Chapter VII: Sixth Day (1)

_Section_ I.--ON QUADRUPEDS AND REPTILES.

Quadrupeds in general -- Motion -- Habits -- Rumination --
Proportion -- Tastes -- Clothing -- Weapons -- Proportionate
Number -- Faculties -- Reptiles -- Religious Improvement.

On the _sixth day_ all terrestrial animals were formed. “And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind, and it was so. And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind.” According to Dr. A. Clarke, the words נפש חיה _nephesh chaiyah_, translated _living creature_, are a general term used to express all creatures endued with animal life, in any of its infinitely varied gradations; from the half-reasoning elephant down to the stupid potto, or lower still, even to the polype,[157] which seems equally to share the vegetable and animal life. The word חיתו _chaiyeto_, translated _beast_, and by Mr. Parkhurst, rendered _wild beasts_, seems to signify all wild animals, as the Lion, the Tiger, the Panther, the Lynx, the Hyæna, &c, and especially such as are _carnivorous_, or subsist on flesh. בהמה _behemah_, which we translate _cattle_, probably means those of the domestic species, such as are _graminivorous_, or live on grass and other vegetables; and are capable of being tamed, and applied to domestic purposes. The word properly means _beasts_, and is so understood by the Seventy, whose interpretation of the words of Job is, “Behold the beasts with thee, they eat grass like oxen.” According to Ab, Ezra, and the Targum, it is the “name of any great beast.” But R. Levi says, that it is “an animal peculiarly called by that name.”

The Hebrew _behemah_, says Buxtorf, is taken in the singular number for the Elephant, because of its vast greatness. Ainsworth says, the word generally implies all large beasts; and of this classification the Elephant is called Behemoth. “Behold now _Behemoth_, which I made with thee; he eateth grass as an ox.” The word here is plural, and signifies beasts; but in this passage one particular beast is meant, for it is usual with the Hebrews or Jews to express great and excellent things by words in the plural number. Though some later and very learned men take the Leviathan to be the Crocodile, and the Behemoth to be a creature called the Hippopotamus, or river-horse, yet says Henry, “I confess I see no reason to depart from the opinion, that it is the Elephant that is here described, which is a very strong, stately creature, of a very large stature, above any other, and of wonderful sagacity, and of such reputation in the animal kingdom, that, among so many four-footed beasts as we have had the natural history of, Job chap. xxxviii, xxxix, we can scarce suppose this should be omitted.”[158]

The Elephant may be thus denominated from its great bulk and strength. He is the largest of all land animals. Pliny tells us, that the Elephants in India are thirteen feet and a half high, and have two teeth of such enormous size that the Indians use them for posts to their houses: those of the male being six or seven feet long, while those of the female do not exceed one foot.

“Peaceful, beneath primeval trees that cast
Their ample shade o’er Niger’s yellow stream,
And where the Ganges rolls his sacred wave,
Or mid the central depth of blackening woods,
High rais’d in solemn theatre around,
_Leans the_ HUGE ELEPHANT.”

His strength is also equal to that of many beasts. “His bones are as strong as pieces of brass; his bones are like bars of iron.” Some historians say, that in time of war people used to erect wooden towers on the backs of Elephants, and from these elevated forts men combated with their enemies. It is said that Antiochus had a great number of these huge animals with towers constructed upon them, in each of which were thirty-two men armed. “He is the chief of the ways of God:” that is, a signal instance of Divine power and wisdom, the most excellent of all mere animals, in size, strength, understanding, and sagacity. None of the beasts is more prudent, says Strabo: none of them approaches nearer to man in his capacity, says Pliny. “He moveth his tail like a cedar.” As his tail is not proportional to the bulk of his body, many understand by this term his proboscis or trunk. The original word זנב here rendered _tail_, signifies properly the extreme part of a thing; hence it is as applicable to his trunk, which hangs like a tail, though placed at the opposite extremity of his body. This he “moveth” with amazing dexterity, and, at pleasure, can stretch it out, and erect it like a “cedar” growing out of a mountain.--“Behold, he drinketh up a river, and hasteth not: he trusteth that he can drink up Jordan into his mouth.” He being naturally of a hot constitution, and generally inhabiting hot climates, requires much liquid. His “drinking up a river,” is a hyperbolical expression implying his ardent thirst: and “hasteth not,” signifies his reluctance to quit the stream till his parching desire be fully satiated. His “trusting” that he can drink the river “Jordan” dry, is also an hyperbolical term to express his copious draughts. “He eateth grass as an ox, the mountains bring him forth food;” which he gathers, collects, and conveys to his mouth with his long trunk. He resides “where all the beasts of the field play.” So harmless is this strong animal, that the inferior part of the brute creation are not intimidated at his presence, but graze with him upon the mountains, and sport themselves about him in the plain, apprehending no danger from him. How wondrous are the works of God! in which are no less evinced the effects of his power, than the displays of his wisdom. The word _cattle_, also includes Horses, Kine, Sheep, Dogs, &c.

Quadrupeds enjoy many advantages above the lower tribes of the animal creation. They rank higher than the class of Birds, by bringing forth their young alive; they are superior to that of Fishes, by respiration through their lungs; they are exalted above the order of Insects, by a circulation of red blood through their veins; and they differ almost from every other description of creatures, being either wholly or in part covered with hair.

