bitterly of the dreadful noise. To remedy this trouble, Solomon sought the council of the leading scribes and also that of the evil spirits known as Ifrites and Jinns. None of them, however, was able to help him in this difficulty, but one of them advised him to question an apostate named Sahr, who sometimes had special knowledge of such things. When called upon for his opinion, Sahr declared that he knew of a stone that would do the work required, but did not know where it could be found; nevertheless he believed that, by a stratagem, he could secure possession of it. He thereupon ordered that an eagle’s nest with its eggs should be brought to him, and also a bottle-shaped vessel made of very strong glass. Into this he slipped the eggs, put them back into the nest, and had nest and eggs replaced where they had been found. When the eagle returned to the nest it encountered this obstacle. In vain it struck at the vessel with claws and beak; after repeated efforts it flew away, but came back on the second day holding a piece of stone in its beak, which it let fall upon the vessel, breaking the latter into two halves without producing any sound. Upon this, Solomon, who knew the language of beasts and birds, asked the eagle where it had secured the stone. The bird answered: “O Prophet of God, in a mountain in the West called the Samur Mountain.” This was indication enough to the wise king who, summoning the Jinns to his aid, soon had in Jerusalem a plentiful supply of these _samûr_, or _shamir_ stones, with which the work of shaping and polishing the blocks for the temple was noiselessly performed.[16]

Full and precise directions are given by the old authorities as to the proper way to secure possession of the stone called _corvia_. On the Calends, or first day of April, eggs are to be taken out of a crow’s nest and boiled until they are quite hard; they are then to be allowed to cool off and are replaced in the nest. The female bird notes that the eggs have been tampered with and flies away in search of the corvia-stone. When she has found it, she bears it to the nest, and as soon as it touches the eggs they become fresh and fertile again. This is the auspicious moment for securing the stone, which must be quickly taken from the nest else it would lose its virtue.[17] The lucky owner of the stone is promised increase of wealth and honors, and the power to read the future.

The fabled gem-bearing dragons of India were said to have sometimes fallen victims to the enchanter’s art. Certain mystic characters were woven in thread of gold upon a scarlet cloth, and this cloth was spread by the hunters before the dragon’s den. When the creature emerged, his eyes were fascinated by the strange letters in which the enchanter had infused a wonderful soporific power. Hypnotized by the sight, the dragon would fall into a deep slumber and the hunters would rush upon him and sever his head from his body. Within the head were found gems of brilliant hue, some of these possessing the power of rendering the wearer invisible.[18]

The “Gem of Sovranty,” or the “Gem of the King of Kings,” may have been a purely poetic Hindu fancy, or possibly may have been the diamond. Its surpassing quality is emphasized by the declaration that though the earth produced the sapphire, the cat’s-eye, the topaz, the ruby, and the two mystic gems, the favorite of the sun, and the favorite of the moon, the Gem of the King of Kings was acknowledged to be the chief of all “for the sheen of that jewel spreads round about for a league on every side.” To King Milinda the following question was put: “Suppose that on the disappearance of a sovran overlord, the mystic Gem of Sovranty lay concealed in a cleft on the mountain peak, and that on another sovran overlord arriving at the supreme dignity it should appear to him, would you say, O King, that the gem was produced by him?” “Certainly not, sir,” replied the monarch, “the gem would be in its original condition. But it had received, as it were, a new birth through him.”[19]

The Arabian author, Ibn Al-Beithar (b. ca. 1197 A.D.), describes a stone called in Arabic _hajer al-kelb_, or “dog-stone.” These stones had such attraction for dogs of a certain breed that when cast before them they would snap them up, bite them, and hold them in their jaws. The magicians saw in this a proof that the stones would produce enmity and ill-will among men. Having selected seven such stones they marked them with the names of any persons between whom they wished to stir up strife. The seven stones were then thrown one by one before a dog of the requisite species, and, after he had bitten them, two were chosen and were placed in water of which the persons who were to be set at variance were sure to drink. We are assured that the experiment had the desired evil result.[20]

In ancient times there was found in the river Meander a stone satirically named _sophron_, “temperate.” If it were placed upon the breast of any one, he immediately became enraged and killed one of his parents; however, after having appeased the Mother of the Gods, he was cured of his temporary madness.[21]

