Chapter XXXV: Book XVII (10)

[2497] This supposed marvel merely arises from the fact that the fruit has a strong ligneous stalk, which almost precludes the possibility of its dropping off. This is the case, too, not only with the pine, but with numerous other trees as well.

[2498] “Dried” nuts.

[2499] See B. xxiv. c. 41.

[2500] But in B. xxiv. c. 32, he speaks of the fruit of the black poplar as an antidote for epilepsy. In fact, he is quite in error in denying a seed to any of these trees.

[2501] See c. 29 of this Book.

[2502] The Rhamnus alaternus of Linnæus, the Phylica elatior of C. Bauhin. In reality, it bears a small black berry, of purgative qualities.

[2503] “Infelices,” “unhappy” rather.

[2504] Daughter of Sithon, king of Thrace, who hanged herself on account of the supposed inconstancy of her lover, Demophöon. See Ovid, Heroid. 2.

[2505] This must not be taken to the letter; indeed, Fée thinks that the proper meaning is:—“Young trees do not produce fruit till they have arrived at a certain state of maturity.” Trees mostly continue on the increase till they die.

[2506] See B. xvii. c. 2. The assertion here made has not been confirmed by experience.

[2507] “Frugiperda:” in the Greek, ὠλεσίκαρπον. See Homer. Od. x. l. 510. It has been suggested, Pliny says, that the willow seed had this epithet from its effect in causing abortion; but he does not seem to share the opinion.

[2508] This cannot be a willow, Fée remarks; indeed, Theophrastus, B. iii. c. 5, speaks of a black poplar as growing there.

[2509] See B. xv. c. 13. It is not impossible that Pliny may have mistaken here the Persea, or Balanites Ægyptiaca, for the Persica, or peach. See p. 296.

[2510] Fée remarks, that this expression is remarkable as giving a just notion of the relative functions of the male and female in plants. He says that one might almost be tempted to believe that they suspected something of the nature and functions of the pistils and stamens.

[2511] This statement, which is drawn from Theophrastus, is rather fanciful than rigorously true.

[2512] B. xiii. c. 7.

[2513] Or “forerunner.” The Spaniards call a similar fig “brevas,” the “ready ripener.”

[2514] See B. xv. c. 19.

[2515] See B. xv. c. 21.

[2516] This does not happen in the northern climates; though sometimes it is the case that a fruit-tree blossoms again towards the end of summer, and if the autumn is fine and prolonged, these late fruits will ripen. Such a phenomenon, however, is of very rare occurrence.

[2517] See B. xviii. c. 74.

[2518] “Insanæ.” There are some varieties of the vine which blossom more than once, and bear green grapes and fully ripe ones at the same moment.

[2519] De Re Rust. c. 7.

[2520] The suggested reading, “apud matrem magnam,” seems preferable to “apud mare,” and receives support from what is said relative to Smyrna in B. xiv. c. 6.

[2521] See B. v. c. 3.

[2522] B. xviii. c. 51.

[2523] B. xv. c. 19.

[2524] This is not the fact: the fruits of all trees have their proper time for ripening.

[2525] He speaks here in too general terms; the pear, for instance, is not more fruitful when old than when young.

[2526] He speaks of the process of caprification. See B. xv. c. 21.

[2527] So our proverb, “Soon ripe, soon rotten;” applicable to mankind as well as trees. See B. xxiii. c. 23.

[2528] See B. xv. c. 27. The mulberry tree will live for several centuries.

[2529] This stimulates the sap, and adds to its activity: but the tree grows old all the sooner, being the more speedily exhausted.

[2530] In cc. 9-14 of the present Book.

[2531] This passage is quite unintelligible; and it is with good reason that Fée questions whether Pliny really understood the author that he copied from.

[2532] Fée remarks, that Pliny does not seem to know that the catkin is an assemblage of flowers, and that without it the tree would be totally barren.

[2533] Pliny blunders sadly here, in copying from Theophrastus, B. iii. c. 16. He mixes up a description of the box and the cratægus, or holm-oak, making the latter to be a seed of the former: and he then attributes a mistletoe to the box, which Theophrastus speaks of as growing on the cratægus.

[2534] See c. 93, where he enlarges on the varieties of the mistletoe.

[2535] See B. xxiv. c. 71.

[2536] He means the garden or border-box, mentioned in c. 28 of this Book.

[2537] See B. xiii. c. 17: the African lotus, probably; the Zizyphus lotus of Desfontaines.

[2538] This statement is entirely incorrect. If a tree loses the terminal bud, it will grow no higher; but it will not die if the extremities of the branches are cut. Such, in fact, is much more likely to happen when they are all cut off, from the extreme loss of juices which must naturally ensue at the several cicatrices united.

[2539] The Celtis australis of Linnæus. Pliny is in error in calling this tree the “Grecian bean.” In B. xiii. c. 22, he erroneously calls the African lotus by the name of “celtis,” which only belongs to the lotus of Italy; that of Africa being altogether different.

[2540] The bark, which is astringent, is still used in preparing skins, and a black colouring matter extracted from the root is employed in dyeing wool.

[2541] Quite an accidental resemblance, if, indeed, it ever existed.

[2542] “Oculus”—the bud on the trunk.

[2543] This must be either a mistake or an exaggeration; the cherry never being a very large tree.

[2544] It is evident that he is speaking of the epidermis only, and not the cortical layers and the liber.

[2545] The roots of trees being ligneous, “carnosæ,” Fée remarks, is an inappropriate term.

[2546] Georg. ii. 291.

[2547] “Lagenas.” Fée takes this to mean here vessels to hold liquids, and remarks that the workers in wicker cannot attain this degree of perfection at the present day.

[2548] Pliny is in error in rejecting this notion.

[2549] See B. xii. c. 5, and B. xiii. c. 29. What Pliny states of the fir, or Abies pectinata, Theophrastus relates of the πεύκη, or Abies excelsa of Decandolles. There is little doubt that in either case the statement is incorrect.

[2550] On the contrary, the roots of trees increase in size till the period of their death.

[2551] By preventing the action of the air from drying the roots, and so killing the tree.

[2552] A grove, probably, consecrated to the Muses.

[2553] These stories must be regarded as either fables or impostures; though it is very possible for a tree to survive after the epidermis has been removed with the adze.

