Chapter X: Introduction (9)

MODE OF TAKING.--It would take too long a time to describe all the
modes of catching larks which are in use. It is enough to say that
with day and night nets, known by the name of lark nets, so large a
number of these birds are taken alive in the open country, that it is
easy to have a choice of both males and females. This lark snaring is
accomplished by placing a considerable number of nets perpendicularly
like walls, which are called day-nets, towards which, in the dusk,
the birds are forced by means of a long rope, which is drawn along
the ground, and drives them forward; in the night a square net called
a night-net is carried to a spot where it is known that many larks
are collected in the stubble, and there they are covered just when
they begin to flutter.

If, in the spring, it is wished to procure a good singing male, for
some are better than others, a lark whose wings are tied, and with a
little forked lime-twig fixed to its back, must be carried to the
place where such a bird is to be found. As soon as it is let loose,
and the desired male has perceived it from high in the air, he will
fall upon it like an arrow and attack it; but soon, the dupe of his
jealousy, he will find himself caught by the lime.

ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The very pleasing song of the sky-lark consists
of several stanzas or strains, composed entirely of trills and
flourishes, interrupted from time to time by loud whistling. I have
already said that the lark has great abilities for learning. The
young readily imitate the notes of all the birds in the same room
with them, and the old sometimes succeed also: this, however, is not
general; for among birds as among men, memories vary in power. Some
have a stronger and more melodious voice; there are some which, in
confinement, begin to sing as early as December, and continue till
they moult; while others, less lively, delay till the month of March,
and cease to sing in the month of August. In its wild state, the lark
begins to sing in the first fine days of spring, the season of
pairing, and ceases at the end of July; this, however, is not without
exceptions, as some individuals continue till the end of September.
It belongs to the small number of birds which sing as they fly, and
the higher it rises the more it appears to elevate its voice, so that
it may be heard when it is out of sight. In the country, it very
seldom sings when on the ground; in the room it often does, and with
ease, and it becomes so tame as to come and eat from the table or the
hand.

THE CRESTED LARK.

Alauda cristata, LINNÆUS; Le Cochevis, ou la grosse Alouette
huppée; Die Haubenlerche, BECHSTEIN.

This bird is stronger than the sky-lark, and its colour is lighter, but its length the same. The beak is lead-coloured, and brown at the point, is also rather longer; the iris is dark brown. The shanks are an inch high, and yellowish gray; the head, the cheeks, the upper part of the neck to the upper part of the back, are of a reddish gray, caused by the wide red edges of the feathers, which are brown in the middle; a reddish white line, hardly perceptible above the eyes, but very distinct beyond, extends from the nostrils to the ears; eight or ten long-pointed blackish feathers rising on the head form a beautiful perpendicular crest.

The crest of the female is lower, but her breast is covered with more numerous and rounder spots than the male.

HABITATION.--When wild it is only in autumn and winter that they
appear in Saxony in small or large flights, beside the high roads, on
dunghills, near barns and stables, among sparrows and
yellowhammers; they are also found all over Europe, from Sweden to
Italy[62]; in summer, they frequent the thickets and bushes of the
plains, fields, and meadows, or they inhabit the hollows of ditches,
paths in woods, and elevated villages. They depart in October.

In the house they may be kept in cages, like the sky-lark, or be left
to run about. I know no bird whose feathers grow so quickly; if the
wings are kept clipped, this must be repeated every three or four
weeks, as by that time they are so much grown that they may serve
for flying about the room.

FOOD.--When wild this bird lives, like the sky-lark, on insects,
different sorts of seeds, and oats. In the house it is fed with the
same things, but it becomes more robust and healthy than the
sky-lark.

BREEDING.--This species forms its nest on the ground, under little dry
bushes, under garden vegetables, on clay walls, and even on thatched
roofs. The eggs, in number from four to five, are of a rusty gray,
shaded and spotted at the upper end with dark brown. The first
plumage of the young before moulting is variegated white. They are
taken from the nest when the feathers are half grown to be tamed and
taught airs, or to have them instructed by other birds whose song is
admired; they learn every thing with the greatest ease.

DISEASES.--They are the same as those of other larks. A lousy disease
may be added. I possess two male crested larks, one of which has
hardly any of the lice which so commonly torment birds, whilst the
other, which is nevertheless as gay and musical, is so covered with
them that he cannot be touched without having the hand filled with
these nasty insects. He has been with me four years, and though he
has maintained for a long time millions of these parasites, he
continues in good health, which I attribute to his abundant supply of
good food.

Is this produced by a difference in the cleanly dispositions of these
two birds, or is it a constitutional difference?

MODE OF TAKING.--When, in winter, any spot has been remarked which the
larks prefer, a place must be cleared from snow, some oats and
poppy-seed be thrown upon it for a bait, and limed twigs, nets, or
even a simple gauze, be conveniently arranged, and soon plenty will
be caught.

ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The song of the crested lark is, in my opinion,
very inferior to that of the sky-lark; it seems composed of the
warbling of that and of the linnet; this bird sings also in the
night. Its time of singing lasts from February to August, but longer
in those birds which have been tamed from the nest. It has not the
tottering gait of the sky-lark, but runs nimbly, and moves its crest
in the most expressive way. It is rather quarrelsome, and has the
peculiarity that when it fights it continues to sing.

