Chapter VIII: Introduction

"Geology, in the magnitude and sublimity of the objects of which it treats, ranks next to Astronomy in the scale of the Sciences."--_Sir J. F. W. Herschel._

Geology, a term signifying a discourse on the Earth, (from two Greek words: viz. γἡ, _ge_, the earth; and λὁγος, _logos_, a discourse,) is the science which treats of the physical structure of the planet on which we live, and of the nature and causes of the successive changes which have taken place in the organic and inorganic kingdoms, from the remotest period to the present time, and is therefore intimately connected with every department of natural philosophy.

While in common with other scientific pursuits it yields the noblest and purest pleasures of which the human mind is susceptible, it has peculiar claims on our attention, since it offers inexhaustible and varied fields of intellectual research, and its cultivation, beyond that of any other science, is in a great measure independent of external circumstances; for it can be followed in whatever condition of life we maybe placed, and wherever our fortunes may lead us.

The eulogium passed by a distinguished living philosopher on scientific knowledge in general, is strikingly applicable to geological investigations. "The highest worldly-prosperity, so far from being incompatible with them, supplies additional advantages for their pursuit; they may be alike enjoyed in the intervals of the most active business, while the calm and dispassionate interest with which they fill the mind, renders them a most delightful retreat from the agitations and dissensions of the world, and from the conflict of passions, prejudices, and interests, in which the man of business finds himself continually involved."[2]

[2] Sir J. F. W. Herschel, "Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy."

From the present advanced state of geological science, particularly of that department which it is the more especial object of these volumes to elucidate, namely Palæontology,[3] or the study of Organic Remains,--it seems scarcely credible, that but little more than a century ago it was a matter of serious question with naturalists, whether the petrified shells imbedded in the rocks and strata were indeed shells that had been secreted by molluscous animals; or whether these bodies, together with the teeth, bones, leaves, wood, &c. found in a fossil state, were not formed by what was then termed the plastic power of the earth; in like manner as minerals, metals, and crystals.

[3] Palæontology: from παλαιος, _palaios_, ancient--οντα, _onta_, beings--λὁγος, _logos_, a discourse.

In a "Natural History of England," published towards the end of the last century, it is gravely observed that at Bethersden in Kent, a kind of stone is found full of shells, "_which is a proof that shells and the animals we find in them living, have no necessary connexion_." Another amusing instance of the ignorance on such subjects which prevailed at no remote period, occurs in a "History of the County of Surrey," in which it is stated that in a search for coal near Guildford the borers broke, and "this was thought by Mr. Peter Lely, the Astrologer, to have been the work of subterranean spirits, who wrenched off the augers of the miners, lest their secret haunts should be invaded."

But in the latter part of the seventeenth century, there were several eminent men in England who were greatly in advance of the age in which they lived, and strenuously exerted themselves to discover and promulgate the true principles of Geology. Among these, Dr. Martin Lister, physician to Queen Anne, was one of the most distinguished. This accomplished naturalist, in his great work on shells, which remains to this day a splendid monument of his labours, and of the talents and filial affection of his two daughters, by whom all the plates were engraved, figures and describes many fossil shells as real animal productions, and carefully compares them with recent species. He also recognised the distinction of strata by the organic remains they contain; and to him the honour is due of having first suggested the construction of geological maps;[4] he was likewise well acquainted with the position and extent of the Chalk and other strata of the South of England.[5]

[4] See Notes on the Progress of Geology in England, by W. H. Fitton, M.D. &c. _Philos. Mag._ vols. i. and ii. for 1832 and 1833.

[5] This celebrated physician and British geologist died in 1712, and was interred in the old church at Clapham; where a tablet to his memory is affixed to the outside of the north wall of St. Paul's Chapel.

From the foreign writers, who at an early period had obtained some correct notions of the structure of our planet, and of the nature of the revolutions it had undergone, I select the following beautiful and philosophical illustration of the physical mutations to which the surface of the earth is perpetually subjected. It is from an Arabic manuscript of the thirteenth century;[6] the narrative is supposed to be related by Rhidhz, an allegorical personage.

[6] Quoted by Sir C. Lyell in his "Principles of Geology."

"I passed one day by a very ancient and populous city, and I asked one of its inhabitants how long it had been founded? 'It is, indeed, a mighty city,' replied he; 'we know not how long it has existed, and our ancestors were on this subject as ignorant as ourselves.' Some centuries afterwards I passed by the same place, but I could not perceive the slightest vestige of the city; and I demanded of a peasant, who was gathering herbs upon its former site, how long it had been destroyed? 'In sooth, a strange question,' replied he, 'the ground here has never been different from what you now behold it.' 'Was there not,' said I, 'of old a splendid city here?' 'Never,' answered he, 'so far as we know, and never did our fathers speak to us of any such.'