What admirable wisdom is displayed in the _motion_ of animals, suited to their various occasions! Reptiles, to which a clod, a plant, a tree, or a hole, will afford the means of supporting life, and which protracted privations of food do not materially affect, require no legs to make extensive excursions, but their vermicular motion is adequate to every essential purpose. Beasts, whose necessities call for a larger sphere, possess accordingly a swifter motion; and this is imparted in various degrees, suitable to their range for food, and adapted to accelerate their speed in escaping from their enemies.

In the motion of animals, from the largest Elephant to the smallest Mite, the whole body is exactly balanced. The head is not too heavy, nor too light for its kindred parts, nor they for it. The bowels hang not loose, nor are so placed as to over-balance, or upset the system; but well-braced, and accurately distributed to maintain an equipoise. The most active members also are admirably well fixed, in respect to the centre of gravity, being placed in the very point which best serves to support and convey the body. Every leg bears its share of the weight.

The _mouths_ of animals are nicely adapted to their different habits of life. The Ox, the Deer, the Horse, and the Sheep, have full lips, rough tongues, broad cutting teeth, corrugated cartilaginous palates, which qualify them for browsing, either by gathering large mouthfuls where the grass is long, or biting close where it is short. In those which subsist on flesh, the teeth are sharp, and calculated to hold and divide their food. The bore of the gullet in animals is answerable to their necessities. In a Fox, which feeds on bones, it is very large. But in a Squirrel it is exceedingly small, which prevents him from disgorging his meat in his descending leaps: and it is equally contracted in Rats and Mice, which run along walls with their heads downward.

In all animals, the strength and size of their _stomachs_ are proportioned to the nature and quantity of their food. Those whose aliment is more tender and nutritive, have them smaller, thinner, and weaker: whereas they are large and strong in those whose food is less nutritive, and whose bodies require greater supplies. Carnivorous beasts have their stomachs small and glandular, as flesh is the most nutritious. Those that derive their support from fruits and roots have them of a middle size: while on the contrary, Sheep and Oxen, which feed on grass, have the largest stomachs; and those which ruminate have in general no less than four; in Africa, where the plants are nutritive, some of this class have only two. Yet the Horse, Hare, and Rabbit, though graminivorous, have comparatively small stomachs. The Horse is made for labor, and both he and the Hare are constructed for quick and continued motion; for these the most easy respiration, also the freest action of the diaphragm, is requisite. But this could not be, did the stomach lie heavy and cumbersome upon it, as in Sheep and Oxen.

Another very remarkable circumstance is, that those animals which have teeth on both jaws, possess but one stomach; whereas most of those which have no _upper teeth_, or no teeth at all, have three stomachs. For the meat which is first chewed, is easily digested; but that which it swallowed whole, requires a stronger concoctive power.

The Horse eats night and day, slowly, but almost continually: whereas the Ox eats quickly, and takes, in a short time, all the food nature requires; and then lies down to ruminate. This difference arises from the different conformation of these animals. The Ox, of whose stomachs the first two form but one capacious bag, can, at the same time, receive grass into both of them, without inconvenience, which he afterwards ruminates and digests at leisure. The Horse, whose stomach is small, and can receive but a small quantity of grass, is filled successively in proportion as he digests it; and it passes into the intestines, where is performed the principal decomposition of the food. Chewing the cud is but a vomiting without straining, occasioned by a re-action of the first stomach on the food which it contains. The Ox fills the first two stomachs, the paunch, and the bag, which is but a portion of the paunch. This membrane acts with force on the grass it contains; it is chewed but a little, and its quantity is greatly increased by fermentation. Were the food liquid, this force of contraction would occasion it to pass by the third stomach, which only communicates with the other by a narrow conveyance, and cannot admit such dry food, or, at least, can only admit the moistened parts. The food must, therefore, necessarily pass up again into the œsophagus, the orifice of which is larger than the orifice of the conduit, and the animal again chews and macerates it, and moistens it afresh with its saliva: he reduces it to a paste, sufficiently liquid to enter into this conduit, through which it passes into the third stomach, where it is again macerated before it goes into the fourth; and it is in this last receptacle that the decomposition of the hay is finished, which is reduced to a perfect mucilage. What chiefly confirms this explication is, that as long as the animals suck, and are fed with milk and other liquid aliments, they do not chew the cud; and that they chew the cud much more in winter, when they are fed with dry food, than in summer, when they eat tender grass.

All the parts of the same animal are adopted to each other. So, for instance, the length of the neck is always proportioned to that of the legs. Though the Elephant has a short neck, because the weight of his head and teeth would otherwise have been insupportable; but, then, he is provided with a trunk, which abundantly supplies the defect. In other beasts, the neck is always commensurate to the legs; so that they which have long legs have necks proportioned; and so vice versa, as is observable in Lizards of all kinds, even from the Eft to the Crocodile. And creatures that have no legs, as they want no necks, so they have none. This equality between the length of the neck and legs is peculiarly seen in beasts that feed on grass, in which these are very nearly equal; because the neck must necessarily have some advantage, for it cannot hang perpendicularly, but must incline a little.

