Chapter II: First Day (2)

From the experiments of General Roy, in the 75th volume of the Philosophical Transactions, it appears that the expansion of a steel pendulum of a clock is such, that every four degrees of the thermometer will cause a variation of a second per day; and that the difference between the going of a clock in summer and winter will be about six seconds per day, or one minute in ten days, owing to the metallic pendulum varying in length with every change of temperature. A knowledge of this circumstance gave rise to Harrison’s self-regulating time-piece, which, by the different expansion of _different_ metals, accommodates its movements to every change of seasons or climate.

The fire deposited below the surface of the earth is peculiarly important, having produced earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Dr. Watson, late Bishop of Llandaff, in his Chemical Essays, says, The most remarkable changes which have taken place in the form and constitution of the earth, since the deluge, have probably been produced by subterraneous fires; for it is to their agency that philosophers ascribe volcanos and earthquakes; those tremendous instruments of nature, by which she converts plains into mountains, the ocean into islands, and dry land into stagnant pools. Mr. Lemery, as far as I have been able to learn, adds the learned Bishop, was the first person who illustrated, by actual experiment, the origin of subterraneous fires. He mixed twenty-five pounds of powdered sulphur with an equal weight of iron filings; and having kneaded the mixture together, by means of a little water, into the consistency of a paste, he put it into an iron pot, covered it with a cloth, and buried the whole a foot under ground. In about eight or nine hours time the earth swelled, grew warm, and cracked: hot sulphureous vapors were perceived: a flame which dilated the cracks was observed; the superincumbent earth was covered with a yellow and black powder: in short, a subterraneous fire, producing a volcano in miniature, was spontaneously lighted up from the reciprocal actions of sulphur, iron, and water.

Volcanic eruptions are awfully terrific, and sometimes extensively destructive. The violent eruption of Vesuvius, in 1767, is reckoned the 27th since that which destroyed the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, in the reign of the Emperor Titus; and this eruption of 1767, has been succeeded by several others. Of the eruptions of Ætna, Mr. Oldenburg has given a historical account in the Philosophical Transactions, No. xlviii. p. 967. A very great eruption of this mountain was in the year 1669. The progress of the lava, or fiery deluge, was at the rate of a furlong a day. It advanced into the sea 600 yards, and was then a mile in breadth. It had destroyed, in forty days, the habitations of 27,000 persons; and of 20,000 inhabitants of the city of Catanea, only 3,000 escaped. This inundation of liquid fire, in its progress, met with a lake four miles in compass, and not only filled it up, although it was four fathoms deep, but raised it into a mountain. Borelli, an ingenious Neapolitan, has calculated, that the matter discharged at this eruption was sufficient to fill a space of 93,838,750 cubic spaces. The lava which ran from it is fourteen miles in length, and, in many parts, six in breadth. There have been no such eruptions since, although there have been signs of many, more terrible, that preceded it.[35]

The principal volcanos in Europe are Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, in Italy; Mount Ætna, in Sicily; Mount Hecla, in Iceland; and Stromboli, the most northern of the Lipari islands, north of Sicily. Of all the volcanos recorded in history, Stromboli seems to be the only one that burns incessantly. Ætna and Vesuvius are sometimes many months, and even years, without the least emission of fire; but this is ever at work, and, for ages past, has been considered as the light-house of the Mediterranean Sea. It is very probable, that Mount Vesuvius and Mount Ætna form but different portions of _one_ chain of mountains that passes under the sea, and the isle of Lipari; for whenever one of the volcanos has a great eruption, it is observed that the other, and the volcano in the isle of Lipari, throw out more flames than ordinary. This remark was made by Huet, Bishop of Avranches, in France, a celebrated philosophical, historical, and commercial writer. The force of volcanos is supposed to be the greatest of any thing yet known in nature. In the great eruption of Vesuvius, in 1779, a stream of lava, of an immense magnitude, is said to have been projected to the height of at least 10,000 feet above the top of the mountain.

[The present state of chemical science, and the
geological discoveries of the last ten or fifteen years,
seem to discountenance the theory, that volcanic action, and
earthquakes result from _sulphur_, _iron_, and _water_, as Mr.
Lemery’s experiment seems to indicate.

The vast extent of volcanic action, as indicated by extinct
and active volcanos, would require a greater amount of these
materials, than can be supposed to exist in the composition of
the earth. Thus, according to the Newtonian test of a correct
theory, the means, if true, would not be sufficient.