"On revisiting the spot, after the lapse of other centuries, I found the sea in the same place, and on its shores were a party of fishermen, of whom I asked how long the land had been covered by the waters? 'Is this a question,' said they, 'for a man like you? this spot has always been what it is now.'

"I again returned ages afterwards, and the sea had disappeared. I inquired of a man who stood alone upon the ground, how long ago the change had taken place, and he gave me the same answer that I had received before.

"Lastly, on coming back again, after an equal lapse of time, I found there a flourishing city, more populous and more rich in buildings than the city I had seen the first time; and when I fain would have informed myself regarding its origin, the inhabitants answered me, 'Its rise is lost in remote antiquity--we are ignorant how long it has existed, and our fathers were on this subject no wiser than ourselves.'"

We may smile at the ignorance of the inhabitants of the fabled cities, but are we in a condition to give a more satisfactory reply should it be inquired of us, "What are the physical changes which the country you inhabit has undergone?"--and yet cautious observation, and patient and unprejudiced investigation, are alone necessary to enable us to answer the interrogation.

Dismissing from his mind all preconceived opinions, the student must be prepared to learn that the earth's surface has been, and still is, subject to perpetual mutation,--that the sea and land are continually changing place,--that what is now dry land was once the bottom of the deep, and that the bed of the present ocean will, in its turn, be elevated above the water and become land,--that all the solid materials of the globe have been in a softened, fluid, or gaseous state,--that the relics of countless myriads of animals and plants are entombed in the rocks and strata,--and that vast mountain-chains, and extensive regions, are wholly composed of the petrified remains of beings that lived and died in periods long antecedent to the creation of the human race. Astounding as are these propositions, they rest upon evidence so clear and incontrovertible, that they cannot fail to be admitted by every intelligent and unprejudiced reader, who will bestow but a moderate share of attention to the examination of the phenomena, of which the following pages present a familiar exposition.

I cannot conclude these introductory observations, without adverting to the incalculable benefits which result from scientific pursuits in general, and of Geology in particular. An able modern writer has justly remarked:--"It is fearfully true, that nine-tenths of the immorality which pervades the better classes of society, originate from the want of an interesting occupation to fill up the vacant time; and as the study of the natural sciences is as attractive as it is beneficial, it must necessarily exert a moral and even religious influence upon the young and inquiring mind. The youth who is fond of scientific pursuits will not enter into revelry, for frivolous or vicious excitements will have no fascination for him. The overflowing cup, the unmeaning or dishonest game, will not entice him. If any one doubts the beneficial influence of these studies on the morals and character, I would ask him to point out the immoral young man who is devotedly attached to any branch of natural science: I never knew such an one. There may be such individuals--for religion only can change the heart--but if there be, they are very rare exceptions; and the loud clamours which are always raised against the man of science who errs, prove how rarely the study of the works of the Creator fails to exert an ennobling effect upon a well-regulated mind. Fortunate, indeed, are the youth of either sex, who early imbibe a taste for natural knowledge, and whose predilections are not thwarted by injudicious friends."

And while Geology exerts this hallowing influence on the character, it possesses the great advantage of presenting subjects adapted to every capacity; on some of its investigations the highest intellectual powers and the most profound acquirements in exact science are required; while many of its problems may be solved by any one who has eyes and will use them; and innumerable facts illustrative of the ancient condition of our planet, and of its inhabitants, may be gathered by any diligent and intelligent observer.

But it is surely unnecessary to dwell on the interest and importance of a study, which instructs us that every pebble we tread upon bears the impress of the Almighty's hand, and affords evidence of Creative wisdom; that every grain of sand, every particle of dust scattered by the wind, may be composed of the aggregated skeletons of beings, so minute as to elude our unassisted vision, but which possessed an organization as marvellous as our own;--a science whose discoveries have realized the wildest imaginings of the poet,--whose realities far surpass in grandeur and sublimity the most imposing fictions of romance;--a science, whose empire is the earth, the ocean, the atmosphere, the heavens;--whose speculations embrace all elements, all space, all time;--objects the most minute, objects the most colossal;--carrying its researches into the smallest atom which the microscope can render accessible to our visual organs,--and comprehending all the phenomena in the boundless Universe, which the powers of the telescope can reveal.