These creatures, while feeding, bend their heads downward for a considerable time, which would be very laborious and painful to the muscles, were it not for a very stiff, strong cartilage, placed on each side of the neck, capable of stretching and shrinking again as need requires, which butchers call pax-wax. The one end of this is attached to the head, and the next vertebræ of the neck; and the other is knit to the middle vertebræ of the back: and by the assistance of this, animals are able to hold the head in that inclining posture all day long. The head being placed at the end of a long lever, in a direction nearly perpendicular to the joints of the neck, would be in constant danger of dislocation from its own weight, had not such a substance been added, which, by its great strength and toughness, retains the parts together, while, by its pliancy, it offers no obstruction to the free motion of the neck and head.

The members of animals are exactly adapted to their manner of living. A Swine, whose natural food is chiefly the roots of plants, is provided with a snout; long, that he may thrust it to a convenient depth in the ground without injuring his eyes; and strong and suitably formed, for rooting and turning up the earth: therefore the retiring under-jaw works after the manner of a plough-share, and makes its way to the food: and besides, his scent is extremely acute in discovering such roots as are fit for him. Hence in Italy, the usual way of finding truffles, or subterraneous mushrooms, is by tying a cord to the hind leg of a pig, and driving him into pastures. They who attend then mark where he stops and begins to root, and digging there, are sure to find a truffle. So in pastures where there are earth-nuts, though their roots are deep in the ground, and the leaves are quite gone, the Swine will find them by their scent, and root only in the places where they grow.[159]

In some animals the head is long, in order to give room for the olfactory nerves, as in Dogs, which hunt by scent. In others, it is short, as in the Lion, to give him the greater strength. In beasts of prey, as Lions, Tigers, Wolves, they have the trumpet-part or concavity of the ear standing forward, to meet the sound of the animals before them, which they pursue or watch. The ears of animals of flight are turned backward, to apprize them of the approach of the pursuing enemy, lest he should assail them unseen. Beasts of prey have their feet armed with claws, which some can sheath and unsheath at pleasure. The Babyrouessa, or Indian Stag, a species of Wild-Boar, found in the East Indies, has two _bent_ teeth more than half a yard long, growing upward, and, which is very singular, from the upper jaw. These instruments are not wanted for defence, that service being provided for by two tusks issuing from the under jaw, and resembling those of the common Boar: nor does the animal thus use them. They might seem therefore both superfluous and cumbersome: however, they have their utility; for this animal sleeps standing, and, in order to support its head, hooks its upper tusks upon the branches of trees.

In the Mole we find a most scrupulous attention to the habits of the animal. It has short legs, feet armed with sharp nails, a pig-like nose, a velvet coat, a small external ear, a sunk protracted eye, all which are conducing to utility and safety. Its feet are like so many shovels, placed in so peculiar a manner as to enable the animal to remove the earth on each side, and throw it backwards. The cylindrical figure of the Mole, as well as the compactness of its form, arising from the terseness of its limbs, proportionably lessen its labor; because its bulk requires the least possible quantity of earth to facilitate its progress. The structure of its face and jaws is similar to those of a Swine, and equally adapted to work in the ground. The nose is sharp, slender, tendinous, and strong. The plush covering, which, by the smoothness, closeness, and polish of the short piles that compose it, rejects the cohesion of almost every species of earth, defends the animal from cold and wet, and from the impediment which it would otherwise experience by the adhesion of mould to its body. Being subterraneous, of all animals it comes out from soils of all kinds the brightest and cleanest. But its eyes are most to be admired. This animal occasionally visiting the surface of the earth, self-security required a perception of light. The Mole did not need large eyes to compass a great range of vision; and prominent eyes would have been less easily defended, whilst working under ground. To reconcile these inconveniences, these eyes are scarcely larger than the head of a corking pin; and these globules are so sunk in the skull, and sheltered with the velvet of their covering, that any contraction of the eye-brows, not only closes up the apertures, but offers a cushion to prevent any sharp or protruding substance from injuring them. These apertures in their open state, are like pin-holes in velvet, scarcely pervious to loose pieces of earth.[160]

The different _tastes_ of animals show the wise economy of nature. Oxen delight in low grounds, because they afford the most palatable food. Sheep prefer barren hills, on which is produced a particular kind of grass called festuca, which they highly relish. Goats climb up the precipices of mountains, that they may browse on the tender shrubs; and accordingly have their feet constructed for jumping. Horses, not in a state of domestication, chiefly resort to woods, and feed on leafy plants. Nay, so various are the appetites of animals, that there is scarcely any plant which is not chosen by some, and left untouched by others. The Horse resigns the Water-Hemlock to the Goat; the Cow gives up the Monks-Hood to the Horse; for that on which some animals grow fat, others abhor as poison.--Hence no plant is absolutely poisonous, but only respectively. Thus the Spurge, that is noxious to man, is a most wholesome nourishment to the Caterpillar. That animals may not destroy themselves for want of knowing this law of nature, they are guarded by such a delicacy of taste and smell, that thus they can easily distinguish what is pernicious from what is wholesome; and when different animals subsist on the same plants, one kind always leaves something for the other, as the mouths of all are not equally adapted to lay hold on the grass; hence there is sufficient food for all.[161] The leaves and fruits of trees are intended as food for some animals, such as the Sloth and Squirrel; the latter of which has feet adapted for climbing. The Camel frequents the sandy and burning deserts, in order to obtain the barren produce of those soils. How wisely has the Creator provided for him! he is obliged to traverse those trackless wastes where frequently no water is found for many miles. Other animals, so circumstanced, would perish with thirst: but he can endure it without much inconvenience; his belly being full of cells, where he reserves water for many days.[162]