A most singular stone is described by Thomas de Cantimpré under the name of “piropholos.” This substance, according to Konrad von Megenberg’s version, was taken from the heart of a man who had been poisoned, “because the heart of such a man cannot be burned in fire.” If the heart were kept for nine years in fire this wonderful stone was produced. It gave protection from lightning, but its principal virtue was to guard the wearer from sudden death; indeed, we are told that a man could not die so long as he held this stone in his hand. However, it did not preserve him from disease, but only prolonged his life. The stone was said to be of a light and bright red color.[22]

After enumerating all the well-known precious stones, Volmar, in his “Steinbuch,” proceeds to relate that there is one which produces blindness, another that enables the wearer to understand the language of birds, still another that saves people from drowning, and, finally, one of such sovereign power that it brings back the dead to life. However, we are told that because of the miraculous virtues of these stones God hides them so well that no man can obtain them.[23] About a century earlier Saint Hildegard of Bingen wrote that “just as a poisonous herb placed on a man’s skin will produce ulceration,” by an analogous though contrary effect “certain precious stones will, if placed on the skin, confer health and sanity by their virtue.”[24]

Persian records tell of a “royal stone” found in the head of the _ouren bad_, a kind of eagle; this preserved the wearer from the attacks of venomous reptiles. If a deadly poison had been administered to a person, he would be immediately cured by taking one drachm’s weight of the stone. It thus appears that its virtues were those of the far-famed bezoar.[25] Persia evidently had good store of “wonderworkers” of this kind, for the Persian romance entitled “Hatim Tai and the Benevolent Lady,” written about the beginning of the eighteenth century, recites the marvellous virtue of a stone called the _Shah-muhra_. If this were fastened on the arm the wearer became endowed with miraculous vision and all the gold and precious stones beneath the earth’s surface were revealed to him.[26]

For ten centuries or more, countless thousands, although feeling assured of spiritual immortality, were none the less eager to have eternal youth and vigor and the power to peer into the future. Hence Ponce de Leon’s quest for the “Fountain of Youth” in our Florida. But in addition to this, there has ever been an intense desire to find something by means of which gold could be made out of the baser metals, for youth and vigor, if coupled with poverty, are only half-blessings. The search for the “Philosopher’s Stone” appears to have been a more or less aimless pursuit of this end; but there can be no doubt that this search led to the discovery of many new substances and reactions, and helped to lay the foundation of our modern chemistry. Whether the conscious aim of the alchemist was the discovery of an actual stone, or merely the discovery of some process for turning a valueless substance into one of great value, is not clearly ascertainable from the purposely vague and obscure treatises on alchemy.

The “Philosopher’s Stone,” the fond dream of so many who delved into nature’s mysteries in the past, does not seem so improbable to-day as it did twenty years ago. The recent discovery of the element radium, which is produced from the element uranium, and the story of the strange and protean changes of radium into helium, neon and argon, according to the environment in which it is placed, have given the death-blow to the old idea of the immutability of the elements. Still, while we have been allowed this peep into the storehouse of nature’s secrets, and are growing to believe that in eons of time the various different elements may have been evolved, successively, from one another, the power to provoke this change at will and in a brief space of time is as yet withheld from us, and may never be given to us, just as little as the power to send messages to the distant spheres, whose bulk, density and composition we can estimate with a considerable degree of accuracy.

Numerous specimens still exist of what is alleged to be artificial gold made by the alchemists of a past age. Of all these the most striking is a large medallion, bearing in relief the heads of Emperor Leopold and his ancestors of the House of Hapsburg. It is related that on the name day of the emperor in 1677, this medallion, originally of silver and weighing 7250 grains, was transmuted into gold by Wenzel Seiler, a noted alchemist of that time. This wonder was performed in full view of the emperor and his courtiers, by dipping the medallion in a solution. As there are four notches on the edge, it has been conjectured that these were made to secure material for testing the quality of the transformed metal. However, the simple test of specific gravity shows that the metal cannot be gold, for according to Bauer’s calculation made in 1883, the medallion has a specific gravity of 12.67, between that of silver (10.5) and that of gold (19.27). This might indicate that in some unexplained way the alchemist had succeeded in precipitating a coating of gold upon the face of the object. It seems probable that the deception was soon discovered, for Seiler, who had been knighted on September 16, 1676, was exiled by order of Emperor Leopold, not long after the date on which the supposed transmutation is said to have taken place.