And as no branch of natural philosophy can more strongly impress the mind with that deep sense of humility and dependence, which the contemplation of the works of the Eternal is calculated to inspire, so none can more powerfully encourage our aspirations after truth and wisdom. Every walk we take offers subjects for profound meditation,--every pebble that attracts our notice, matter for serious reflection; and contemplating the incessant dissolution and renovation which are taking place around us in the organic and inorganic kingdoms of nature, we are struck with the force and beauty of the exclamation of the poet--

My heart is awed within me, when I think
Of the great miracle which still goes on
In silence round me--the perpetual work
Of Thy Creation, finished, yet renewed
For ever!

PRELIMINARY REMARKS.

ON THE PLAN OF THE WORK, AND THE ARRANGEMENT AND SUBDIVISION OF THE SUBJECTS IT EMBRACES.

With the view of economizing space, I would refer the reader to the following volumes for figures and descriptions of such fossils as are illustrated therein: by this arrangement I hope to afford the student a comprehensive view of Palæontology, and yet restrict this work within the limits which as a manual it would be inconvenient to exceed; at the same time it will be complete in itself, and afford all the information required by the amateur collector and general reader.

I. Dr. Buckland's _Bridgewater Treatise_: 2 vols. 8vo.--These volumes contain numerous excellent figures of organic remains; and as the work is, or ought to be, found in every good public or private library in the kingdom, it will be accessible to most of my readers.

II. _The Wonders of Geology, or a Familiar Exposition of Geological Phenomena_; _sixth_ edition, in two vols, with coloured plates, and numerous figures; by the Author. Price 18_s._--This work is designed to afford a general view of Geological phenomena, divested as much as possible of scientific language: it is illustrated by numerous figures of organic remains.

III. _Geological Excursions round the Isle of Wight and along the adjacent Coasts of Hampshire and Dorsetshire._ One volume, richly illustrated. By the Author. Price 12_s._

IV. _Petrifactions and their Teachings; or a Hand-book to the Gallery of Organic Remains in the British Museum._ One vol. with many original figures of the most interesting objects. By the Author.[7] Price 5_s._

[7] The three works above named consist of four volumes uniform with the present edition of the "Medals of Creation:" this series of six volumes comprises the popular geological works of the Author.

V. _A Pictorial Atlas of Fossil Remains;_ consisting of Coloured Illustrations selected from "Parkinson's Organic Remains of a Former World," and Artis' "Antediluvian Phytology." 1 vol. 4to. with seventy-four coloured plates, and several lignographs, containing nearly 900 figures of fossils. By the Author. Price 2_l._ 2_s._

To the above may be added Dana's _Mineralogy_, which treats of the various mineral substances that enter into the composition of the rocks and strata in which the fossil remains are imbedded.

A good geological map of Great Britain is indispensable. The small map published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, edited by Sir R. Murchison, price 5_s._, is an excellent compendium; but Mr. Knipe's large "_Geological Map of the British Isles_" is the most complete and convenient for the traveller: price 3_l._ 3_s._ By reference to the map, the geological structure, and the prevailing fossils of a district, may be ascertained.

The above works are referred to as follows: viz.

_Bd._ Dr. Buckland's Treatise.

_Wond._ The Wonders of Geology.

_Geol. I. of W._ Geology of the Isle of Wight.

_Petrifactions._ Petrifactions and their Teachings.

_Pict. Atlas._ Pictorial Atlas of Organic Remains.

The following works, to which reference will often be made, are thus denoted:--

_Foss. Flor._ The Fossil Flora of Great Britain, by Dr. Lindley, and
W. Hutton, Esq. 3 vols. 8vo.

_Vég. Foss._ Histoire des Végétans: Fossiles, par M. Adolphe
Brongniart. 1 vol. 4 to.

_Geol. Trans._ Transactions of the Geological Society of London. 5
vols. 4to.; and New Series, in 5 vols.

_Geol. Proc._ Geological Proceedings.

_---- Journ._ ---------- Quarterly Journal.

_Sil. Syst._ The Silurian System, by Sir R. I. Murchison. 2 vols.
4to. with plates and map.

_Org. Rem._ Parkinson's Organic Remains of a Former World. 3 vols.
4to.

_Oss. Foss._ Ossemens Fossiles, par Baron Cuvier. 5 vols. 4to.
5^{me.} edit.

_Min. Conch._ Sowerby's Mineral Conchology. 6 vols. 8vo.