Quadrupeds are furnished with such _clothing_ as is suitable to their various offices. To beasts, hair is a commodious covering, which, together with the texture of their skins, fits them in all sorts of weather to lie on the ground, and to render service to man. The thick and warm fleeces of others are a good defence against the cold and wet, and also a soft bed; and to many, a comfortable shelter for their tender young. All the animals near Hudson’s Bay are covered with a close, soft, warm fur; and, what is very surprising, and shows the wisdom and goodness of Divine providence, the Dogs and Cats which are taken thither from England, on the approach of winter, change their appearance, and acquire a much longer, softer, and thicker coat of hair than they originally had.

Many animals are armed with _weapons_ of self-defence, some of which are used for the destruction of others. Nay, we scarcely know an animal which has not some enemy to contend with. Wild beasts are the most pernicious and dangerous enemies. But, that they may not, by too atrocious a butchery, destroy a whole species, even these are circumscribed within certain bounds. As to the most fierce of all, it deserves to be noted, how few they are in proportion to other animals. The number of them is not equal in all countries. These fierce animals sometimes destroy one another. Thus the Wolf devours the Fox. The Dog infests both the Wolf and Fox. The Tiger often kills its own male whelps. And wild beasts seldom arrive at so great an age, as animals which live on vegetables. For they are subject, from their alkaline diet, to various diseases, which tend to accelerate their death: while the Elephant, which feeds on vegetables, is fifty or sixty years before he attains his full strength, is in the highest state of vigor at about a hundred, and lives two or three hundred years. But, though animals are infested by their peculiar enemies, yet they frequently elude their violence by stratagems and force. Thus the Hare, by her doublings, often confounds the Dog. When the Bear attacks Sheep and Cattle, these flock together for mutual defence. Horses join heads together, and fight with their heels. Oxen join tails, and fight with their horns. Swine unite in herds, and boldly oppose themselves to any attack, so that they are not easily overcome: and, what is remarkable, all of them place their young, as less able to defend themselves, in the middle, that they may remain safe during the battle. Some animals consult their safety by night. When Horses sleep in woods, one by turn remains awake, and, as it were, keeps watch. When Monkeys, in Brazil, sleep on trees, one of them keeps awake, in order to give the sign when the Tiger creeps toward them; and in case the guard should be caught asleep, the rest tear him in pieces.

Divine Providence is evidently displayed in keeping a just proportion amongst all the different species of animals: this prevents any one of them from increasing too rapidly, to the detriment of others. For the produce of the ground would be insufficient for the support of the animal creation, were their increase not regulated and limited by the over-ruling power of God. To which we may add, that, if some animals did not feed on others, the earth would be annoyed with putrified bodies. Therefore, when an animal dies, Bears, Wolves, Foxes, &c, expeditiously take the whole of it away. But if a horse die near a public road, in a few days he is swoln, burst, and at last filled with innumerable grubs of carnivorous Flies, by which his flesh is soon entirely consumed, and so does not become a nuisance to passengers by his poisonous stench. Thus the earth is not only kept clean from the putrefaction of dead carcases, but at the same time, by this economy of nature, the necessaries of life are provided for many animals.

Though animals should not die a violent death, still their powers only continue for a limited time: they have their determinate periods of growth, perfection, and decay: hence it becomes necessary that one race should succeed and replace another, and for this purpose they are endowed with a power of procreation. The formation of the fœtus, the manner of its existence, and the growth of its parts, are great secrets of nature; and in all viviparous animals, the _milk_ found in the female parent is a maintenance ready for the young animal, the moment it enters the world. We have here, the nutritious quality of the fluid--the organ for its reception and retention--the excretory duct, annexed to that organ--and the determination of the milk to the breast, at the particular juncture when it is about to be wanted. The advanced pregnancy of the female has no intelligible tendency to fill the breasts with milk. The lacteal system is a constant wonder: and it adds to other causes of our admiration, that the number of the teats or paps in each species is found to bear a proportion to the number of the young. In the Sow, the Bitch, the Rabbit, the Cat, the Rat, which have numerous litters, the paps are numerous, and are disposed along the whole length of the belly: in the Cow and Mare, they are few.[163] And the teats of animals which give suck are exactly adapted to the mouth, particularly to the lips and tongue, of the suckling progeny. Herodotus observes, that the most useful animals are the most fruitful in their generation: whereas the species of those beasts that are fierce and mischievous to mankind are but scarcely continued. The historian instances in a Hare, which is always either breeding or bringing forth; and a Lioness, which bears but once and then loses all power of conception.

It is evident that animals have not only a principle of self-motion, but are endued with a degree of understanding; and have a will, including various passions. What then produces the disparity between men and brutes, the line which they cannot pass? It is not understanding: who can say that brutes have not this? We may as well assert that they have not sight, nor hearing. But the difference consists in this: man is capable of knowing and enjoying God; the inferior creatures are not. This is the specific difference between the two: the great gulf which the brute cannot pass over.