An exceedingly rare medal, and one of great interest to students of alchemy, was struck in 1647 by order of Emperor Ferdinand III from gold produced in his presence by Johann Peter Hofmann, a master of the alchemical art. A specimen of this medal is in the Imperial Cabinet of Coins in Vienna.[27] On the obverse, around two shields, one bearing eight fleurs-de-lis and the other the figure of a lion, are two hermetic inscriptions: LILIA CUM NIVEO COPULANTUR FULVA LEONE (yellow lilies lie down with the snow-white lion), and SIC LEO MANSUESCET SIC LILIA FULVA VIRESCENT (thus will the lion be tamed and thus will the yellow lilies flourish). Around a crown surmounting the two shields appear the initial letters I. P. H. V. N. F., indicating Latin words the sense of which is “Johannes Petrus Hofmann a Nurembergian subject made it,” and also the letters T G V L, intended to signify _tinturæ guttæ v. libram_, or “five drops of the tincture [transmuted] a pound.” The reverse has Latin words denoting that iron was the base of this tincture, the symbols used for lead, tin, copper, mercury, silver and gold being each accompanied by a cryptic declaration that Mars (iron) had controlled the respective metal.[28]

Besides the “Philosopher’s Stone,” the chief object of their quest, the alchemists believed that several other stones possessing magic virtues could be produced. Among these was the “angelical stone,” which gave power to see the angels in dreams and visions, and also the “mineral stone,” a substance by means of which common flints could be transmuted into diamonds, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, etc.[29] Possibly some alchemists were glass-makers, and fused the quartz with various mineral salts into imitations of the gems, having the colors, but not the hardness or other properties.

One of the strangest fancies as to the medicinal efficacy of stones is that held by the native Australians, who believe that “crystals” are embedded in the bodies of their medicine-men. This belief is encouraged by the medicine-men themselves; indeed, they are supposed only to retain their power so long as these _atnongara_ or _ultunda_ stones remain in their bodies, and a share of their might can be transmitted by transferring certain of the stones from their own bodies to that of another. The ceremony proceeds as follows:[30]

The Nung-gara [medicine-men] then withdrew from their bodies a number
of small clear crystals called Ultunda which were placed one by one,
as they were extracted, in the hollow of a spear-thrower. When a
sufficient number had been withdrawn, the Nung-gara directed the man
who had come with them to clasp the candidate from behind and to hold
him tightly. Then each of them picked up some crystals, and taking
hold of a leg, gripped the stones firmly and pressed them slowly and
strongly along the front of the leg and then up the body as high as
the breast-bone. This was repeated three times, the skin being scored
at intervals with scratches, from which blood flowed. By this means
the magic crystals are supposed to be forced into the body of the
man.... After which each of them pressed a crystal on the head of the
novice and struck it hard, the idea being to drive it into the skull,
the scalp being made to bleed during the process....

One of the Nung-gara then withdrew from his skull just behind his ear
(that is, he told the novice that he kept it there) a thin and sharp
Ultunda, and taking up some dust from the ground, dried the man’s
tongue with it, and then, pulling it out as far as possible, he made
with the stone an incision almost half an inch in length.

The _mesticas_ of the Malays represent a class of stones differing in important respects from the various types of bezoars. A principal distinction is that the _mesticas_ are not supposed to owe their origin to pathological conditions in the organism wherein they occur, but rather to a superabundance of the normal and healthy constituents of the animal or plant. It is probably due to this that the virtues of these particular concretions are rather talismanic than therapeutic, and that they are believed to endow the finder, or one who receives them by gift, with courage, immunity from injury, and also with cunning and shrewdness in the affairs of life. Especially by warriors are these stones highly valued, for they are supposed to protect the wearer from wounds; indeed, this belief sometimes went so far as to lead the Malays to think that absolute invulnerability was conferred on one who carried several of them bound so closely to the skin that in some cases they even penetrated the flesh. The typical _mestica_ is described as a hard stone, brilliant but seldom transparent; it is found in the flesh or fat, in the heart or on the legs of animals, and also sometimes in plants.[31]