[2554] See B. xvii. c. 9.

[2555] In c. 7 of this Book.

[2556] It is not improbable that he has in view here the passage in Virgil’s Georgics, B. ii. l. 109, _et seq._

[2557] Or balm of Gilead. See B. xii. c. 54. Bruce assures us that it is indigenous to Abyssinia; if so, it has been transplanted in Arabia. It is no more to be found in Judæa.

[2558] This is inserted, as it is evident that the text without it is imperfect. Fée says that even in Judæa it was transplanted from Arabia.

[2559] As to the identification of the cinnamomum of Pliny, see B. xii. cc. 41 and 42, and the Notes.

[2560] As to the question of the identity of the amomum, see B. xii. c. 28.

[2561] See B. xii. c. 26.

[2562] This cannot be the ordinary Piper nigrum, or black pepper, which does not deserve the title “arbor.” It is, no doubt, the pepper of Italy, which he mentions in B. xii. c. 14.

[2563] The Cassia Italica, probably, of B. xii. c. 43. The cassia of the East could not possibly survive in Italy. The fact is, no doubt, that the Romans gave the names of cassia, piper, and amomum, to certain indigenous plants, and then persuaded themselves that they had the genuine plants of the East.

[2564] See B. xii. c. 30.

[2565] Under the name of Cedrus, no doubt, several of the junipers have been included. See B. xiii. c. 11.

[2566] Fée is inclined to doubt this statement. The myrtle has been known to stand the winters of Lower Brittany.

[2567] Owing, no doubt, as Fée says, solely to bad methods of cultivation. The same, too, with the grafted peach and the Greek nut or almond.

[2568] The Cupressus sempervirens of Linnæus, the Cupressus fastigiata of Decandolle.

[2569] De Re Rust. cc. 48, 151.

[2570] “Morosa;” meaning that it reaches maturity but very slowly.

[2571] Tristis tentantum sensu torquebit amaror.—Virg. Georg. ii. 247.

[2572] This statement is exaggerated.

[2573] It is still to be seen very frequently in the cemeteries of Greece and Constantinople.

[2574] The cypress is in reality monœcious, the structure of the same plant being both male and female.

[2575] This was formerly done with the cypress, in England, to a considerable extent. Such absurdities are now but rare.

[2576] The Cupressus fastigiata of Decandolle: and a variety of the Cupressus sempervirens of Linnæus.

[2577] The Cupressus horizontalis of Miller; the variety B of the C. sempervirens of Linnæus.

[2578] The present name given to this tree in the island of Crete, is the “daughter’s dowry.”

[2579] De Re Rust. c. 151.

[2580] B. iii. c. 12.

[2581] This, Fée says, is the case with none of the coniferous trees.

[2582] Of course this spontaneous creation of the cypress is fabulous; and, indeed, the whole account, which is borrowed from Theophrastus, is greatly exaggerated.

[2583] B. xix. c. 15.

[2584] This story, which is borrowed from Theophrastus, is evidently fabulous.

[2585] Meaning Asia Minor.

[2586] Hist. Plant. B. iii c. 10.

[2587] See B. vi. c. 23.

[2588] Bacchus, after the alleged conquest by him of India, was said to have returned crowned with ivy, and seated in a car drawn by tigers.

[2589] It is a mistake to suppose that the ivy exhausts the juices of trees. Its tendrils fasten upon the cortical fissures; and, if the tree is but small, its development is apt to be retarded thereby. It is beneficial, rather than destructive, to walls.

[2590] This plant is really monœcious or androgynous.

[2591] The Rosa Eglanteria.

[2592] The Hedera helix of Linnæus, or, possibly, a variety of it with variegated leaves.

[2593] The Hedera arborea of C. Bauhin, the common ivy.

[2594] The Hedera major sterilis of C. Bauhin.

[2595] The first variety of the common ivy, the Hedera helix of Linnæus.

[2596] A wreath of ivy was the usual prize in the poetic contests.

[2597] See B. v. c. 16, and B. vi. c. 23.

[2598] The “red berry” and the “golden fruit.”

[2599] The berries are yellow in the first variety of the common ivy, the Hedera poetica of C. Bauhin.

[2600] This is the case sometimes with the black ivy, the Hedera arborea of C. Bauhin. Only isolated cases, however, are to be met with.

[2601] There is an ivy of this kind, the Hedera humi repens of botanists; but most of the commentators are of opinion that it is the ground ivy, the Glechoma hederacea of Linnæus, that is spoken of. Sprengel takes it to be the Anthirrinum Azarina, from which opinion, however, Fée dissents.

[2602] The Smilax aspera of Linnæus; the sarsaparilla plant.

[2603] Fée is inclined to question this; but the breadth of the tablets may have been very small in this instance.

[2604] Of course this is fabulous: though it is not impossible that the writing on the tablets may sometimes have caused “a noise in the world,” and that hence the poets may have given rise to this story.

[2605] Pliny borrows this fabulous story from Cato, De Re Rust. c. 3.

[2606] The reeds cannot be appropriately ranked among the shrubs.

[2607] For musical purposes, namely.

[2608] B. v. c. 20.

[2609] “Calamus.” The so-called reed of the East, used for making darts and arrows, does not belong to the genus Arundo, but to those of the Bambos and Nastus.

[2610] Few readers of history will fail to recollect the report made to King Henry V. by Davy Gam, before the battle of Agincourt:—“The enemy are so numerous,” said the messenger, “that their arrows will darken the sun.” “We must e’en be content to fight in the dark then,” was the warrior’s reply.

[2611] See B. vii. c. 2. This is probably an exaggeration. He alludes to the Bambos arundinacea of Lamarck, the Arundo arbor of C. Bauhin.

[2612] The Arundo donax of Linnæus.

[2613] Or the pipe-reed.

[2614] The tibia, or pipe, was played lengthwise, like the flageolet or clarionet.

[2615] A variety of the Arundo donax. The Orchomenian reed is of the same class. The fistula was played sideways; and seems to have been a name given both to the Syrinx or the Pandæan pipes, and the flute, properly so called.

[2616] In the last Chapter. The Arundo donax, probably, so far as European warfare was concerned.

[2617] A variety of the Arundo donax of Linnæus.