We meet with a striking instance not only of industry, but _understanding_ in Beavers. In the northern parts of America, during the months of June and July, they assemble, and form a society, which generally consists of more than two hundred. They always fix their abode by the side of a lake or river; and in order to make a stagnant water above and below, they erect, with incredible labor, a dam or pier, perhaps fourscore or a hundred feet long, and ten or twelve feet thick at the base. When this dyke is completed, they build their several apartments, which are divided into three stories. The first is beneath the level of the mole, and is for the most part full of water. The walls of their habitations are perpendicular, and about two feet thick. If any wood project from them, they cut it off with their teeth, which are more serviceable than saws: and by the help of their tails, they plaster all their works with a kind of mortar, which they prepare of dry grass and clay, mixed together. In August or September, they begin to lay up their stores of food; which consist of the wood of the birch, the plane, and of some other trees. Thus they pass the winter, in the enjoyment of ease and plenty.[164]

In the Dog we perceive evident marks of sagacity, recollection, affection, and revenge. _Sagacity_:--In the year 1760, whilst one Richardson, a waterman of Hammersmith, was sleeping in his boat, the vessel broke from her moorings, and was carried by the current under a west country barge. Fortunately, the man’s dog happened to be present; and the sagacious animal awaked him, by pawing his face, and pulling the collar of his coat, at the instant when the boat was filled with water, and on the point of sinking; by which means he had an opportunity of saving himself from inevitable death.[165] _Recollection_:--A Dog, which had been the favorite of an elderly gentlewoman, some time after her death, on seeing her picture, when taken down from the wall, and laid on the floor to be cleaned, discovered the strongest emotions. He had never been observed, Dr. Percival believed, to notice the picture previously to this incident. Here was evidently a case of remembrance, or of the renewal of former impressions. _Affection_:--A few miles from Aberdeen, as a gentleman was walking across the Dee, when it was frozen, the ice gave way in the middle of the river, and he sunk; but, by grasping his gun, which had fallen athwart the opening, kept himself from being carried away by the current. A dog, who attended him, after many fruitless attempts to rescue his master, ran to a neighboring village, and took hold of the first person he met. The man was alarmed, and would have disengaged himself: but the Dog regarded him with a look so kind and significant, and endeavored to pull him along with so gentle a violence, that he began to think there might be something extraordinary in the case, and suffered himself to be conducted by the animal; who brought him to his master in time to save his life.[166] _Revenge_:--A pack of ravenous Fox-Hounds were half starved in their kennel, to render them more furious and eager in the chace: and were severely lashed every day by a merciless keeper, that they might be disciplined to the strictest observance of his looks and commands. It happened that this petty tyrant entered the kennel without his scourge. The dogs observed his defenceless state; and, instantly seizing him, at once satisfied their hunger and revenge by tearing him to pieces.[167]

The Monkey tribe is very numerous, and usually divided by naturalists into three classes. Those which have no tails are termed Apes, and such as have very short ones, Baboons; but by far the most numerous class consists of those which have long tails, and are known by the general name of Monkeys. Were we to dissect and examine the several component parts of any one creature which God has made, we should find a perfection among its several powers, and an adaptation of its construction to its situation in the grand scale of existence, far surpassing human wisdom.

At the Cape of Good Hope, Baboons are under a sort of natural discipline, and go about whatever they undertake with surprising skill and regularity. When they undertake to rob an orchard or vineyard (for they are extremely fond of grapes and apples,) they go in large companies, and with preconcerted deliberation. Part of them enter the inclosure, while one is set to watch: the rest stand without the fence, and form a line reaching all the way from their fellows within to their rendezvous without, which is generally in some craggy mountain. Every thing being thus disposed, the plunderers within the orchard throw the fruit to those that are without as fast as they can gather it; or, if the wall or hedge be high, to those that sit on the top; and these hand the plunder to those next them on the other side. Thus the fruit is pitched from one to another all along the line, till it is safely deposited at their head-quarters. They catch it with amazing dexterity; and while the business is going forward, a profound silence is observed. Their sentinel, during the whole time, continues on the watch, and when he perceives any one coming, instantly sets up a loud cry, on which signal the whole company scamper away. Nor are they willing to go empty-handed; for if they are plundering a bed of melons, for instance, they go off with one in their mouths, one in their hands, and one under their arms. If the pursuit be vigorous and close, they drop first that from under their arms, then that from their hands; and if it be continued, they at last let fall that which they had kept in their mouth.[168] There is another species of Monkey in the West Indies, of the size of a Fox. These are in great numbers in the woods, and make aloud and frightful noise. But it is common for one only to make a noise, and the rest to form a mute assembly round him. Marcgrave says, “I have frequently seen great numbers of them meeting about noon: at which time they formed a large circle, and one placing himself above the rest, began to make a loud noise. When he had sung thus by himself for some time, the rest all remaining silent, he lifted up his hand, and they all instantly joined in the chorus. This intolerable yell continued, till the same Monkey, who gave the signal for the beginning, lifted up his hand a second time. On this they were all silent again, and so finished the business of the assembly.”