THE WOOD-LARK.

Alauda arborea, LINNÆUS; Le Cujelier, ou L'Alouette des Bois,
ou La Loulou, BUFFON; Die Waldlerche, BECHSTEIN.

This charming species is one-third smaller than the field-lark, and resembles it much in form and gait. The beak is black above, brown below, tending to carnation at the tip. The shanks, three quarters of an inch high, are of a brownish flesh-colour. The top of the head is reddish brown, with four dark brown lines; its long feathers render the head large, and they may be raised at pleasure into a crest, which from eye to eye is surrounded by a whitish ash-coloured line. The tail is very short.

The female, more beautiful, is of a paler ground, with darker ornaments; her breast more spotted; the crest on her head more prominent, and the line round the cheeks more distinct. It is a well attested observation made on all our indigenous species, that the individuals with the most spots on a lighter ground, and of a clearer white, are certainly females.

HABITATION.--When wild these birds inhabit the temperate regions of
Europe, in summer the woods of the plain, near fields and meadows,
and in the woods of the hills they alternate between heaths and
pasture lands. After breeding time they assemble in small flocks of
ten or twelve. They are thus found in the stubble, at their departure
in October, and their return in March.

In the house I prefer letting them run about, because my experience
shows that they sing better in this way than when caged. They must be
well supplied with river sand, as well to roll and dust themselves as
to pick out grains necessary for their digestion.

FOOD.--When wild, in summer, the food consists of insects; in autumn,
of rape, millet, seed, and oats; in spring, before they can find
insects and worms, they are satisfied with the young buds of herbs,
water-cresses, and, on an emergency, with the buds of the filbert.

In the house, as this species is more delicate than the preceding, it
is well to vary the food, and to give it occasionally, independent of
the universal paste, poppy-seed, oats, hemp, sprouting wheat, fresh
curds, fresh and dried ants' eggs, minced ox heart, meal worms, and
the like. When one of these birds is caught by the net or otherwise,
the best things to induce it to eat when it reaches the bird-room are
poppy-seeds and ants' eggs.

I have seen two wood-larks which had been kept in a cage for eight
years, very healthy and gay, with their feet quite free from disease,
and singing perfectly. Their food consisted of crumbs of white bread
and pounded hemp-seed mixed together; a piece of white bread, enough
for the day, soaked in milk, which was poured boiling over it every
morning, was also furnished; and finally, some ants' eggs, given two
or three times a day as a treat. The bottom of the cage was also
covered with sand, which was changed regularly every day, as well as
the water. They were always kept in summer outside the window,
exposed to the free air, screening them from the sun by covering the
top of the cage with a sheet of paper or piece of linen by way of
parasol. The success of this mode of treatment sufficiently proves
its advantage. The cage was furnished with two bars, because the
wood-lark perches.

BREEDING.--The wood-lark builds among the heath, under juniper bushes,
in hedges, high grass, or under a green hillock in fields near the
woods, or in copse wood. The nest is made of dry blades of grass,
mixed with moss, wool, and hair. The eggs are variegated with light
gray and brownish violet. The young may be bred up with bread soaked
in milk, and ants' eggs. They readily learn the different songs of
the birds with which they are imprisoned; but this medley is less
agreeable to me than their natural song.

DISEASES.--To the list of diseases already given, to which the
wood-lark may be subject, I must add one which is peculiar to it.
This attacks the feet and renders them extremely brittle. I cannot
too strongly recommend to clean them carefully from everything which
might entangle them; a single hair may cut them, so that the toes
shrivel, or ulcerate and fall off. They become so brittle with age,
that with all my cares I could never keep any beyond four years; the
least thing breaks them. Most of the wood-larks which I have had
perished from broken legs; and this peculiarity I have remarked in no
other species of bird.

We see from these instances, that if birds allowed to hop about a
room enjoy more space and free exercise, they are also subject to
more inconveniences and disadvantages than caged birds. Their food is
neither so appropriate or regular; they cannot be kept so clean;
their feet are almost inevitably injured; and lice devour them,
without the power of prevention.

MODE OF TAKING.--The wood-lark may be caught on the nest by means of
limed twigs; but as it is very cruel to separate a pair, and thus to
destroy a whole family, it is better to wait till autumn, and to use
the night-net. They may be caught early in the spring, when there is
snow on the ground, by placing limed twigs or nets in cleared places.
This is the best method of catching them. It is true that this plan
will not succeed in all years; but another may be substituted, if we
have a decoy wood-lark, by placing it under a folding net, in a field
frequented by a flight of this species, which will not fail to join
it. The same means also may be used as with the chaffinch, namely, by
tying the wings of a wood-lark with a limed twig on his back, and
letting him run to the place where there is a male of the same
species. By this means the bird-fancier may obtain whatever kind of
singer he prefers.

ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Of all the species of larks the wood lark has
the finest song, and to my taste it is, of all our indigenous birds
(always excepting the nightingale), the one whose natural notes are
the most delightful. Its clear flute-like voice executes a sonorous,
tender, and somewhat melancholy air. In the country it rises from the
tops of the trees so high in the air that the eye can scarcely
discern it, and there remaining stationary, the wings and the tail
expanded, it sings uninterruptedly for hours together; it sings in
the same manner when perched on a tree.