[2618] This is not the fact.

[2619] The Arundo versicolor of Miller.

[2620] Constantinus and Schneider, upon Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. iv. c. 11, suspect the correctness of this word.

[2621] See B. xx. c. 88, and B. xxxii. c. 52.

[2622] The Arundo phragmites of Linnæus. The Plotias, no doubt, was only a variety of it.

[2623] “Arundo tibialis.” The story about the time taken by it to grow, and the increase of the waters, is, of course, fabulous.

[2624] The “yoke reed,” or “reed for a double flute.”

[2625] Perhaps so called from the silkiness of its flossy pinicules.

[2626] This seems to be the meaning of “ad inclusos cantus.”

[2627] B. xviii. c. 74.

[2628] Lingulis.

[2629] The words “dextræ” and “sinistræ,” denote the treble and the bass flutes; it is thought by some, because the former were held with the right hand, and the latter with the left. Two treble or bass flutes were occasionally played on at the same time.

[2630] See B. xiii. c. 32.

[2631] These were of the variety Zeugites, previously mentioned.

[2632] Fée suggests, that what he mentions here may not have been a reed at all, but one of the cyperaceous plants, the papyrus, perhaps.

[2633] De Re Rust. c. 6. It was the donax that was thus employed; as it is in France at the present day.

[2634] Oculis. See B. xvii. c. 33.

[2635] See B. xix. c. 42.

[2636] The white willow, Salix Alba of Linnæus.

[2637] The Salix vitellina more particularly is used in France for this purpose.

[2638] The Salix helix of Linnæus.

[2639] The Salix amygdalina of Linnæus.

[2640] De Re Rust. c. 6. Fée remarks that the notions of modern agriculturists are very different on this point.

[2641] The Salix purpurea of Linnæus: the Salix vulgaris rubens of C. Bauhin.

[2642] This belongs, probably, to the Salix helix of Linnæus.

[2643] Fée queries whether this may not be the Salix incana of Schrank and Hoffmann, the bark of which is a brown green.

[2644] Belonging to the Salix helix of Linnæus.

[2645] Belonging to the Salix purpurea of Linnæus.

[2646] Field-mouse or squirrel colour. See B. viii. c. 82. The same, probably, as the Salix vitellina of Linnæus.

[2647] A variety, Fée thinks, of the Salix rubens.

[2648] The Scirpus lacustris of Linnæus.

[2649] And not in front of them.

[2650] Mapalia.

[2651] Egypt, namely.

[2652] The bramble is sometimes found on the banks of watery spots and in marshy localities, but more frequently in mountainous and arid spots.

[2653] Known to us as blackberries. This tree is the Rubus fruticosus of Linnæus; the same as the Rubus tomentosus, and the Rubus corylifolius of other modern botanists.

[2654] The Rosa canina of Linnæus: the dog-rose or Eglantine.

[2655] The Rubus Idæus of botanists; the ordinary raspberry.

[2656] See B. xxiv. c. 75.

[2657] See B. xxiv. c. 35.

[2658] They are still used for dyeing, but not for staining the hair.

[2659] Only as a purgative, probably.

[2660] Though the acid it contains would curdle milk, still its natural acridity would disqualify it from being used for making cheese.

[2661] The white sap or inner bark; the aubier of the French. Fée remarks, that its supposed analogy with fat is incorrect.

[2662] He means the outer ligneous layers of the wood. They differ only in their relative hardness.

[2663] “Pulpæ.” The ligneous fibres which form the tissue of the bark.

[2664] “Venæ.” By this term he probably means the nutritive vessels and the ligneous fibres united. It was anciently the general belief that the fibres acted their part in the nutriment of the tree.

[2665] “Graphium.” Properly a stylus or iron pen.

[2666] “Glandia.” This analogy, Fée remarks, does not hold good.

[2667] See B. xiii. c. 29, and c. 27 of this Book.

[2668] And at an angle with the grain or fibre of the wood.

[2669] And at right angles. In the Dicotyledons, the disposition of the fibres is longitudinal and transversal.

[2670] Guttum.

[2671] For the simple reason, because the part near the root is of greater diameter.

[2672] Soft ligneous layers.

[2673] In c. 72 of this Book.

[2674] Hard wood—such as we know generally as “heart;” “heart of oak” for instance.

[2675] Probably that of the ligneous layers near the pith or sap.

[2676] “Limo:” the alburnum previously mentioned.

[2677] This practice was formerly forbidden by the forest laws of France.

[2678] In B. xviii.

[2679] Pliny borrows this superstition from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 1.

[2680] This was the name of mimic sea-fights, exhibited at Rome in the Circus or amphitheatres, or else in lakes dug expressly for the purpose. Hardouin says, there were five Naumachiæ at Rome, in the 14th region of the City.

[2681] This practice is no longer followed.

[2682] De Re Rust. c. 31; also cc. 17 and 37.

[2683] This practice is observed in modern times.

[2684] C. 37.

[2685] Pliny, no doubt, observes an analogy between the hair of the human head, and trees as forming the hair of the earth. The superstition here mentioned, Fée says, was, till very recently, observed in France to a considerable extent.

[2686] De Re Rust. 1, 37.

[2687] Terebinthine or turpentine.

[2688] “Ad fabrorum intestina opera medulla sectilis.” This passage is probably corrupt.

[2689] In c. 74.

[2690] With reference to the fir, namely.

[2691] B. iii. c. 5.

[2692] B. iv. c. 3.

[2693] An additional proof, perhaps, that the cedar of the ancients is only one of the junipers, and that, as Fée says, they were not acquainted with the real cedar.

[2694] B. iii. c. 4.

[2695] “Spiras.” It seems to have been the opinion of the ancients that the internal knots of the wood are formed spirally. Such is not the fact, as they consist of independent layers.

[2696] Centra.

[2697] He takes this account from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. v. c. 3.

[2698] The greatest height, Fée says, of any tree known, is that of the palm, known as ceroxylon; it sometimes attains a height of 250 feet. Adanson speaks of the baobab as being 90 feet in circumference.

[2699] In c. 74.

[2700] See B. xix. c. 6.

[2701] A spot enclosed in the Campus Martius, for the resort of the people during the Comitia, and when giving their votes.