Thus we see, wherever we turn our eyes, the various species of creatures which God has made. Every element is stocked with inhabitants, the sea with fishes, the air with fowls, and the earth with quadrupeds and creeping things. All these different provinces are richly replenished with food for the support of all the innumerable creatures that live in them. And what surprising skill and sagacity do some in the brute creation discover; such as might make many, who pride themselves in their reason, to blush and be confounded! Who does not admire the exquisite contrivance of birds in building their nests? the subtlety of several creatures in seeking their proper food? and of others in securing and defending themselves? The art of the Spider in weaving and spreading her nets, to ensnare and entangle her prey? the sapience and industry of the Bee in building her combs, and filling them with pleasant food? and the care and foresight of the Ant, in laying up her store against winter? In the meanest reptile, the Divine wisdom and power are conspicuously displayed.

The word רמש _remes_, translated _creeping thing_, and rendered _reptile_ by Parkhurst, includes all the different genera of serpents, worms, and such animals as are not pedaneous. What a disparity among animals! While some are of an enormous size, and stalk about in the greatness of their strength, others are of a delicate and diminutive appearance, bordering on comparative insignificance. But Divine “skill and power are not less displayed in the beautiful Chevrotin, or Tragulus, a creature of the Antelope kind, and smallest of all _bifed_ or cloven-footed animals, whose delicate limbs are scarcely as large as an ordinary goose quill; nor the Shrew Mouse, perhaps the smallest of the many-toed quadrupeds. In the _reptile_ race we see also the same skill and power; not only in the immense snake called Boa Constrictor, the mortal foe and conqueror of the Royal Tiger, but also in the Cobra de Manille, a venomous serpent, not much larger than a common sewing needle.”

The Lizard tribe are distinguishable at first sight from other oviparous animals. They have no shields, like the Tortoises, and are furnished with tails, which are wanting in Toads and Frogs. They are covered with scales, of greater or less rigidity, or with a kind of warts or tubercles. Some of the species are scarcely more than two inches in length, whilst others extend even the length of twenty-six feet. The larger ones live on animals, which they seize by stratagem, and the smaller ones on insects. The aquatic species undergo a metamorphosis, from a tadpole to a perfect state. Most of them are produced from eggs, but some are brought forth alive. In many of the species the color and form are exceedingly beautiful. They principally inhabit the warmer regions of the globe, and many of them serve mankind for food.

As according to the economy of nature, the Lion seems appointed to the dominion of the immense deserts of the torrid zone, the Eagle to rule as sovereign of the air, and the Whale to have the pre-eminence in the seas; so the Crocodile[169] and the Alligator appear to rule over the shores of the large rivers of tropical climates. All the rivers of Guinea are pestered with vast shoals of the former, M. Adanson having seen in the great river Senegal more than two hundred swimming together; and the latter are natives of the warmer parts of America.--The Guana, which grows to the length of four or five feet, is very common in Surinam, the woods of Guiana, Cayenne and Mexico, and in many parts both of Africa and Asia; but is now become scarce in the West Indies, in consequence of being much sought after for the table.--The Nimble Lizard, measuring from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail about six inches, is known in almost every part of the temperate regions of Europe. The Green Lizard and the Nimble Lizard, are considered by Dr. Shaw as varieties of the same species. The Green Lizards are considered by the inhabitants of Carolina as very useful animals, in consequence of destroying flies, and other troublesome and noxious insects. They will sometimes remain motionless for half a day, waiting for insects; and when one appears, they spring at it with the swiftness of an arrow. They are so familiar as to enter the houses without fear, and, in pursuit of prey, ascend the tables whilst families are eating, and even leap on their clothes. They are so beautiful and cleanly, as to be suffered to run across the tables, and even the plates, without exciting the least alarm or disgust.

The Chameleon is a native of India, the Indian Islands, Africa, some of the warmer parts of Spain and Portugal, and several of the countries of South America. Its usual length is about ten inches, and the tail nearly the same. All the motions of this creature are extremely slow, so that when travelling from one branch of a tree to another in pursuit of food, it may rather be said to lie in ambush among the leaves, in order to catch such insects as may come within the reach of its long adhesive tongue, than go in search of prey. When walking on the ground, it steps forward in a cautious, groping manner, seeming never to lift one foot till it is well assured of the firmness of the rest. From these precautions, its motions have a singular appearance of gravity, when contrasted with its diminutive size, and the activity that might be expected in an animal so nearly allied to some of the most active in the creation. Each of its eyes is covered with a rough membrane, which is divided by a narrow horizontal slit, through which the bright pupil, as if bordered with burnished gold, is seen. The eyes have this singular property, of looking at the same instant in different directions. One of them may frequently be seen to move when the other is at rest; or one will be directed forward, whilst the other is attending to some object behind; or in the same manner upward and downward. The property of changing its color is singular, and has led to various conjectures as to the cause.