Again: If sulphur and iron were the principal agents in
producing volcanic action, and earthquakes, _volcanic products
would give evidence of it_, by being, principally, _sulphate
of iron_. So far is this from being the fact, that in 100
parts, volcanic product, Dr. Kennedy found, in reference to two
volcanos, not exceeding 14.25 oxide of iron, and no sulphur at
all.

Volcanic products are generally, “mixtures of the earth in
an oxidated and fused state, under intense ignition; water and
saline substances, such as might be furnished by the sea and
air, altered as might be expected from the formation of fixed
oxidated matter.” URE.

These two simple considerations must set aside the theory
mentioned in the text. Other valid objections might be urged.

As this theory is inadmissible, because, neither true in
application to volcanic action and product, nor sufficient in
force, it is proper to supply the deficiency.

By a careful inspection of the phenomena attending volcanic
action, as well as an examination of its products, we are
clearly convinced, the _agents are aëriform_; chiefly _steam_
and the _gases_, and they act with an _expansive force from
beneath_.

Mouna Roa, in the island Owhyhee, rises 15,000 feet,
and has on its top a crater _eight miles_ in circumference,
containing a vast lake of molten lava. Mr. Goodrich visited it
in 1824. He says, “exhalations escape from all the fissures of
the lava crust, producing here and there a blast _like strong
vapor blowing out of a steam boiler_.”

Subsequently, a party from the Blonde frigate visited it,
and the Rev. Charles Stewart, who accompanied the party, has
given a description of the crater. He says, “its surface had
all the agitation of the ocean. Billow after billow tossed
its monstrous bosom into the air, and occasionally the waves
from apposite directions met with such violence, as to dash
the fiery spray, in the concussion, forty or fifty feet high.”
_Ure’s New Syst. Geol._ pp. 381-2.

In both these accounts we clearly see aëriform agents
acting from beneath. The _hissing_ noise of steam escaping from
a boiler, convinces of the _nature_ of the body escaping. The
_upheaving_ of the melted lava proves, not only, that the agent
acts from _beneath_ by expansion, but also, by its resemblance
to the common phenomenon observed in boiling liquids, that
the agent is formed below, and rises through the melted lava,
heaving it up in swells and waves, until it escapes in a
gaseous state, like vapor from boiling liquids.

We must come to the same conclusion from the experiments,
observations, and reports of the celebrated, and intrepid
Spallanzani, who visited and examined the crater of the
ever-burning Stromboli. His words are nearly these: Fluid lava,
resembling melted brass red-hot, and liquid filled the crater
to a certain height, and this matter appeared to be influenced
by two distinct impelling powers; the one whirling and
agitated; and the other upwards, terminating in an explosion
like a short clap of thunder. Immediately before the explosion
occurred, the lava appeared _inflated_, and _large bubbles_,
some several feet in diameter, rose and burst, the detonation
followed and the lava sunk. During the rising, _a sound
issued from the crater like that produced by a liquid boiling
violently in a caldron_. In this case we have every evidence of
an _aëriform agent acting from beneath_.

An aëriform agent is detected also by examining the
_structure_ of volcanic products, which have been ejected in
a melted state. They are found to be _vesicular_, _cellular_,
and _porous_. This structure proves, incontestibly, that these
cavities and cells were filled with an aëriform body, which
escaped upon cooling.

This position might be sustained by other proofs, but it
is unnecessary. It remains only to ask, _whether these elastic
agents are sufficient to produce the astonishing amount and
products of volcanic action and earthquakes_?

The force which elastic agents are known to possess, when
generated suddenly, and raised to a high temperature, answers
this question promptly in the _affirmative_. A very few grains
of gunpowder, when converted into gas by sudden ignition in
a gun-barrel, by their expansive force drive a bullet with
astonishing power and velocity. A few cubic feet of water
converted into steam, will burst the strongest metallic barrier
which man can construct, unless it find vent.

As we have seen sufficiently clearly that aëriform bodies,
as steam and gases, are the elastic agents in producing
earthquakes and volcanos, it remains to inquire into the
_production_ and _action_ of those agents.

As it regards their production, the present state of
geological and chemical science suggests _three_ theories,
each of which would be adequate to the object.

It is necessary to premise that _water_ is a common agent
in each of the three theories.

1. The splendid discoveries of Sir H. Davy, in regard to
the _bases_ of the earths, demonstrating them to be _metallic_,
and the earths merely _oxides_ of those metals, have led to the
conjecture, _that these metals exist in nearly a pure state in
the interior of the earth_; of course the _crust_ of the earth
is composed of the various metallic oxides.

It is well known that many of these metals _take fire on
coming into contact with water, as potassium, sodium, &c_; and
_all of them oxidize rapidly on meeting with water and air_,
and thus _large quantities of hydrogen gas would be evolved_.