[2702] “Diribitorium.” This was the place, probably, where the diribitores distributed to the citizens the tabellæ, with which they voted in the Comitia, or else, as Wunder thinks, divided the votes, acting as “tellers,” in the modern phrase.

[2703] Caligula.

[2704] B. xxxvi. c. 14.

[2705] See B. xxxvi. c. 14. This was a mortar made of volcanic ashes, which hardened under water. It is now known as Pozzuolane.

[2706] The Pinus cedrus of Linnæus.

[2707] The canoes were formed probably of the fir.

[2708] The Celtis australis of Linnæus.

[2709] See B. xiii. c. 27.

[2710] This, Fée says, is not the case, if the Syrian terebinth is the same as the Pistacia terebinthus of Linnæus.

[2711] This is not the case; a nail has a firm hold in all resinous woods.

[2712] This is evidently a puerile absurdity: but it is borrowed from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. v. c. 4.

[2713] The savages of North America, and, indeed, of all parts of the globe, seem to have been acquainted with this method of kindling fire from the very earliest times.

[2714] See B. xxiv. c. 49. The Viticella, belonging to the genus clematis.

[2715] This unfounded notion is borrowed from Theophrastus, B. v. c. 4.

[2716] In the modern botanical sense of the word, the male trees do not bear at all.

[2717] Asia Minor, namely. See B. xxxv. c. 21.

[2718] The junctures where the pieces of wood are united by glue. This is to be observed very easily in the greater part of the oaken statuary that is so plentiful in the churches of Belgium.

[2719] Cypress is perhaps the most lasting of all woods.

[2720] One of the earliest appellations, probably, of Jupiter among the Romans. See Ovid’s Fasti, B. iii. l. 445, _et seq._

[2721] This is correct. Their resin defends them from the action of the air, from damp, and the attacks of noxious insects.

[2722] A variety of the oak. See c. 6 of this Book.

[2723] As mentioned at the end of c. 74.

[2724] See B. xi. c. 2.

[2725] See B. xvii. c. 37.

[2726] In c. 74.

[2727] There is nothing very surprising in this, as most woods are preserved better when completely immersed in water, than when exposed to the variations of the atmosphere.

[2728] He borrows this fable from Theophrastus, B. v. c. 5.

[2729] This process, Fée says, would be attended with no success.

[2730] It is not quite clear whether he intends this observation to apply to the poplar and the palm, or to the last only. It is true, however, in neither case, and is contrary, as Fée observes, to all physical laws.

[2731] The resistance that woods offer when placed vertically is in the same ratio as that presented by them when employed horizontally. This paragraph is borrowed from Theophrastus, B. iii. c. 4, and B. v. cc. 6, 7, 8.

[2732] Ferula.

[2733] In c. 77.

[2734] See c. 24.

[2735] Fée thinks, from the context, that the meaning is, that the vine was employed in the construction of chariots; it depends entirely on the punctuation adopted.

[2736] This could only have happened in the first year that they were so employed.

[2737] De Re Rust. c. 31.

[2738] It is singular, Fée says, to find the wood of the palm, and that of the poplar, which are destitute of veins, enumerated among those employed for veneering.

[2739] In c. 27.

[2740] According to Adanson, the baobab will live for more than six thousand years.

[2741] The Celtis australis of Linnæus.

[2742] In consequence of the disputes between the patricians and plebeians.

[2743] Thus deriving Lucina from “lucus,” a grove.

[2744] Capillos.

[2745] An area before the temple of Vulcan.

[2746] “Stationes municipiorum.” A sort of exchange, near the Forum, where the citizens met to discuss the topics of the day.

[2747] See B. iv. c. 18. Of course, this story must be regarded as fabulous.

[2748] Quercus.

[2749] These are fables founded upon the known longevity of trees, which, as Fée remarks, Pliny relates with a truly “infantine simplicity.”

[2750] See B. v. c. 43.

[2751] See B. v. c. 29.

[2752] The palm is by no means a long-lived tree.

[2753] The pomegranate, on the contrary, has been known to live many centuries.

[2754] He has elsewhere said that the vine is extremely long-lived.

[2755] In the last Chapter he has spoken of a laurel having existed for many centuries.

[2756] To its great detriment, probably.

[2757] Fée says that no holm-oak is ever known to attain this size.

[2758] See c. 62.

[2759] Sprengel says that this is the parasitic plant, which he calls Cassyta filiformis. Fée says that this opinion, though perhaps not to be absolutely rejected, must be accepted with reserve.

[2760] It does not seem to have been identified.

[2761] See B. xviii. c. 33.

[2762] Serpyllum. See B. xx. c. 90.

[2763] A mistletoe, apparently, growing upon the wild olive. Fée says that no such viscus appears to be known.

[2764] See B. xxvii. c. 66. The Calcitrapa stellata of Lamarck. Fée remarks that Pliny has committed a great error, in making it a parasite of the Spina fullonia. Dioscorides only says that the two plants grow in the same spots.

[2765] The Viscum Europæum of modern naturalists.

[2766] The Viscum album of Linnæus; but Sprengel takes it to be the Loranthus Europæus.

[2767] Fée questions whether this may not be the Loranthus Europæus.

[2768] The Viscum album of Linnæus; the oak mistletoe or real mistletoe.

[2769] This is not the fact: it grows upon a vast multitude of other trees.

[2770] It is no longer used for this purpose.

[2771] The mistletoe never in any case loses its leaves, upon whatever tree it may grow.

[2772] This is, of course, untrue; but the seeds, after being voided by birds, are more likely to adhere to the bark of trees, and so find a nidus for germination.

[2773] The exact opposite is the case, the female being the fruitful plant.

[2774] The method used in Italy for making bird-lime is very similar at the present day.

[2775] Magos.

[2776] Decandolle was of opinion, that the mistletoe of the Druids was not a viscum, but the Loranthus Europæus, which is much more commonly found on oaks.

[2777] Δρῦς, an “oak.” It is much more probable that it was of Celtic origin.

[2778] Omnia sanantem.

[2779] “Sagum.” Properly, a “military cloak.”

[2780] It was, in comparatively recent times, supposed to be efficacious for epilepsy.

[2781] See end of B. ii.

[2782] Author of a History or Annals of Rome. Nothing further is known of him.