In the house, it is from a retired corner, tranquil and motionless,
that it utters the different modulations of its beautiful voice. The
singing time in its wild state is from March to July; in the house,
from February to August. The female, like other larks, sings also,
but her strains are shorter and less sustained. These birds appear to
be subject to whims: I have seen some which would never sing in a
room or in the presence of an auditor. These perverse birds must be
placed in a long cage outside the window. I have remarked that in
general these obstinate birds are the best singers. Their abrupt step
and various frolics, in which they raise the feathers of the head and
neck, are also very amusing.

THE TITLARK.

Anthus arboreus, BECHSTEIN; L'Alouette Pipi, BUFFON; Die
Waldpieper, BECHSTEIN.

This is the smallest of our larks; its length is but five inches and a half, two and a half of which belong to the tail, which it carries and moves like a wagtail, and by this characteristic it seems to stand intermediate between the larks and the wagtails. The sharp beak is dark brown above and whitish below; the iris is brown. The shanks are three quarters of an inch high, and light flesh-coloured; the angle of the hind toe is short and crooked. The head, rather oval than round, is, with the neck, back, rump, and sides, of an olive brown with black wavy spots.

The female differs from the male only in the paler yellow of the throat, neck, and breast; the white spot in the second tail-feather is also smaller, and the two transverse bands on the wings are whiter. The young males of the first year have the under part of the body of a lighter yellow than those which are older.

HABITATION.--When wild, with the exception of the most northern parts,
this species is found all over Europe. They build in great numbers in
Germany and England, in mountainous and woody places, and establish
themselves by preference on the skirts of forests, in fields, and
orchards, in their neighbourhood, or in the cleared parts of woods.
In the month of August they arrive in small flights in fields and
enclosures planted with cabbages, where caterpillars abound. In
September they pass into the oat fields, and in October they are
caught in the nets with the common larks. The time of their return is
about the end of March; and if the cold is severe they collect by
thousands in damp fields and near warm springs. One peculiarity of
this species is the having during the rest of the year a call
different from that of the breeding season. It no longer perches on
trees and bushes, but remains on the ground, crying "_pitt, pitt_,"
(or rather, I think, "_guik, guik_,") while in the sitting time the
cry is more tender, expresses more solicitude, "_tzip, tzip_," and is
heard only in the immediate neighbourhood of the nest. As soon,
therefore, as this cry strikes the ear, we may be sure the nest is
not far off; and if the young are hatched we shall soon see the
father or mother with a beakful of insects, redoubling and increasing
the cry as they approach their precious charge. The other cry of
"_pitt_" or "_guik_" is never heard at this season; whence it happens
that sportsmen and bird-catchers make two species of this same lark;
one they name the heath lark, whose call in the woods is "_tzip_,"
and the other the cabbage lark, which in the fields calls "_guik_." I
have never been able to convince these people of their error, but by
showing them in my bird-room the same lark which called "_guik_" in
the autumn and winter, and "_tzip_" in the summer. We may judge by
this circumstance how many mistakes and errors may slip into natural
history, when in the determination of species we meet with things
which we can neither see nor verify.

In confinement, I have been accustomed to let the calling lark range
freely among my other birds, because I would not trouble myself to
give it a particular cage. I own, however, that it would be better so
circumstanced, on all accounts, as well in regard to its health as
its song. This cage should be long, like that of the sky-lark, and
furnished with two sticks, because this kind perches.

FOOD.--When wild, the food consists of all sorts of flies,
grasshoppers, caterpillars, butterflies, beetles, and ants' eggs.

In confinement, as it is the most delicate of its species, the food
must be frequently changed and varied. Besides the universal paste,
we should sometimes give it the common food of the nightingale,
sometimes bruised hemp, mouldy cheese, meal worms, and ants' eggs.

It is very difficult to accustom it to take the food of the
bird-room. As soon as it arrives, we must throw it some meal worms,
ants' eggs, or caterpillars; as soon as these are eaten, some must be
mixed with the universal paste and with all its food; it will thus
insensibly grow accustomed to the common food.

This lark does not roll in the sand, and dust itself like the others,
but it thrusts its beak into water and sprinkles itself; another
indication of its approximation to the wagtail, as was mentioned
above.

BREEDING.--The titlark lays twice a year. The nest, placed on the
ground in a cleared part of the woods, or under a bush or hillock, in
a tuft of grass, in a field or orchard, is made in the simplest
manner; coarse hay outside and finer within, with some wool and hair,
are all the materials. The eggs, in number from four to five, are
gray mottled with brown; the young escape as soon as possible, having
but too many enemies to fear on the ground.

They may be brought up with ants' eggs and white bread soaked in
boiled milk, to which a few poppy-seeds are added. They easily learn
to imitate the songs of the birds in the same room with them,
especially that of the canary, without however attaining any great
perfection.

DISEASES.--Independent of those which are common to the other birds of
its species, it is particularly subject to the loss of its feathers
out of the moulting season; if it is not at once supplied with food
more nutritious, and better suited to its natural habits, as ants'
eggs, meal worms, and other insects, it soon dies of atrophy. At the
best it can only be preserved five or six years[63].