_Odont._ Odontography; a Treatise on the Comparative Anatomy of the
Teeth, by Professor Owen. 2 vols. 8vo.

_Brit. Mam._ British Fossil Mammalia; by the same Author. 1 vol. 8vo.

_Brit. Rep._ Reports on British Fossil Reptiles in the British
Association Transactions for 1839, and 1841; by the same Author.

_Phil. York._ Geology of Yorkshire, by Professor John Phillips. 2
vols. 4to.

_South. D._ Fossils of the South Downs, 1 vol. 4to. 42 plates by the
Author. 1822.

_Geol. S. E._ Geology of the South-east of England. 1 vol. 8vo. by
the same.

_Tilg. For._ Fossils of Tilgate Forest. 1 vol. 4to. 20 plates; by the
same. 1827.

_Poiss. Foss._ Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, par M. Agassiz.
4 vols. 4to, and 2 vols, folio.

_Man. Geol._ Manual or Elements of Geology, by Sir C. Lyell. 1 vol.
8vo. Edit. 1852.

The following abbreviations are also employed:--

§ 1. _Relative to the Rocks or Strata._

_Drift._ Alluvial deposits, or Drift.

_Tert._ Tertiary. _Lond. C._ London clay.

_Cret._ Cretaceous formation. _U. Ch._ Upper chalk. _L. Ch._ Lower
chalk.

_Trias._ New Red Sandstone, or Triassic deposits.

_Carb._ Carboniferous or Coal formation.

_Mt. L._ Mountain or Carboniferous limestone.

_Devon._ Devonian or Old Red Sandstone formation.

_Sil. Syst._ Silurian System, or formation.

§ 2. _Relative to Organic Remains._

_nat._ Natural size.

× Magnified in diameter: _e.g._ × 8, magnified eight diameters, &c.

× × Highly magnified; the degree not accurately determined.

_inv._ Invisible to the naked eye.

-- Less than natural: _e.g._ --2/3, reduced to two-thirds the
diameter of the original.

_Lign._ Lignograph or woodcut.

_Explanation of Terms._--Upon the occurrence of a scientific word apparently requiring explanation, the _meaning_, where practicable, is for the most part given in a parenthesis; for example, Caulopteris (_fern-stem_); Phascotherium (_pouch-animal_); carboniferous (_coal-bearing_); except in the case of arbitrary names, and of those whose derivation cannot be concisely expressed.[8] With the view of rendering these volumes more generally useful, English terminology is in many instances made use of, though involving inelegance of expression.

[8] Upwards of 300 scientific terms are explained in the Glossary, "Wonders," vol. ii. p. 915-921.

The work is divided into four parts: the first is an _Introduction to the Study of Organic Remains_; the second treats of _Fossil Botany_; the third embraces _Fossil Zoology_; and the fourth, under the head of _Geological Excursions_, illustrates the principles enunciated in the course of the work, by practical observations on a few instructive British localities.

PART I.

1. On the British Strata and their Fossils.

2. Arrangement and Characters of the British Formations.

3. On the Nature of Fossils or Organic Remains.

4. On Mineralized Vegetable Remains, and the mode of
conducting their investigation.

5. On Peat, Lignite, and Coal.

PART II.

FOSSIL BOTANY.

Classification of Fossil Vegetables.

1. On the Fossil Remains of Cryptogamiæ.
2. " " Diatomaceæ.
3. " " Ferns.
4. " " Sigillariæ.
5. " " Lepidodendra.
6. " " Cycadaceæ.
7. " " Coniferæ.
8. " " Palms.
9. " " Angiosperms.

Retrospect.

British Localities of Fossil Plants.

PART III.

FOSSIL ZOOLOGY.

On the Fossil Remains of the Animal Kingdom.

1. Zoophytes; Amorphozoa.
2. " Polypifera.
3. Echinoderms; comprising the
a. Crinoidea, or Lily-shaped animals.
b. Asteriada, or Star-Fishes.
c. Echinida, or Sea-Urchins.
4. Foraminifera.
5. Shell-bearing Mollusca.
6. Articulated animals; comprising
a. Crustaceans.
b. Insects.
7. Fishes.
8. Reptiles.
9. Birds.
10. Mammalia.
11. Man.

Retrospect.

PART IV.

I. Geological Excursions in various parts of England,
illustrative of the method of observing geological
phenomena, and of collecting Fossil Remains.

II. Miscellaneous.
On the prices of Fossils; lists of Dealers, &c.

II. Appendix.