[2783] See end of B. vi.

[2784] See end of B. ii.

[2785] See end of B. iii.

[2786] See end of B. vii.

[2787] See end of B. iii.

[2788] See end of B. ii.

[2789] See end of B. ii.

[2790] See end of B. vii.

[2791] He is wholly unknown; but is conjectured to have lived in the reign of Caligula or Tiberius.

[2792] See end of B. vii.

[2793] See end of B. xii.

[2794] He is unknown; but Solinus speaks of him as a valuable writer.

[2795] M. Vitruvius Pollio, an eminent architect, employed by Augustus. His valuable work on architecture is still extant.

[2796] See end of B. xiv.

[2797] See end of B. iii.

[2798] See end of B. vii.

[2799] See end of B. iii.

[2800] See end of B. ii.

[2801] See end of B. ii.

[2802] He alludes to the various shrubs and trees, mentioned as growing in the sea, B. xiii. c. 48; but which there is little doubt, in reality belong to the class of fuci.

[2803] “Fiunt verius quam nascuntur;” a distinction perpetuated in the adage, “Poeta nascitur, non fit.”

[2804] He probably alludes to his remark in B. xvi. c. 1.

[2805] Q. Luctatius Catulus, the colleague of Marius. Being afterwards condemned to die by Marius, he suffocated himself with the fumes of charcoal.

[2806] A.U.C. 659.

[2807] Valerius Maximus, B. ix. c. 1, relates this story somewhat differently.

[2808] The Celtis Australis of Linnæus.

[2809] See B. xxxvi. cc. 3 and 24.

[2810] When, in his capacity of ædile, he gave theatrical representations for the benefit of the public.

[2811] As Fée remarks, this usage has been reversed in modern times, and plants often receive their botanical names from men.

[2812] See B. xviii. c. 4.

[2813] Or north north-east, as Fée says. He adds that this aspect in reality is not favourable to vegetation. Pliny commits the error of copying _exactly_ from Theophrastus, and thereby giving advice to Roman agriculturists, which was properly suited to the climate of Greece only.

[2814] This is borrowed from Theophrastus; but, as Fée remarks, if suitable to the climate of Greece, it is not so to that of Italy or France, where vegetation is much more promoted by a south wind.

[2815] This assertion, Fée says, is erroneous. See B. xvi. c. 46.

[2816] B. xviii. c. 66.

[2817] See c. 30 of this Book. These notions as to critical periods to plants connected with the constellations, Fée says, are now almost dispelled; though they still prevail in France, to some extent.

[2818] “Coitus.” See B. xvi. cc. 39 and 42.

[2819] See B. xvi. c. 46.

[2820] From Theophrastus, De Causis, B. ii. c. 1.

[2821] He alludes to the words of Virgil, Georg. i. 100:—

“Humida solstitia, atque hiemes orate serenas,
Agricolæ; hiberno lætissima pulvere farra.”

Fée remarks, that the cultivators of the modern times are more of the opinion of the poet than the naturalist.

[2822] Because rains would cause the young fruit to fall off. He here attacks the first portion of the precepts of Virgil; but only, it appears, in reference to the vine.

[2823] “Lactescentibus.” Fée remarks on the appropriateness of this expression, as the act of germination, he says, in the cereals and all the seeds in which the perisperm is feculent, changes the fecula into an emulsive liquid, in which state the seed may be said, with Pliny, to be “lactescent.”

[2824] Which appears to have been extensively done with the young garden trees.

[2825] Georg. ii. 398.

[2826] Taken altogether, a southern aspect is preferable to all others.

[2827] See B. ii. c. 46.

[2828] Cc. 46 and 47.

[2829] He seems to lose sight of the fact that they _bud_ before those that look to the north.

[2830] B. xvi. cc. 30, 31.

[2831] A rich black mould, probably.

[2832] A ferruginous argilla.

[2833] It must of necessity denote a soil rich in humus, though not, of course, adapted for all kinds of cultivation.

[2834] He alludes to the difficulty with which argilla, from its tenacity, is employed in cultivation.

[2835] Columella says the contrary, and so does Virgil, Georg. ii. 226, speaking of this fact as a method of ascertaining the respective qualities of the earth.

[2836] Virgil, Georg. ii. 220, says the contrary.

[2837] In allusion to what Virgil says, Georg. ii. 254:—

“Quæ gravis est, ipso tacitam se pondere prodit,
Quæque levis——”

Fée remarks, however, that it is easy enough to analyse the earth, and ascertain the proportions of humus, and of the siliceous, cretaceous, or argillaceous earths; the relative proportions of which render it strong or light, as the case may be.

[2838] As Fée says, these earths vary according to the nature of the soils that are brought down by the streams; in general, however, they are extremely prolific.

[2839] Fée says that Pliny is here guilty of some degree of exaggeration. See B. iii. c. 9, p. 195 of Vol. 1: also B. xviii. c. 29.

[2840] “Tophus;” formed of volcanic scoriæ. Fée remarks, that it is somewhat similar in nature to marl, and that though unproductive by itself, it is beneficial when mixed with vegetable earth. Tufa and marl appear to have been often confounded by the ancient writers.

[2841] Georg. ii. 189.

[2842] The Pteris aquilina of the modern botanists.

[2843] Marine salt, or sub-hydrochlorate of soda, Fée thinks, is here alluded to. It is still used with varied success in some parts of the west of France.

[2844] Hardouin says, that he here alludes to the proverbial saying among the ancients, “Perflare altissima ventos”—“The winds blow only on the most elevated ground.”

[2845] In B. xiv. cc. 4 and 12.

[2846] “Emisso.” Fée would appear to think that the lake suddenly _made its appearance_, after an earthquake, and from the context he would appear to be right. These accounts are all of them borrowed from Theophrastus.

[2847] See B. v. c. 36.

[2848] See B. xv. c. 2.

[2849] See B. xiv. c. 8.

[2850] See B. xiv. c. 8.

[2851] See B. iii. c. 9.

[2852] See B. iii. c. 17.

[2853] Sumen. Properly, “udder.” A cow’s udder was considered one of the choicest of delicacies by the Romans.

[2854] This is, of course, an exaggeration. The stake must have been driven in very deep to disappear so speedily.

[2855] De Re Rust. 5.