Serpents are distinguishable from those already mentioned, by their total want of feet. The banded Rattle-Snake, found both in North and South America, is the most dreaded of all serpents. Providence has given to man a security against its bite; for it generally warns the passenger by the rattling of its tail, as well as by its odor, which is extremely fetid. When it has been irritated, or the weather is very hot, its poison being introduced into a wound, often proves fatal in a short time. If not provoked, it is inoffensive, being so much alarmed at the sight of men, as always, if possible, to avoid them, and never commencing an attack. The Great Boa, which is the largest of all the serpent tribe, is frequently from thirty to forty feet in length, and of a proportional thickness. It is a native of Africa, India, the largest Indian Islands, and South America, where it chiefly resides in the most retired situations in woods and marshy retreats. We are assured, that one of these serpents killed and devoured a buffalo, in the island of Java. It is happy for mankind that their rapacity is often the means of their own punishment; for whenever they have gorged themselves in this manner, they seek a retreat where they may lurk for several days and digest their meal, become unwieldy, stupid, helpless, sleepy, and may be approached and destroyed with safety.[170]

The snake tribe comprises nearly two hundred species, which differ from each other both in size and habit, and about one-fifth of the whole have been discovered to be poisonous. “The deserts of Arabia,” says Adanson, “are entirely barren, except where they are found to produce serpents; and in such quantities, that some extensive plains are almost entirely covered with them.” The apparatus of poison in the Viper is very similar to that of the Rattle-Snake, and all the other poisonous serpents. The _fang_ of a Viper is a wonderful instance of contrivance. It is a perforated tooth, loose at the root: in its quiet state, lying down flat on the jaw, but furnished with a muscle, which with a jerk, and by the pluck, as it were, of a string, suddenly erects it. Under the tooth, close to its root, and communicating with the perforation, lies a small bag containing the venom. When the fang is raised, the closing of the jaw presses its roots against the bag underneath; and the force of this compression sends out the fluid, with a considerable impetus, through the tube in the middle of the tooth. By this singular apparatus, the animal is enabled to inflict on its enemies a most deadly bite, and infuse into the wound the most deleterious liquid. Yet, though in the mouth, this, in the quiescent state of the reptile, does not interfere with its ordinary office in taking its food.[171]

No less curious is the clothing of Reptiles. How well adapted are the rings of some, and the contortions of the skins of others, not only to guard the body sufficiently, but enable them to creep, perforate the earth, and perform all the functions of their stations, better than any other covering! Virgil gives the following description of a Sicilian serpent:

“Scarce had he finish’d, when, with speckled pride,
A serpent from the tomb began to glide;
His hugy bulk on sev’n high volumes roll’d;
Blue was his breadth of back, but streak’d with scaly gold;
Thus riding on his curls, he seem’d to pass
A rolling fire along, and singe the grass.
More various colors through his body run,
Than Iris, when her bow imbibes the sun.”

Even the tegument of the Earthworms is made in the completest manner, for effecting a passage in the earth, wherever instinct directs their motions. Their bodies are composed of small rings, and have a curious apparatus of muscles, which enables them with great strength to extend or contract the whole body. Each ring is likewise armed with stiff, sharp prickles, which they can open or close at pleasure. And under their skins is a shining juice, which they emit, as occasion requires, to lubricate their bodies, and facilitate their passage into the earth. By all these means they are enabled, with ease and speed, to work themselves into the ground, which they could not do, if they were covered with hair, feathers, scales, or such clothing as any of the other creatures.--One of the most singular properties of the serpent tribe is that of casting their skins from time to time. The beauty and lustre of their colors are then highly augmented. The old skins have a tarnished and withered appearance, and are forced off by the growth of the new. When this takes place, so complete is the spoil or coat-skin, that even the external coat of the eyes themselves make a part of it.

Among creeping things, the Spider engaged the attention of Solomon who observes, that he is one of those “little things on the earth, that are exceeding wise.” This creature subsists on flies, wasps, and similar insects, without having wings to pursue them; a circumstance apparently of great difficulty, yet provided for by a resource, which no stratagem nor effort of his own could have produced, had not both the external and internal structure of this animal been specifically adapted to the operation. What surprising skill and sagacity does the Spider discover in weaving and spreading her nets to ensnare and entangle her prey! How wonderfully artificial is her web, or _house_! How astonishingly curious its architecture! With the fine and delicate threads she spins out of her bowels, how thin a web does she weave, constructed for the purpose of procuring food! It is fastened according to the rules of mathematics, for its lines are drawn exactly from the centre at parallel distances.[172] When this net is spread, that she may the more effectually secure her prey, she cunningly conceals herself in her covert, to evade the discovery of flies. It is from the accuracy of this geometrical workmanship, that this cunning artist is immediately apprized of the approach of a fly, or any other insect of the like nature, when she sallies forth and seizes on her prey. She is furnished with a very sharp hooked forceps, placed near the mouth. With this weapon she seizes and pierces the flesh of such insects as entangle themselves in her web; and, at the same instant, by means of a small white proboscis, she infuses a deadly juice into the wound, which, in a moment, kills the animal. This poison must be very deleterious; for flies, and many other insects, may be mutilated by depriving them of their legs, wings, and even cutting their bodies through the very middle of their abdomen, and, in that condition, will survive several days.--The Centipeds, the Scorpion, and the Tarantula, are all provided with poisonous weapons.

_Appendix to the Chapters on Plants, Fishes, Fowls and Quadrupeds._

[If we will attentively examine the _fossil remains
of fishes, animals, birds, and vegetables_, so abundantly
preserved entombed in the crust of our earth, we shall easily
see the necessity of looking into the sepulchres of these
primitive creatures if we would freely describe the “Mosaic
Creation.” Many of their genera and species are now extinct:
and those which remain seem to have dwindled down to mere
_dwarfs_ in comparison with their prototypes.