This theory is so reasonable, in view of the
_combustibility_ of metals, and so conformable to science, that
we almost decide it is true, without further examination.

But, in order that its demonstration should be clear, it
must first be shown, _that the metals do exist in nearly a pure
state in the interior of the earth_: and then, _that they are
accessible by water, or air, or both_.

The first point can only be rendered _probable by analogy_.
We _know_ that the earths which are found in the crust of our
planet are _metallic oxides_. It is very natural to suppose
these metals existed in a pure _metallic state at the creation,
as well at the surface as at the centre_; as all other bodies
most probably existed in an elementary and uncombined state
when God first produced them. From this supposition it is
easy to see, that when water and air came into action, which
would be at the earth’s surface, these metals would be rapidly
oxidized, thus forming the earths. But as this process would
commence at the _surface_ of the earth, and _tend towards the
centre_, it is evident its _progress would be arrested by its
own action_.

For the _accumulation of the earths_, by the oxidation of
the metals, would gradually form the _superincumbent crust_,
which would act as a _barrier_ to the water and air, preventing
their contact with the metals in the interior, _which_, of
course, _would not be oxidized_.

In this state they would remain buried deep under the
superincumbent oxidated crust of the earth, until water and
air should find access to them. When this should take place
a rapid, and extensive _chemical action_ would commence,
generating immense quantities of hydrogen gas, the metals
_decomposing_ the air and water, in the process of oxidation,
and setting the _hydrogen_ of the water, and _nitrogen_ of the
air _free_. Thus a large amount of the most inflammable of all
gases would be disengaged. The rapid chemical action would
_raise the temperature_ of these gases, and thus _increase
their bulk_ immensely, which would produce an irresistible
_expansive force_, which would _increase the pressure_ against
the sides of the cavern in which the gases were generated,
_and the_ IGNITION _of the hydrogen would be a necessary
consequence_. Such an immense volume of gas being ignited, and
confined, would produce such a degree of heat, as rapidly to
_decompose_ or _melt_ the substances in its neighborhood, and
set at liberty a vast quantity of other gases; all of which
being _ignited_, and of course _expanded_ immeasurably, would
not only shake a given section of the earth, but, if placed
in its centre, would shake the solid globe throughout, and
rend it into ten thousand pieces, if it did not find means to
escape. If it found means of escape by some opening forced from
its seat to the surface of the earth, _that opening would_
CONSTITUTE A VOLCANO; from which the gases would escape, and
throw out before them the vast amount of volcanic products
which are known to come forth of the craters.

It now remains to inquire, _whether a sufficient quantity
of water can be supposed to have access to these metals_?

From what we know of the distribution of water generally
in the bowels of the earth, we should have no difficulty in
admitting the _affirmative_. But this question may be clearly
answered by two circumstances.

First: Large quantities of boiling water and mud, are
frequently ejected from volcanos. This proves an _excess_
of water at, or near the seat of action, which could not be
decomposed, before the amount of gases generated, and acting
with incredible force, drove it out of the crater. This fact is
true in some measure of all volcanos, but eminently so of those
in South America. “Bouguer and Condamine saw these formidable
torrents tear up the surface of a whole country. Six hours
after an explosion of Cotopaxi, a village nearly eighty miles
distant in a straight line, and probably one hundred and forty
by the winding channel, was entirely swept away by the flood.”
_Ure’s New Sys. Geol._ p. 386.

Secondly: The position of volcanos, _always near the
sea_, together with the _agitations of the sea_, previous to,
and during an eruption, as well as the _saline_ matter in
the ejected substances, render it very clear, _that the sea,
by subterranean communication, supplies water at the seat
of volcanic action_. “The sea seems to sympathise with the
agitations of the adjoining volcanos, rising and falling with
rapid alternation--_caused by the sudden deflux of a great body
of water into the vast volcanic caverns_.” _Ure’s New Sys.
Geol._ p. 388.

This fact is so well known in the history of volcanos,
that it needs no further proof. It has, however, led to the
remark, that volcanos are generally situated in islands, or
near the sea coast. Indeed many of them are _submarine_, and
have actually been seen in operation, throwing up vast columns
of water to an immense height, until the edge of the crater
appeared above the surface of the sea, and increased into
islands, which have become permanent. At such times the water
of the sea for a great distance round became _hot_, fishes
died; and even the pitch melted from the hulks of the vessels
in the neighborhood.