MODE OF TAKING.--To take the bird from its nest by a limed twig, and
thus destroy the young family by hunger and misery, is a cruelty
which none but a harsh insensible amateur could resolve upon. I
prefer using the night-net in autumn; this bird is also caught in the
water-trap in August and September.

ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The song of the titlark, though short, and
composed of only three strains mixed with shakes and trills, is
nevertheless very pleasing. It sings from the end of March to July,
either from the top of a tree, where it is perched, or when rising
perpendicularly in the air, where it remains a few minutes and then
quietly descends, almost always to the same place. As it alights it
repeats several times "_tzia, tzia, tzia_." In the house it begins to
sing a month earlier. It pleases also by its pretty ways; its step is
somewhat grave, and the tail is in perpetual motion: it is always
very clean and trim.

THE FIELD PIPIT.

Anthus campestris, BECHSTEIN; La Spipolette, BUFFON; Die
Brachpieper, BECHSTEIN.

In figure it is more slender than the sky-lark; the plumage resembles that of the crested lark, and the form that of the titlark. Its length is six inches and a half. The beak is strong and long, the line above the eyes distinctly marked, the breast yellowish white, with but few rays or lines. In summer it frequents marshy woods, in autumn the edges of the fields, high roads, and meadows, where it may be easily caught with the night-net. Its only known song is its constant cry "_tsirru_" and "_datsida_" while revolving in the air. It departs in September and returns in April. Its food is the same as that of the titlark; it also requires the same treatment when in confinement if it should be wished to keep it, but it has no qualities to make this desirable.

THE SHORE LARK.

Alauda alpestris, LINNÆUS; Alouette Haussecol noir, ou
Alouette de Virginie, BUFFON; Die Berglerche, BECHSTEIN.

This species is seven inches long, rather stronger than the field pipit, and has the same plumage on the upper part of the body; but the throat is light yellow, as well as the rest of the under part of the neck, over which and the top of the breast passes a black band, which in the lower part is shaped like a horse-shoe. The beak, feet, and claws, are black.

OBSERVATIONS.--This species properly inhabits the north as well of
Europe as of America, as far as Virginia; but in the winter it
appears in Germany, where it may be seen by the road side picking
for its food the undigested grains in horse-dung. It perches like the
wood-lark. It is caught in the southern parts of Thuringia with lime
twigs, or nets, at its return in March, when there has happened a
heavy fall of snow; but at such times it is so thin and so weak for
want of food as scarcely to have strength to eat what is offered to
it. It may, no doubt, be preserved in confinement by treating it like
other larks, but of this I have no experience, never having been able
to procure a single living individual of this species, which also
prevents my speaking of its song.

THE CALANDRA LARK.

Alauda Calandra, LINNÆUS; La Calandre, BUFFON; Die Kalander,
BECHSTEIN.

Larger than the common lark, the Calandra is also furnished with a shorter and stronger beak, which enables it to shell its grain; in other respects the plumage, the form, and manners, are the same, the only difference being a very distinct and apparent spot on the lower part of the neck. The male is distinguished by being larger and blacker round the neck; the female has a very narrow collar, and sometimes none at all; some individuals, old ones doubtless, have a large black mark at the top of the breast. The tail is black, according to Linnæus, while in the preceding it is brown.

HABITATION.--It appears that this species has much resemblance to the
preceding; but it does not inhabit the North; it is found in Syria,
Italy, Sardinia, and Provence: it is also said to frequent Carolina,
in America.

In confinement it must be furnished with a long cage, the top made of
linen, because it hops and jumps about a great deal, especially at
first. It must be fed like the other larks.

BREEDING.--It builds on the ground like the sky-lark, and lays four or
five eggs. In order to have calandras which sing well, they must be
bred up from the nest, and be fed in the same manner as the young of
the sky-lark species; this is how they breed them in Provence.

MODE OF TAKING.--In the countries where it is found, the plan consists
in spreading a net near the water where it drinks; this method is
considered the best.

ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its song is so admired in Italy, that "to sing
like a calandra" is a common expression for to "sing well." It also
possesses the talent of imitating, like the sky-lark, the songs of
many birds, such as the goldfinch, the linnet, the canary, and even
the chirp of young chickens, the cry of the cat, in short, all sounds
adapted to its organs, and which may be acquired when they are
flexible.

THE STARLING.

Sturnus vulgaris, LINNÆUS; L'Etourneau, BUFFON; Der gemeine
Staar, BECHSTEIN.

The length of this bird is eight inches and a half, two and a half of which belong to the tail, and one to the beak, which is awl-shaped, angular, flattish, and rather blunt, yellow, brown towards the end, and the tip blue. The iris is nut-brown; the claws an inch long, are deep flesh-coloured. All the plumage is of a blackish hue, changing to purple towards the front of the body, and to green towards the hind part, and on the wing-coverts. The old males are darker, having no white tips to the feathers of the head, cheeks, throat, or belly.

The beak of the female is rather brown than yellow; the light spots on the head, neck, and breast, are larger, and the edge of the feathers is wider, which gives it a lighter and more speckled appearance.

The starling, like all other species, has its varieties: such are the white, the streaked or variegated, the white-headed, that whose body is white with a black head, and the ash gray.