[2856] This he says in reference to his belief, with Epicurus, in the eternity of matter.

[2857] De Re Rust. 1.

[2858] See B. iii. c. 6.

[2859] De Re Rust. 151.

[2860] “Pulla.” The “vegetable” earth of modern botanists.

[2861] “Teneram.”

[2862] Iliad, xviii. 541 and 548.

[2863] Vulcan.

[2864] De Oratore, sec. 39.

[2865] See B. xiii. c. 4.

[2866] “Sapiunt,” rather than “redolent.”

[2867] This supposed flavour of the earth is, in reality, attributable to the extraneous vegetable matter which it contains.

[2868] See B. xii. c. 52, as to this notion.

[2869] The reason being, that in such cases the soil is saturated with thyme, origanum, mint, and other odoriferous herbs.

[2870] This opinion is contrary to that expressed by Columella, B. ii. c. 1; but the justice of it is universally recognized. Upon this theory, too, is based the modern practice of alternating the crops in successive years, the necessity of providing for heavy rents, not allowing the land to enjoy absolute rest.

[2871] This has not come to pass even yet, nearly two thousand years since the days of Pliny.

[2872] See B. v. c. 3, and B. xviii. c. 21.

[2873] Fée taxes our author here with exaggeration. For Byzacium, see B. v. c. 3, and B. xviii. c. 21.

[2874] Nevertheless, as Fée remarks, the method is often practised with great success. Pliny is at issue here with Theophrastus, De Causis, B. iii. c. 25.

[2875] A natural mixture of argilla and calcareous stones, or subcarbonate of chalk. Fée remarks, that the ancients were not acquainted with the proper method of applying it. Marl only exercises its fertilizing influence after being reduced to dust by the action of the atmosphere, by absorbing the oxygen of the air, and giving to vegetation the carbonic acid that is necessary for their nourishment.

[2876] “White argilla.” This, Fée thinks, is the calcareous marl, three varieties of which are known, the compact, the schistoid, and the friable.

[2877] At the present day there are only two varieties of marl recognized, the argillaceous and the calcareous; it is to the latter, Fée thinks, that the varieties here mentioned as anciently recognized, belonged.

[2878] The Marga terrea of Linnæus. It abounds in various parts of Europe.

[2879] From the Greek, meaning “not bitter marl.”

[2880] Marl does not begin to fertilize till several years after it has been laid down; hence, it is generally recommended to marl the land a little at a time, and often. If the ground is fully marled, it requires to be marled afresh in about eight or ten years, and not fifty, as Pliny says.

[2881] “Argentaria.” Used, probably, in the same way as whitening in modern times. See B. xxxv. c. 58.

[2882] An exaggeration, no doubt.

[2883] Probably meaning “smooth marl;” a variety, Fée thinks, of argillaceous marl, and, perhaps, the potter’s argillaceous marl, or potter’s argil. He suggests, also that it may have possibly been the Marga fullonum saponacea lamellosa of Valerius; in other words, fullers’ earth.

[2884] Creta fullonia.

[2885] See B. xxxv. c. 46.

[2886] This would rather seem to be a name borrowed from the Greek, αἰγλήεις, “shining,” and πελιὸς, “white.” Notwithstanding the resemblance, however, it is just possible that it may have been derived from the Gallic. Fée queries whether this is the schistoid calcareous marl, or the schistoid argillaceous marl, the laminæ of which divide with great facility, and the varieties of which display many colours.

[2887] A variety of the terreous marl.

[2888] It has the effect of augmenting their fruitfulness, and ameliorating the quality of the fruit. Lime is still considered an excellent improver for strong, humid soils.

[2889] From this passage, Fée thinks that the Columbine marl must have been of the white, slightly sparkling kind.

[2890] Though ashes fertilize the ground, more particularly when of an argillaceous nature, they are not so extensively used now as in ancient times. Pliny alludes here more particularly to wood and dunghill ashes.

[2891] This, however, he omits to do.

[2892] He alludes, probably, to Theophrastus, De Causis, B. iii. c. 22.

[2893] Odyssey xxiv. 225.

[2894] From “stercus,” “dung.” A fabulous personage, most probably.

[2895] De Re Rust. i. 38.

[2896] De Re Rust. ii. 15.

[2897] Mixed with other manures, it is employed at the present day in Normandy.

[2898] This manure is still extensively employed in Flanders, Switzerland, and the vicinity of Paris. In the north of England it is mixed with ashes, and laid on the fields. There was an old prejudice, that vegetation grown with it has a fetid odour, but it has for some time been looked upon as exploded.

[2899] Or urine. In the vicinity of Paris, a manure is employed called urate, of which urine forms the basis.

[2900] Fée seems to think that this passage means that the bad smell of urine is imparted to it by the wine that is drunk. It is difficult to say what could have been the noxious qualities imparted by wine to urine as a manure, and Pliny probably would have been somewhat at a loss to explain his meaning.

[2901] In lapse of time, if exposed to the air, it is reduced to the state of humus or mould.

[2902] Consisting of lime mixed with vegetable ashes.

[2903] De Re Rust. i. 38.

[2904] “Herbas.” This would appear to mean grass only here; though Fée seems to think that it means various kinds of herbs.

[2905] This method is sometimes adopted in England with buckwheat, trefoil, peas, and other leguminous plants; and in the south of France lupines are still extensively used in the same manner, after the usage of the ancient Romans here described. The French also employ, but more rarely, for the same purpose, the large turnip, vetches, peas, trefoil, Windsor beans, sanfoin, lucerne, &c.; but it is found a very expensive practice.

[2906] De Re Rust. 37.

[2907] “Frondam putidam.” Fée thinks that this expression is used in reference to the “ebulum,” dane-wort, wall-wort, or dwarf-elder, previously mentioned.

[2908] “Concidito.” Sillig adopts the reading “comburito,” “burn the shoots, and dig in, &c.” But in the original the word is “concidito.”

[2909] De Re Rust. 30.

[2910] This is still extensively practised in England and France, and other countries. The azote, even, that exhales from the bodies of the animals, is supposed to have a fertilizing influence, to say nothing of the dung, grease of the body, and urine.

[2911] De Re Rust. 37.

[2912] “Exsugunt,” “suck up,” or “drain,” is one reading in Cato; and it is not improbable that it is the correct one.