2. Another theory has been proposed which does not differ
from the first, in regard to the _materials_ employed at the
seat of volcanic action, nor in the _manner_ of the process;
but in regard to the _condition_ of those materials when they
_begin_ to operate in the production of the elastic agents.
These materials may be in a state of _igneous fusion_ in the
interior of the earth. This state is supposed to have resulted
thus:

When God created the substances of the earth, they were
in an _elementary_ and _uncombined_ state, promiscuously
mixed through each other from the surface to the centre. By
his _Spirit brooding over the great deep_, caloric and light,
which were in a _latent_ state, were called into action,
which gave impulse and motion to every particle of matter,
thus quickening the whole mass by producing _intense heat_.
This would cause the _aqueous_ and _gaseous_ particles to
rise through the mass, and collect at the surface. This would
bring them in contact with the metals in a pure state, which
would of course _oxidize_, and become _earths_. This action
would go on until it arrested its own progress, by forming and
consolidating the oxidated crust of the earth inclosing all
the interior substances in a state of igneous fusion, which
have been gradually cooling ever since. The _primitive_ rocks,
which have a crystalline structure, are supposed to have been
deposited during this process, as it is evident they could not
have crystallized under any other circumstances, and they are
well known to be composed of the earths which are only metals
in a state of oxidation. It is now only necessary to introduce
the water to this mass of melted matter, or any part of it, as
in the first theory to the metals in their pure state, _and we
have the same results in all respects_.

This theory has two advantages over the first. It agrees
best with the crystalline structure which primitive rocks are
known to possess, and which must result from chemical action on
the materials in a state of solution. It also seems to accord
best with the Mosaic account of the action of heat and light,
in assimilating, arranging and settling the materials of the
earth.

Moreover, it is confirmed by experiments made on the
_temperature_ of the earth at different depths. The following
tables are extracted from Mr. Ure’s New System of Geology, pp.
426-7. They accord, in their tendency, with the opinions of
other eminent philosophers than those whose names appear in the
tables.

_Observations on the temperature of the earth._

In the mines of Giro-Magny, three leagues from Befort,
M. Gensanne found:

At 333 feet, 54½ Fahr.
680 “ 62
1016 “ 66½
1429 “ 73

In the mines of Freyberg, M. D’Aubuisson found

External air 41
In the galleries 50
528 feet, water pool 52
858 water of a spring 57

At Junghohebirke,

external thermometer 32
1040 feet, water was 63

Observations by Captain Lean in the mines of
Cornwall.

At surface, in June, 59
118 feet deep 64½
480 “ 68
840 “ 69½
1144 “ 79

_December._

At the surface air 50
120 feet air 57
600 “ air 66
---- “ water 64
962 “ air 70
---- “ water 74
1200 “ air 78
---- “ water 78

M. Humboldt obtained analogous results in many mines
in South America. The evidence in favor of a _perpetually
increasing temperature as you descend into the earth_, and a
_higher temperature formerly at the surface of the earth_, is
increasing daily. _See the conclusion of this paper._

3. There is yet a third theory, founded on _voltaic
energy_, or _galvanism_ and _electricity_.

The application of these agents to the production of
volcanic action, had occurred to me, before I met with the
“Outline of the course of Geological Lectures, given in Yale
College,” by Professor Silliman, from which the following
extract is made. I had not regarded their application in
the same manner as he has explained it. Indeed, my thoughts
on the subject had not assumed any definite direction. I
shall transcribe from his “Outline,” pp. 118-19, inserted in
“Bakewell’s Introduction to Geology, first American Edition.”

“Whatever we may think of the hypothesis now detailed, may
we not suppose, with sufficient probability, that those voltaic
powers which we _know_ to exist--whose action we can command,
and whose effects having been first observed within the memory
of the present generation, now fill us with astonishment, are
constantly active in producing the phenomena of earthquakes and
volcanos?

“Arrangements of metals and fluids are the common means
by which we evolve this wonderful power, in our laboratories;
and it would seem that nothing more than juxta-position, in
a certain order, is necessary to the effect. Even substances
apparently dry and inert, with respect to each other, will
produce a permanent, and in proportion to the means employed,
a powerful effect, as in the columns of De Luc and Zamboui. It
would seem indeed that metals and fluids are not _necessary_
to the effect. Arrangements of almost any substances that are
of different natures, will cause the evolution of this power.
Whoever has witnessed the overwhelming brilliancy and intense
energy of the great galvanic combinations, especially the
deflagrator of Dr. Hare, and considers how very trifling, in
extent, are our largest combinations of apparatus, compared
with those natural arrangements of earths, salts, metals, and
fluids, which we know to exist in the earth, in circumstances
similar to those which, in our laboratories, are effectual in
causing this power to appear, will not be slow to believe that
it may be in the earth perpetually evolved, and perpetually
renewed; and now mitigated, suppressed, or revived, according
to circumstances influencing the particular state of things at
particular places.