HABITATION.--When wild the starling is found all over the old world.
It prefers forests and little thickets, surrounded by fields and
meadows; it is often seen, especially in spring, on towers, steeples,
and churches; but it is never found either in high mountains or
ridges. In our climate, it departs, in October, in great flights for
the south, and returns in like manner in the beginning of March.
During the journey, these birds pass the night among the rushes,
where, on the least alarm, they make a great tumult.

In confinement it would be very amusing to let them run free; but let
them be ever so neat themselves, they would render the room dirty.
When caged, they must be furnished with a cage at least two feet
long, and one and a half both in height and width. Very restless and
always in motion, they require sufficient space to take exercise and
keep their plumage uninjured.

FOOD.--When wild they eat not only caterpillars, snails, worms,
insects, and the flies which torment the cattle in the field; but
also cherries, grapes, berries of all sorts, and different sorts of
grain, as millet and hemp seed.

In confinement they eat meat, worms, bread, cheese, the universal
paste, indeed, any food, provided it is not sour. When first caught,
they are supplied with earth and meal-worms, and they soon become as
tame as if they had been brought up from the nest; but, as there is
no rule without exceptions, we sometimes meet with individuals which
obstinately refuse to eat, whatever pains may be taken to induce
them, and which die of hunger. This bird delights in bathing often,
it must therefore never be left without fresh water in a proper
vessel.

BREEDING.--The starling builds in the holes of trees, and even in
boxes, or pots with long necks, suspended to trees, or under the
roof, or in pigeon-houses. Its simple nest is composed of dry leaves,
hay, and feathers. Like the swallow it returns to the same nest every
year, only taking care to clean it out. It lays twice in the year,
seven eggs each time, whose colour is ashy green. The young, before
moulting, are of rather a yellowish soot colour, than pure black. The
beak is dark brown; those which are bred from the nest, and which are
easily reared on white bread soaked in milk, repeat the airs they are
taught in a stronger and more distinct manner than bullfinches and
linnets. They can, indeed, repeat a succession of couplets without
changing or mixing them. In Voigtlande, the peasants use the starling
like domestic pigeons; they eat the young, which they take before
they can fly; by this means they obtain three broods, but they do not
touch the last, both in order not to discourage and drive away the
father and mother, and not to diminish this branch of economy.

Starlings have been seen to build in dwelling-houses, in an earthen
vase with a long neck, appropriated to the purpose[64].

DISEASES.--I know none peculiar to them. These birds will live ten or
twelve years in confinement.

MODE OF TAKING.--It is principally in autumn, and in places filled
with reeds, that the bird-catchers take great numbers of starlings in
nets prepared for the purpose. They may also be procured by means of
an osier fish-net, placed among the reeds, which they frequent in the
evening, and baited with cherries. Though this means is limited, as
many as a hundred have been procured by it in one night.

In Thuringia it is never attempted to catch them for the house except
in the month of March, when snow falls after their arrival. For this
purpose limed twigs are put in places cleared from snow, and beside
swampy ditches, with some earth-worms for a snare, into which they
fall as easily as chickens.

ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The starling becomes wonderfully familiar in
the house; as docile and cunning as a dog, he is always gay, wakeful,
soon knows all the inhabitants of the house, remarks their motions
and air, and adapts himself to their humours. In his solemn tottering
step, he appears to go stupidly forward; but nothing escapes his eye.
He learns to pronounce words without having his tongue cut, which
proves the uselessness of this cruel operation. He repeats correctly
the airs which are taught him, as does also the female, imitates the
cries of men and animals, and the songs of all the birds in the room
with him. It must be owned that his acquirements are very uncertain:
he forgets as fast as he learns, or he mixes up the old and new in
utter confusion; therefore, if it is wished to teach him an air, or
to pronounce some words clearly and distinctly, it is absolutely
necessary to separate him from other birds and animals, in a room
where he can hear nothing. Not only are the young susceptible of
these instructions, the oldest even show the most astonishing
docility.

THE BOHEMIAN CHATTERER.

Ampelis garrulus, LINNÆUS; Le Jaseur de Bohème, BUFFON; Der
gemeine Seidenschwanz, BECHSTEIN.

The length of this bird is eight inches, one and a quarter of which belong to the tail. The beak is three quarters of an inch long, black, short, straight, arched above, and large at the base, forming a large opening when the mandibles are separated; the iris is brown; the shanks nearly an inch high, and black. The whole body is covered with soft silky feathers; those at the top of the head are long, and rise in a crest; the head and the rest of the upper part of the body are of a reddish ash-colour, changing to gray at the rump; the middle coverts are dark ash gray, with the ends white also, besides which, the shaft of many has a horny tip, shining and red, like a little oval bit of sealing-wax. The female has at most but five of these waxen tips to each wing, while the male has from five to nine; the tail is black, terminated with primrose yellow; very old males have also upon it narrow red wax tips.

In the female, the black spot on the throat is smaller; the yellow at the end of the tail is also narrower and paler; the tips of the wings are of a yellowish white; lastly, the horny appendages are small, and often they do not appear at all.