It is a matter of great satisfaction, that these
interesting remains of the primordial world are so well
preserved. They are called by one _the medals of creation_:
they reveal the ancient condition of our earth; the successive
events; and the attending organic appendages of sensitive
beings: and it is a matter of great pleasure to the Christian,
that what they disclose so clearly on this subject agrees
expressly with the Bible.

The class of animated beings called _pisces_, or _fishes_,
is not so well known in regard to their _genera_, and
_species_, as the classes of quadrupeds and birds.

From the fossil remains of each, and their position in the
crust of the earth, it is well ascertained, that their genera
were created successively, and that the most ancient genera
are extinct. The same is true in regard to vegetables. It is
equally true, that, connected with the successive creation,
was a _successive improvement_ in the delicacy and complexity
of their structure and parts. There was also a reduction in
the _size_ of fishes, and quadrupeds, and a great reduction in
the _amount_ of vegetation, as well as the size of many of the
plants.

These periodic variations in all early organized bodies,
were evidently owing to the variations of the state of the
surface of our earth, and the surrounding atmosphere. The
Divine Being appears to have created the different genera
suited in constitution to the condition of the world at the
time. The cause of their successive extinction appears to have
been successive catastrophes, which altered the constitution of
our earth and atmosphere.

All these facts taken together indicate, that, in the
early periods of the earth, the soil, water, and air were
better calculated to sustain the simply huge, and inconceivably
powerful and fierce creatures of the animal kingdom, than the
delicate and beautiful beings of the present period. The same
is eminently true in regard to vegetables, specially their
_quantity_. They were of trunks, and spreading branches so huge
as to exceed belief, did we not see them well preserved in a
fossil state. Their quantity also was immense; hence the amount
of vegetable coal found in the earth.

These facts clearly indicate that, in the early periods of
our earth, the surface was moist, perhaps, marshy for a long
time, gradually drying, and passing to a habitable state: the
air was very moist and gross, and the temperature of the earth
was much higher than at present. Hence the huge and abundant
vegetable productions. These general facts shall be confirmed
by a few remarks in regard to each class.

_Fishes._--Under this class is included, here,
_testaceous_, and _crustaceous_ creatures, as well as
_fishes_ commonly so called. The most ancient of this family
seem to be entirely extinct, and their remains are found in
great abundance in the lower transition rocks. There are
many localities where fossil fish, of various kinds, are
found abundantly. They are sometimes found in the heart of
mountains, thousands of feet above the level of the sea. Their
localities are so numerous they need not be mentioned. They
are found in all possible _positions_, and in every degree of
_preservation_--some are _contorted_, and _crushed_; indicating
sudden violence. Others are inhumed in the very act of
swallowing their prey, and in every easy and natural position;
indicating that they expired without violence. Some of these,
which are thus quietly buried, are of the most active species;
thus proving the suddenness of the catastrophe.

So extensive are the depositions of _shell-fish_, that
whole beds of rock, in some cases, appear to be composed of
them; and, indeed, in some instances, mountains are composed
principally of these rocks filled with organic remains.

From these facts, it is allowed by all, that the sea once
covered these localities; and when it is recollected that some
of the rock strata, composed of the exuviæ of these marine
creatures, are _hundreds_ of feet thick, the conclusion will
be irresistible, that the sea covered them for a long time,
and that these rocks which contain them _were deposited at
the bottom of the sea_, which have since become dry, by the
retiring of the waters, or by some subjacent force upheaving
the bed of the sea, and of course these deposits which had
been made at its bottom--when these fossil remains are found
in mountain masses they have been upheaved--when in low lands,
where the rocks lie _in situ_, the sea has exposed them by
retiring.

_Amphibious Creatures._--There are yet a few animals of
this class; but they can scarcely be called the types of the
ancient races, now extinct, whose remains have lately been
discovered, and attracted so much attention in Europe. They
are principally of the _crocodile_, and _saurian_ (or lizard)
families. Their size, and indicated power, ferocity, and
fierceness, are astonishing beyond measure. Their structure
clearly indicates their proper element was wet, marshy, and
reedy places, such as the crocodile delights in at this time:
thus indicating that they were in the earth as the ancient
chaotic seas retired, and was leaving the earth dry.

If a _single_ skeleton only, of any one of these creatures
had been found, naturalists would have pronounced it a _lusus
naturæ_. But many have been found, of different genera and
species: only two or three shall be mentioned here.

One of the crocodile family, as is supposed, had a spine
composed of 133 vertebræ, or joints, taken together 21½ feet in
length. The head was nearly 4 feet. Its species are extinct;
some refer even this huge animal to the lizard family.

_The Megalosaurus._ The skeleton of this huge creature has
been satisfactorily examined, and ascertained to belong to the
_lizard family_. Its thigh bone is 32 inches long. It is said
some have been found 4 feet. At 32 inches, the animal must
have been 48 feet in length. Dr. Buckland, from some fossil
remains, calculates some of them were as high as our largest
elephants, and sixty or seventy feet in length. And yet this
was a _lizard_ of the ancient world!