Rumphius declares that many extraordinary cases were related of warriors who could not be injured by any weapons until the _mestica_ had been cut out of their flesh, wherein it had become embedded. Indeed, he states that Dutch officers of proved veracity had confidently asserted that they had encountered such men among their native antagonists. While Rumphius feels himself therefore forced to admit the truth of the invulnerability of these men, he hastens to add that such powers could not be inherent in any piece of stone, but must owe their origin to diabolical agencies.[32] The fact that the Mohammedans had their _mesticas_ blessed by the priests of their faith, and burned incense beneath them on Fridays, the Mohammedan equivalent of the Christian Sunday, did not probably shake the belief of Rumphius that the Devil had something to do with these substances.

The medicine-men of the Kainugá Indians of Paraguay mutter incantations over the bodies of the sick, and then, after many struggles and contortions, proceed to extract stones from their mouths, claiming that they have taken the patient’s disease into their own bodies, the stones being regarded as the seat of the ailment. In one case, the medicine-man produced five of these stones before the patient admitted that his pain was relieved. After the cure was completed the sorcerer was clever enough to feign extreme exhaustion, as though his vital forces had been subjected to a tremendous strain.[33]

INDIAN MEDICINE-MEN

From “Histoire Générale des Cérémonies Religieuses de tous les Peuples
du Monde,” by Abbé Banier and Abbé Mascrier, Paris, 1741.
]

In British New Guinea similar tactics are resorted to by the native doctors. A native who was suffering from lumbago fully believed the tale that his disease was caused by a stone embedded in his flesh. When the sorcerer made passes over this man’s back and then exhibited a stone which he pretended to have taken thence, the sufferer was convinced that the disease had left his body, and he began to feel relief. When examined, his back showed some superficial cuts at the spot where the stone was said to have been extracted. In another case, however, when a child was to be operated upon in a like way, the child’s father became suspicious and seized the operator’s hands before they came into contact with the little one’s body; the result being that the disease-laden stone was found concealed in the operator’s hand.[34]

Pebble-mania or lithomania is an inherent trait in all mankind. From the most primitive man to the most modern, especially those of optimistic and investigating tendencies, this trait is present in a greater or lesser degree. That is, curious people would collect pebbles for their bright colors, or markings, for their transparency or translucence, and those of an investigating turn of mind, under the impression that the find was perhaps a diamond or a gem of some kind. In modern times this kind of collecting has developed into a regular industry, pebbles found on the shores of the United States and which are either pure white, transparent or translucent quartz, being cut and offered for sale. These pebbles are gathered, and are valuable to those who make a business of selling them, because the white opaque pebbles become translucent after cutting, or rather, during the process of cutting, and they are then passed off for moonstones, which are worth from one-third to one-half more than the cost of cutting the quartz pebbles, the purchaser being led to believe that he is getting a moonstone, although this could not be possible, since moonstones have never been found on either the eastern or the western coast of the United States. As for the cut moonstones which are brought back by the tourist, under the impression that he is getting native material and workmanship, these all come from Europe.

Pebble-mania is not confined to mankind alone. Birds and animals possess it. The magpie picks up and hides away bright objects, including odd pebbles, or carries them to its nest. The stones known as _ætites_ were said to be found in eagles’ nests, although they may have been swallowed by the birds for digestive purposes, just as the hen’s crop is full of stones, many of them being transparent, a proof that the fowl had been attracted by them, and had swallowed these in preference to other, duller ones. Notable instances of transparent pebbles are the _alectorii_, or “cock-stones.”

The great Italian goldsmith and sculptor, Benvenuto Cellini (1500–1574), relates that when a youth he often shot cranes with his arquebuse, and that in several instances he found in their entrails not only fine turquoises, but also fragments of the so-called plasma-emerald and even occasionally small pearls. This serves to indicate that the pretty exterior of such objects exerted an influence upon these birds in some degree analogous to the impressions aroused in mankind on viewing them.[35]

In seventeenth century Denmark there seems to have been no lack of “magic stones,” for it is related that one day as King Christian II was strolling along the beach, he picked up a shining pebble by the aid of which he could render himself invisible at will. Similar power was said to exist in stones that could be found in ant-hills if hot water were thrown onto them on St. Walpurgis Day, or St. Hans’ Day. The Danes of the time also shared in the belief that the stone from the lapwing preserved from illness and sorrow as did the “swallow’s-stone” as well.[36]