HABITATION.--When wild it does not build in Germany, but within the
Arctic circle; it is found in Thuringia only in the winter, and if
the season is mild in very small numbers, the greater portion
remaining in the north; but in severe cold it advances farther south.
In moderate seasons it is found in great flights in the skirts of the
forests throughout the greater part of Germany and Bohemia.

In confinement, it is generally kept in a grated corner, where it may
run about freely with the other birds which are also placed there,
taking care to keep it at a distance from the stove, the heat of
which is so distressing that it opens its beak and breathes with
difficulty; this proves that a warm climate is not congenial to the
bird. If kept in a cage, it requires one as large as the thrush; and,
as it is a very dirty bird, the bottom must be regularly covered with
a sufficient quantity of sand.

FOOD.--When wild we see it in the spring eating, like thrushes, all
sorts of flies and other insects; in autumn and winter different
kinds of berries; and, in times of need, the buds and sprouts of the
beech, maple, and various fruit trees.

In confinement the two universal pastes appear delicacies to it; and
it is even satisfied with bran steeped in water. It swallows every
thing voraciously, and refuses nothing eatable, such as potatoes,
cabbage, salad, fruits of all sorts, and especially white bread. It
likes to bathe, or rather to sprinkle itself with water, for it does
not wet itself so much as other birds.

MODE OF TAKING.--It is taken in nooses, to which berries are fixed,
which, for this purpose, should always be kept in store till
February; attracted by the bait it falls into the snare. It appears
to be frightened at nothing, for it flies into nets and traps, though
it sees its companions caught and hanging, and uttering cries of
distress and fear.

ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Nothing but its beauty and scarcity can render
the possession of it desirable; for it is a stupid, lazy bird. During
the ten or twelve years that it can exist in confinement, and on very
meagre food, it does nothing but eat and repose for digestion. If
hunger induces it to move, its step is awkward, and its jumps so
clumsy as to be disagreeable to the eye. Its song consists only of
weak and uncertain whistling, a little resembling the thrush, but not
so loud. While singing, it moves the crest up and down, but hardly
moves the throat. If this warbling is somewhat unmusical, it has the
merit of continuing throughout every season of the year. When the
Bohemian chatterer is angry, which happens sometimes near the common
feeding-trough, it knocks very violently with its beak. It is easily
tamed, but is agreeable only by its beautiful colours, for it is very
dirty. It is the greatest eater among birds that I know, being able
to devour in a day a quantity of food equal to its own weight. It
consequently passes hardly half digested, and, what is very
disgusting, it is seen, like the ostrich, to eat again this
excrement, if it is destitute of fresh food. I have observed it in
this way swallow three times juniper berries which I had given it. In
consequence of this voraciousness it must be cleaned very often to be
kept sweet.

THE DIPPER.

Cinclus aquaticus, BECHSTEIN; Le Merle d'Eau, BUFFON; Der
Wasserschwätzer, BECHSTEIN.

This bird resembles the starling in size, but the head is more pointed, and the body, in general, larger, while the wings and tail are shorter, the tail being only one inch and a quarter long, and the ends of the wings cover a fourth part of it; the beak is three quarters of an inch long, narrow, flattish at the sides, raised in the middle, sharp and black; the narrow nostrils are almost entirely closed by a membrane; the iris is light brown; the shanks are an inch high, and of a dark brown, and have the four toes united together; the head and upper part of the neck are of a dusky rust brown; the rest of the upper part of the body is black, with an ashy gray tint; the quill-feathers and tail are blackish; the neck to half-way down the breast is pure white; the rest of the breast is deep maroon, which shades into the black of the belly.

In the female the head and upper part of the neck are lighter, and the white of the breast is not so pure as in the male.

HABITATION.--When wild it frequents by preference the banks of rivers
and streams in mountainous countries, and remains all the year near
those whose waters flow from springs which never freeze.

In confinement it has a cage like the thrush, unless it is by
preference allowed to run about the room.

FOOD.--When wild it feeds upon aquatic insects, worms, and even small
fish, which it is said to seize by diving.

In confinement it becomes insensibly accustomed to one of the
universal pastes, by at first giving it worms, and the eggs of ants
and flies.

BREEDING.--The female lays from four to six eggs in a rather large
nest, which she places in a crack of the rocks at the edge of the
water, or in dikes under mill-dams, the wooden gutters of mills, or
between the wings of old water-wheels which are not in use. The young
may be reared on meal-worms, ants' eggs, and white bread soaked in
milk. It is just as well not to take them till they are ready to fly.

MODE OF TAKING.--Each pair has a chosen spot, which it seldom leaves:
and they are generally seen there either on a trough, a stone, dike,
or a bush growing near; by fixing close to these places limed twigs,
to which are fastened worms, which writhe about and attract
attention, it is very easy to catch them.

As soon as one of these birds is caught and caged, he must be put in
a quiet place, be fed with earth and meal-worms, and thus be
gradually accustomed to the common food.

ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The song of the dipper is not disagreeable; he
has, indeed, some very sonorous strains, which in the distance and
during winter have a very good effect. He also sings in the night.

THE MISSEL THRUSH.

Turdus viscivorus, LINNÆUS; La Draine, BUFFON; Die
Misteldrossel, BECHSTEIN.