[2913] Georg. i. 77, 78:

“Urit enim lini campum seges, urit avenæ,
Urunt Lethæo perfusa papavera somno.”

[2914] Fée is of opinion, that, with reference to this branch of agriculture, the ancients displayed more skill and intelligence than the moderns.

[2915] This absurdity is copied from Varro and Columella.

[2916] _I. e._ in the early part of spring. In modern times, the period for manuring varies, according to the usage of different localities, being practised in all the four seasons of the year, according to the crops, weather, and climate.

[2917] See B. xvi. c. 58.

[2918] The palm is grown in Africa from shoots thrown out from the axillæ of the leaves; and it is in this circumstance, Fée thinks, that the story told by Trogus must have originated. Some of the ferns throw out adventitious buds from the summit of the leaf, and the orange tree and some others occasionally have them at the base of the leaf.

[2919] Virgil says, Georgics ii. 14:

“Pars autem posito surgunt de semine; ut altæ
Castaneæ, nemorumque Jovi quæ maxime frondet.”

[2920] This method of reproduction is seldom or never employed; plants or cuttings only being used for the purpose.

[2921] Besides which, it is doubtful if they will reproduce the variety, the seed of which was originally sown.

[2922] In some cases, they are more particularly liable to disease—the apple, for instance.

[2923] Because the mode of cultivation adopted has little or no influence upon them. The palm, however, to bear good fruit, requires the careful attention of man. It is not capable of being grafted.

[2924] In B. xv. c. 39. The laurel may be grown from cuttings or shoots, and from seed.

[2925] Known as the Laurus tinus, or Viburnum tinus of Linnæus.

[2926] This is not done at the present day, as it is found that the oil which they contain turns rancid, and prevents germination.

[2927] These methods of preparation are no longer employed.

[2928] It is for this reason, as already stated, that they should be sown at once.

[2929] See B. xv. c. 39. He there calls it “sterilis,” “barren.”

[2930] See B. xv. c. 37. The myrtle reproduces itself in its native countries with great facility, but in such case the flowers are only single. Where a double flower is required, it is grown from layers.

[2931] No better, Fée says, than the ordinary method of making a myrtle hedge.

[2932] The almond requires a dry, light earth, and a southern aspect.

[2933] These precautions are no longer observed at the present day.

[2934] This precaution, too, is no longer observed.

[2935] The citron is produced, at the present day, from either the pips, plants, or cuttings.

[2936] This passage is borrowed almost verbatim from Virgil, Georgics ii. 50, _et seq._

[2937] “Perna.” This method of reproduction is still adopted, but it is not to be recommended, as the young tree, before it throws out a root, is liable to be overthrown by high winds. Virgil mentions it, Georg. ii. 23.

[2938] Palladius only says that the growth of the quince in such case is very slow.

[2939] This experiment has been tried for curiosity’s sake, and has succeeded; the roots become dry, lose their fibres, and then develop buds, from which branches issue; while the buds of the summit become changed into roots.

[2940] “Seminarii:” “nurseries,” as they are more commonly called.

[2941] The distance, in reality, ought to vary according to the nature and species of the trees, and the height they are to be allowed to attain.

[2942] De Re Rust. 48.

[2943] These precautions are not looked upon as necessary for the indigenous trees at the present day. For the first year, however, Fée says, the hurdles might be found very useful.

[2944] As the young cypress is very delicate, in the northern climates, Fée says, this mode of protecting it in the nursery might prove advantageous.

[2945] There is some exaggeration in this account of the extreme smallness of the seed of the cypress.

[2946] Wine and oil-presses, for instance.

[2947] B. xix. c. 48, and B. xx. c. 11. As Fée remarks, this is a fabulous assertion, which may still be based upon truth; as in gum-resin, for instance, we find occasionally the seeds of the parent tree accidentally enclosed in the tear-like drops.

[2948] In B. xvi. c. 47.

[2949] In c. 11 of this Book.

[2950] “Volgiolis.” This word is found nowhere else, and the reading is doubtful.

[2951] This is, at least, an exaggeration.

[2952] See B. xvi. c. 31, and c. 60.

[2953] It is propagated at the present day both from seed and suckers, but mostly from the latter, as the seed does not germinate for two years.

[2954] See B. xv. c. 14. Probably a variety of the jujube; but if so, it could hardly be grafted on trees of so different a nature as those here mentioned.

[2955] This tree has not been identified. Dalechamps thinks that it is a species of gooseberry, probably the same as the Ribes grossularia of Linnæus. It has been also suggested that it may be the Spina cervina of the Italians, the Rhamnus catharticus of Linnæus, the purgative buckthorn.

[2956] Fée doubts if the plum can be grafted on the thorn.

[2957] First of March.

[2958] The thickness of the thumb. See the last Chapter.

[2959] He alludes to the Atinian elm, of which he has already said the same in B. xvi. c. 29.

[2960] From being about nine feet in circumference.

[2961] A “little altar.”

[2962] 13th of February.

[2963] _I. e._ each at an angle with the other, in this form:—

* * *
* *
* * *

It was probably so called from the circumstance that each triangle resembles V, or five.

[2964] This is the reason why a soil of only middling quality is generally selected for nurseries and seed-plots; otherwise it might be difficult to transplant the young trees to an improved soil.

[2965] The ordinary depth, at the present day, is about two feet; but when in an argillaceous soil, as Pliny says, the hole is made deeper. If the soil is black mould, the hole is not so deep, and of a square form, just as recommended by Pliny.

[2966] De Re Rust. 43.

[2967] This would be either useless, or positively injurious to the tree.

[2968] See B. xiv. c. 14. It seems impossible to say with exactness how this passage came to be inserted in the context; but Sillig is probably right in suspecting that there is a considerable lacuna here. It is not improbable that Pliny may have enlarged upon the depth of the roots of trees, and the method of removing them in ancient times. Such being the case, he might think it not inappropriate to introduce the story of Papirius, who, when only intending to have a stump cut down that grew in the way, took the opportunity of frightening the prætor of Præneste, by the suddenness of the order to his lictor, and probably the peremptory tone in which it was given. This was all the more serious to the prætor, as Papirius had been rebuking him just before in the severest terms.