It has frequently been maintained that the source of pebbles could be broadly determined by their form and surface; for example, well-rounded specimens of fairly uniform size would be classed as marine pebbles, while river-pebbles would be subangular and usually flat; pebbles of glacial origin, on the other hand, would have faceted, rounded edges, their surfaces being polished and striated. However, although these rules might hold good in many cases, careful observation has demonstrated that pebbles of all these supposedly distinct types can be found among those of marine, fluviatile, or lacustrine origin. This is explicable by the fact that while the constant, unhindered action of sea or river would probably produce pebbles of distinct type, the local conditions often interfere with this. For instance, on a low sea-coast, with weak wave-action, pebbles frequently became buried in the sands, thus retaining their form practically unchanged, and even where the waves are stronger, so that the pebbles are more or less constantly exposed to their force, it must be borne in mind that some of these coast pebbles have been swept down by rivers, or have already been affected by glacial action. In these cases the force of the waves will indeed modify the form, but along the lines of that already produced by the earlier agencies. Broadly stated, those that were round or oval would generally remain so, rectangular fragments might have their angles worn away and become elliptical, while flat fragments would not exhibit any notable change in shape.[37]

When a group of pebbles have been long exposed to attrition by the waters of a powerful stream, especially where the current is intermittent, and where a large quantity of sand has been worked or blown into the stream by freshet or wind storm, they may become rounded by the erosive action of the water or by the abrasive power of the sand, as well as by the attrition consequent upon their sharp contact with one another. This is exemplified in the case of boulders in a river bed, it having been noted in certain streams on the Navajo Reservation that while the upstream sides of the boulders were polished and rounded, and even sometimes faceted and etched, but little change was observable on the downstream sides. This has been tested experimentally, holes an inch in depth having been drilled in opposite sides of sandstone boulders, and on examination five years later in five different localities where this had been done, the deepest hole remaining on the upstream sides measured but four-tenths of an inch, while in one locality the holes had entirely disappeared, and yet so trifling was the effect of the water on the downstream side that a blue-pencil mark had not been washed away. Of course, the erosion of quartzite and limestone boulders tested in this way proved to be a much slower process, amounting to less than one-hundredth of an inch annually. Another important consideration in the shaping of pebbles by river-water is the swiftness of the current, it having been noted, for instance, that those which have been washed down the steep slopes of the Navajo Mountain and the edge of the Black Mesa are somewhat better rounded than those that have been borne along for a much greater distance by less swift-flowing water.

That striated, faceted, or polished pebbles are always of glacial origin, or that those of glacial origin usually offer these characteristics is far from the fact; indeed, it may rather be said that they are generally missing. The fluvio-glacial drift is much more widespread than ground moraine, and the pebbles found in the former rarely present these aspects; indeed, it has been noted that in an hour’s search through the glacial drift of Connecticut, only a single such specimen may be met with. On the other hand, many pebbles of this type have been found under conditions plainly showing that the striation was due to other causes, in some instances, as with those occurring in conglomerates, to pressure and differential movement.[38]

The burying of white stones or lumps of quartz with the dead was not infrequent in early times in Ireland. The peasants of the north of Ireland call these Godstones. A cist found at Barnasraghy, County Sligo, was nearly filled with quartz pebbles, and not long since a white stone was found in a primitive burial place near Larne, County Antrim. That this was a usage confined to the earlier period of Irish history is generally admitted, and the discovery of such white stones in a grave is accepted as an indication that it belongs to an early date.[39]

It has been suggested that these white stones were used for burials because of the symbolic meaning of the color, which to the minds of many primitive peoples was that of purity, as indeed it is still among most modern peoples, although the symbolism may not always be consciously accepted. White marble seems to most of us the most appropriate and beautiful stone for monuments, and if to a very considerable degree granite is now used as a substitute, this is principally because of its greater resistance to the deteriorating effect of atmospheric changes. Already in prehistoric times, the cave-dwellers showed a fondness for gathering quartz crystals and fragments, and specimens of those taken from the Auvergne Mountains have been found in the cave-dwellings of Les Eyzies; they may have been used as amulets or talismans.[40]