This is the largest of our thrushes, being in length eleven inches, three and a half of which belong to the tail. The beak is one inch in length, sharp, dark brown, with the lower base and opening yellow; the iris is brown; the shanks an inch high, and of a pale dusky yellow. All the upper part of the body is a brownish gray, with a reddish tint on the lower part of the back and rump; the sides of the head and the rest of the under part of the body are of a pale yellow, with blackish triangular spots on the breast, and oval spots in all other parts.

The female is generally lighter in all the colours.

HABITATION.--When wild the missel thrush is found all over Europe, but
more in the north than the south. It lives in forests, especially
those of the mountains, and prefers those of fir to oak and beech. In
Thuringia it is a bird of passage, disappearing in December and
returning in the month of February, provided the weather is fine[65].

In confinement it is common to assign it a grated corner of the room
unless a cage is preferred, which must be at least three feet and a
half long, and nearly as many high, a size necessary for it to take
the exercise suited to its vivacity and petulance, without injuring
its feathers. It would be still better if it could be allowed, as
other birds of its size, an aviary or room to itself, where its
copious excrements would be less troublesome.

FOOD.--When wild it feeds on insects and earth-worms, which it finds
in abundance in fields and swamps during the spring and summer; in
autumn and winter berries of all sorts make a great addition.

In confinement it is not dainty. The two universal pastes are very
well liked, but it will put up with plain oatmeal, or even bran
moistened with water. It is thus that our bird-fanciers feed it
throughout the year, as well as many other large birds caught in
traps, which they are obliged to keep as a lure for the snare. It is
true, that if this meagre diet is sufficient to keep it alive, it
will hardly serve to enliven it and make it sing; for this purpose it
must be better fed, with bread and milk, meat, and other dishes
served at table, none of which it refuses; and it must also be
allowed to bathe, since nothing does it more good, or enlivens it so
much.

BREEDING.--Its nest, which it places higher or lower in the trees of
the forest, is formed at bottom of herb-stalks and lichens, in the
middle of earth, and in the interior of mosses, fine roots and hay:
it lays twice a year, generally each time four greenish white eggs, a
little speckled with violet and maroon. The young birds are gray
above and very much spotted under, with a wide edge of rusty yellow
on the wing feathers. Much less docile and susceptible of instruction
than the blackbird, they hardly remember any little thing which they
hear continually, but they become so familiar as to sing without
difficulty on the hand. They are fed with white bread soaked in
boiled milk.

DISEASES.--The commonest disorders of this bird, are an obstruction of
the rump gland, constipation, and atrophy[66].

MODE OF TAKING.--These birds are taken in autumn with nets and snares,
with berries for the bait, and they are caught in great numbers. They
may also be taken in February, by placing under the trees on which
the mistleto grows, perches with limed twigs. They may also be caught
in the water-traps at sunset. Those which are yellowish under the
body, being males, are chosen for confinement. During the first days
of captivity, they are savage, sulky, and often refuse to eat, so
that many perish in this way; those which are saved soon repay the
trouble by their songs and familiarity.

ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Perched on the top of a tree in the woods, the
missel thrush begins, in the month of February, to utter his
melancholy but musical warblings, consisting of five or six broken
strains, and continues singing for four or five months. As his song
is too loud for the sitting-room, this bird should be placed in a
large hall, or his cage should be hung outside a window. He lives in
captivity from ten to twelve years. His call very much resembles
"_iis, r, r, r_."

THE SONG THRUSH.

Turdus musicus, LINNÆUS; La Grive, BUFFON; Die Singdrossel,
BECHSTEIN.

We might, with Brisson, name this bird the _small missel thrush_, so much does it resemble the preceding in form, plumage, abode, manners, and gait. Its length is only eight inches and a half, three and a half of which belong to the tail. The beak is three quarters of an inch, horn brown, the under part yellowish at the base and yellow within; the iris is nut brown; the shanks are an inch high, and of a dingy lead-colour. All the upper part of the body is olive brown; the throat is yellowish white, with a black line on each side; the sides of the neck and breast are of a pale reddish white, variegated with dark brown spots, shaped liked a heart reversed; the belly is white, and covered with more oval spots.

In the female the two black lines on the throat are narrower, the breast is lighter, and of a plain yellowish white, and the reddish spots on the wing-coverts are smaller. These slight differences make it desirable for those whose eye is not accustomed to them, to have both sexes before them, if they wish to learn to distinguish them.

The white variety, that with a white head, the streaked, and the ash-coloured, are not very rare.

HABITATION.--When wild this species is spread all over Europe,
frequenting woods near streams and meadows. As soon as the autumnal
fogs appear, they collect in large flights to seek a warmer
climate[67]. The principal time of passage is from the 15th of
September to the 15th of October, and of return about the middle or
end of March; each pair then returns to its own district, and the
male warbles his hymn to spring from the same tree where he had sung
it the preceding year.

In confinement this bird is lodged like the missel thrush, and is
much more worthy of being kept, as its voice is more beautiful, its
song is more varied, and being smaller it makes less dirt.

FOOD.--When wild it lives on insects and berries, like the preceding.

In confinement, oatmeal moistened with milk is a very good food; and
it requires also a great deal of fresh water, as well for bathing as
drinking. When taken old it is often very difficult to induce these
birds to eat, and the greater number die in consequence.