“In our laboratories we see emanating from this source,
intense light, irresistible heat, magnetism in great energy,
and above all, a decomposing power, which commands equally
all the elements, and the proximate principles in all their
combinations.

“Sir Humphrey Davy, after discovering that the supporters
of combustion and the acids, were all evolved at the
positive pole, and the combustibles and metals, and their
oxidated products, at the negative--proved that even the
firmest rocks and stones could not resist this power; their
immediate principles and elements being separated by its
energy. The decomposition of the alkalies, earths, and other
metallic oxides being a direct and now familiar effect of
voltaic energy--their metals being set at liberty, and being
combustible both in air and water--elastic agents produced
by this power, and rarified by heat, being also attendant on
these decompositions, it would seem that the first principles
are fully established by experiment, and that nothing is
hypothetical, but the application to the phenomena of
earthquakes and volcanos.”

The reader will perceive that all of the above theories
agree in one respect, viz; in the agency of _elastic bodies_,
as steam and gases, produced by the decomposition of
substances; and that the same substances are supposed to be
employed, though not precisely in the same manner, nor in the
same condition. Further Geological and Chemical experiments
may, hereafter, settle the question between these theories.
They are all scientific in their principles, and fully
competent to the object, and it is not impossible but that they
may all be true in part or in whole, acting separately in some
instances, and combined in others.

Under the agency of either of them the products would be
the same. Dr. Kennedy has made experiments on the composition
of volcanic products, and found, Silex, 51--Alumina, 19--Lime,
9.5--Oxide of iron, 14.5--Soda, 4--Muriatic acid, 1--in 100
parts.

As it regards the extent of volcanic action and
earthquakes, the two first theories agree best with actual
appearances. They would lead us to conclude that volcanic
action was necessarily more extensive in the earlier ages of
the world than now. Because, every action would oxidize the
crust of the earth deeper, and increase the superincumbent
strata, and render the access of water and air more difficult.
_This is found to be the fact by observation in different
countries._

In some parts of France, in which kingdom there is not,
and has not been for the last two thousand years, any active
volcano, _there are ranges of extinct volcanos, in which may
be counted from seventy to one hundred craters_. They are so
close their bases touch in many instances. The same fact is
observed along the Rhine, and in Hungary, and other countries.
_See Ure’s New Syst. Geol. and Bakewell’s Geology._

Mr. Ure reckons up two hundred and five _active_
volcanos at this time. One hundred and seven in islands, and
ninety-eight on continents.

It is very evident that the _seat_ of volcanic action is
vastly below the surface of the earth. The _extent_ of country
which is shaken by the effort of the gases to escape, will
prove this. The agitations have been felt over all Europe, and
even _across the Atlantic_!

Again: If the action were not situated far below the
surface of the earth, the mountains, which only serve as
_chimnies_, and which have been formed by the action of the
volcanos, _would sink in_. This has been the case in a few
instances. This will appear more clearly if we consider
the _amount_ of matter ejected. Did it not come from an
immeasurable distance beneath, the accumulated mass at the
surface of the earth would break down the _substrata_ which
lie over the immense caverns formed by the ejection. The
_dimensions_ of those caverns, situated under the volcanic
mountains, are far greater than one would suppose at first
consideration. _The internal caverns must be as large as the
ejected masses, which came out of them._ Ætna is known to have
thrown out matter sufficient to form twenty such mountains as
it is. It is strongly probable that the whole island of Sicily
is of volcanic origin. Humboldt says the dome-shaped craters
of volcanos rise from six hundred to eighteen thousand feet in
height. He considers the _whole mountainous district of Quito
as one immense volcano_.

Indeed, from a close survey of the geological features of
the earth, there is reason to believe, that at very remote
periods almost the whole surface of our globe has been the
theatre of volcanic action. It is a matter of gratitude
that its amount is growing less every year, of course the
destructions by earthquakes are more limited. In process
of time, it may be hoped, the earth may become permanently
tranquil, nor flame, nor shake, until the final catastrophe,
which God has ordained to destroy our planet, by a general and
simultaneous action of all the fires of the earth.

P.S. It may be of advantage to recollect, that the
_expansive force of steam is to that of gunpowder as 140 to
5_. According to Vauban, 140 pounds of water converted into
vapor would produce an explosion capable of blowing up 77,000
pounds, while 140 pounds of gunpowder could only blow up a mass
of 30,000. _See the text under the head_, “SALUTARY EFFECTS OF
WATER.”