[2969] From the bundle of fasces, or rods.

[2970] This precept is borrowed from Virgil, Georg. ii. 348, et seq.

[2971] There is little doubt that they took the right view.

[2972] De Re Rust. 28.

[2973] This precaution is omitted by the modern nurserymen, though Fée is inclined to think it might be attended with considerable advantage, as the fibres of the side that has faced the south are not likely to be so firm as those of the northern side. This precaution, however, would be of more importance with exotic trees than indigenous ones. It is still practised to some extent with the layers of the vine.

[2974] Fée suggests that Pliny may have here misunderstood a passage in Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. ii. 8, with reference to the planting of the fig.

[2975] There would be no such result, Fée says.

[2976] This is a useless precaution; but at the same time, Pliny’s fears of its consequences are totally misplaced.

[2977] At 11 A.M., or 2 P.M.; _i. e._ between south and south-east, and south and south-west.

[2978] De Re Rust. 28.

[2979] Wet moss, or moist earth, is used for the purpose at the present day.

[2980] De Re Rust. 28. It is most desirable to transplant trees with a layer of the earth in which they have grown; but if carried out to any extent, it would be an expensive process.

[2981] “Tradunt.” This expression shows that Pliny does not give credit to the statement. Columella and Palladius speak of _three_ stones being laid under the root, evidently as a kind of charm.

[2982] See B. xix. c. 30. A somewhat similar practice is also recommended in B. xv. c. 18; but, of course, as Fée remarks, it can lead to no results.

[2983] De Re Rust. 28.

[2984] Fée remarks that this is a useful precaution, more particularly in the case of the coniferous trees, the fig, and others that are rich in juice; but if universally used, would be attended with great expense. The French use for the purpose a mixture of fresh earth and cow-dung, to which they give the name of “onguent Saint-Fiacre.” See p. 481.

[2985] This is from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. ii. 7. The question, however, depends entirely upon the nature of the tree, the quality of the soil, and various other considerations, as Pliny himself admits.

[2986] See B. xv. c. 24. This notion, Fée remarks, still prevails to a very considerable extent.

[2987] By depriving it of the light, and the heat of the sun; but, most probably, from no other reason.

[2988] “Quoniam et protecta vinearum ratione egent.” This passage is probably in a mutilated state.

[2989] “In se convoluta.”

[2990] The plane was much valued for its shade by convivial parties. Hence we find in Virgil, Georg. iv. 146—“Atque ministrantem platanum potantibus umbram.”

[2991] He clearly alludes to the quivering poplar, Populus tremula of Linnæus.

[2992] This is quite a fallacy. Even in the much more probable cases of the upas and mangineel, it is not the fact.

[2993] Theophrastus, De Causis, B. iii. c. 8, says, that trees that grow on declivities have shorter branches than those of the same kind growing on plains.

[2994] De Re Rust. c. 16.

[2995] This assertion is doubtful; at the present day, in Andalusia, the palm, the poplar, and many other trees are much larger than the olive.

[2996] “Thousand pounders.” This, as Fée remarks, is clearly an exaggeration.

[2997] Virgil, Georg. ii. 57, makes the same remark.

[2998] This shrub has not been identified.

[2999] See B. xii. c. 26.

[3000] De Re Rust. c. 51.

[3001] The French call cultivation by layers “marcotte,” as applied to trees in general; and “provignage,” as applicable to the vine. The two methods described by Pliny are still extensively practised.

[3002] Taken from Cato, De Re Rust. c. 133.

[3003] The Juniperus sabina of Linnæus: see B. xxiv. c. 61. It produces seed, and there is only one variety that is barren; the plant being, in reality, diœceous.

[3004] The rosemary, in reality, is a hermaphroditic plant, and in all cases produces seed.

[3005] See B. xvi. c. 33.

[3006] This, Fée remarks, is in reality no more a case of grafting than the growing of a tree from seed accidentally deposited in the cleft of a rock.

[3007] Still used for the reproduction of fruit-trees and shrubs in the pleasure garden.

[3008] Georg. ii. 73.

[3009] This story is borrowed from Theophrastus, De Caus. B. ii. c. 19. Fée remarks, that it is very doubtful if an operation of so coarse a nature could be productive of such results; and he says, that, at all events, the two woods must have been species of the same genus, or else individuals of the same family. The mode of grafting here described is called by agriculturists in foreign countries, “Pliny’s graft.”

[3010] These statements as to the locality of the sap are erroneous.

[3011] The fig is the only fruit that is not improved by grafting; but then it is not similar to most fruit, being, as Fée says, nothing more than a fleshy floral receptacle.

[3012] This remark is founded on sound notions of vegetable physiology; but at the same time it is contradictory to what he states in the sequel as to grafting the pear on the plane, the apple on the cornel, &c.

[3013] Georg. ii. 78.

[3014] An unnecessary precaution. It is not the situation of the branches so much as the nature of the soil, traversed by the roots, corresponding to them, that would be likely to have an influence on the graft. There is little doubt that Pliny borrowed the present passage from Columella, De Re Rust. v. 11; and De Arbor. 20.

[3015] This is sound advice.

[3016] See B. xvi. c. 39, 40, and 41.

[3017] In reprehending this absurd notion, Fée bestows a passing censure on the superstitions of this nature, contained in the English Vox Stellarum, one of our almanacks; and in the French “Almanach des Bergers,” “Shepherds’ Almanack.”

[3018] This is borrowed by Palladius, in the operations of February, tit. 17, and October, tit. 12.

[3019] De Re Rust. 40.

[3020] This is the onguent Saint-Fiacre of the French, and is still used to protect the graft from all contact with the exterior air.

[3021] “Altitudinem,” as Dalechamps suggests, would appear to be a better reading than “latitudinem.”

[3022] See B. xxv. c. 40.

[3023] Borrowed from Columella, B. iv. c. 29. This method is still employed for young plants; in France it is called “salting” the plants.

[3024] De Re Rust. 41.

[3025] The first of these methods is now the only one at all employed with the vine; indeed, it is more generally reproduced by means of layers and suckers.

[3026] It is not accurately known what was the form or particular merit of this auger or wimble.

[3027] Fée remarks, that the period here named is very indefinite. May and the early part of June are the periods now selected for grafting the vine.