BREEDING.--This species generally builds on the lower branches of
trees; the nest being pretty large, and formed of moss mixed with
earth or cow-dung. The hen lays twice a year, from three to six green
eggs, speckled with large and small dark brown spots. The first brood
is ready to fly by the end of April. The upper part of the body in
the young ones is speckled with white. By taking them from the nest
when half-grown they may be easily reared on white bread soaked in
boiled milk; and they are easily taught to perform airs. As this
thrush builds by preference in the neighbourhood of water, the nest
may be easily found by seeking it in the woods beside a stream, and
near it the male will be heard singing.

MODE OF TAKING.--This is the same as for the preceding species and the
three which follow; of all the birds for which snares are laid, those
for the thrush are most successful. A perch with a limed twig is the
best method for catching a fine-toned male. In September and October
these birds may also be caught in the water traps, where they repair
at sunrise and sunset, and sometimes so late that they cannot be
seen, and the ear is the only guide. When they enter the water haste
must be avoided, because they like to bathe in company, and assemble
sometimes to the number of ten or twelve at once, by means of a
particular call. The first which finds a convenient stream, and
wishes to go to it, cries in a tone of surprise or joy, "_sik, sik,
sik, siki, tsac, tsac, tsac_;" immediately all in the neighbourhood
reply together, and repair to the place: they enter the bath however
with much circumspection, and seldom venture till they have seen a
red-breast bathe without danger; but the first which ventures is soon
followed by the others, which begin to quarrel if the place is not
large enough for all the bathers. In order to attract them, it is a
good plan to have a tame bird running and fluttering on the banks of
the stream.

ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The song thrush is the great charm of our
woods, which it enlivens by the beauty of its song. The rival of the
nightingale, it announces in varied accents the return of spring, and
continues its delightful notes during all the summer months,
particularly at morning and evening twilight. It is to procure this
gratification in his dwelling that the bird-fancier rears it, and
deprives it of its liberty; and he thus enjoys the pleasures of the
woods in the midst of the city. With care and properly varied food it
may be preserved in captivity five or six years.

THE FIELDFARE.

Turdus pilaris, LINNÆUS; La Litorne, ou La Tourdelle, BUFFON;
Die Wachholderdrossel, BECHSTEIN.

This bird is in size between the two preceding, its length being ten inches, of which the tail occupies four. The beak is an inch long, blackish at the point, otherwise yellow, as well as the opening of the throat and the tongue. The iris is dark brown. The shanks, an inch and a quarter high, are deep brown; the top of the head and neck, the cheeks, the bottom of the back, and the rump, are ash gray, with some blackish spots at the top of the head; a white line passes above the eyes; the back is rust brown; the throat and half the breast are rusty yellow, strewed with black heart-shaped spots; the rest of the under part of the body is white, with blackish heart-shaped spots on the sides, and longer ones towards the vent and tail.

In the female the upper part of the beak is browner, the head and rump of a paler gray, the throat whitish, the back dingy rust colour, and the feet deep brown.

Of this species there are many varieties, the white, the spotted, the white headed, and the like.

HABITATION.--When wild this species spreads not only all over Europe,
but also over Syria and Siberia. In the summer it remains in the
northern regions, where it builds in pine forests. It arrives in
Germany and England in prodigious flights in November, and passes the
winter in places producing the juniper; its return northward takes
place in the first fine days of spring.

In confinement it is treated like the missel thrush, but it is
generally only kept as a decoy bird. Heat being injurious, it is kept
as far as possible from the stove.

FOOD.--When wild it feeds like the two preceding species.

In confinement it is fed in the same way; raw carrots grated with
bread is added, which the others like also.

MODE OF TAKING.--The same as in the two preceding species.

ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its song is a mere harsh disagreeable warble. I
should not have introduced it among cage birds if the lovers of
bird-catching did not in winter require its call when pursuing its
species.

THE REDWING.

Turdus iliacus, LINNÆUS; Le Mauvis, BUFFON; Die Rothdrossel,
BECHSTEIN.

This species is smaller than the song thrush, and has much resemblance to the fieldfare. Its length is eight inches, of which the tail occupies three and a quarter. The beak is nearly an inch long, blackish, and yellow only at the base and angles of the lower mandible; the iris is nut-brown. The shanks are an inch high, and light gray; the feet are yellow; the head, the upper part of the neck, the back, the rump, and the small coverts of the wings, are olive brown. The plumage is more brilliant than that of other thrushes, and the orange-hue under the wings, which has procured it the name of the redwing thrush, will always sufficiently distinguish this from those of the same genus.

The female is altogether lighter coloured. The line of the eyes is almost white; the spots on the sides of the neck light yellow; the under part of the body is white, the neck alone appearing yellowish; the spots on the breast are grayish brown, and there are none about the vent. This species also has its varieties, as white, streaked, and the like.

HABITATION.--When wild it inhabits the north of Europe; it goes to the
south only towards the end of October, and returns at the end of
March or beginning of April.

In confinement the redwing is treated like the preceding; but it is
not much valued, as its song is in no respect agreeable. It always
requires fresh water and but little warmth.

FOOD, MODE OF TAKING, DISEASES.--The same as in the preceding species.