Chapter XXVII: Book XXIII (3)

After the defeat of that mighty monarch, Mithridates, Cneius Pompeius found in his private cabinet a recipe for an antidote in his own hand-writing; it was to the following effect:[3173]—Take two dried walnuts, two figs, and twenty leaves of rue; pound them all together, with the addition of a grain of salt; if a person takes this mixture fasting, he will be proof against all poisons for that day.[3174] Walnut kernels, chewed by a man fasting, and applied to the wound, effect an instantaneous cure, it is said, of bites inflicted by a mad dog.

CHAP. 78.—HAZEL-NUTS: THREE OBSERVATIONS UPON THEM. PISTACHIO-NUTS: EIGHT OBSERVATIONS UPON THEM. CHESNUTS: FIVE OBSERVATIONS UPON THEM.

Hazel-nuts[3175] are productive of head-ache, and flatulency of the stomach; they contribute, however, to the increase of flesh more than would be imagined. Parched, they are remedial for catarrhs, and beaten up and taken with hydromel,[3176] they are good for an inveterate cough. Some persons add grains of pepper,[3177] and others take them in raisin wine.

Pistachio-nuts[3178] have the same properties, and are productive of the same effects, as pine-nuts; in addition to which, they are used as an antidote to the venom[3179] of serpents, eaten or taken in drink.

Chesnuts[3180] have a powerful effect in arresting fluxes of the stomach and intestines, are relaxing to the bowels, are beneficial in cases of spitting of blood, and have a tendency to make flesh.[3181]

CHAP. 79.—CAROBS: FIVE OBSERVATIONS UPON THEM. THE CORNEL; ONE REMEDY. THE FRUIT OF THE ARBUTUS.

Fresh carobs[3182] are unwholesome to the stomach, and relaxing to the bowels;[3183] in a dried state, however, they are astringent, and are much more beneficial to the stomach; they are diuretic also. For pains in the stomach, persons boil three Syrian carobs[3184] with one sextarius of water, down to one-half, and drink the decoction.

The juices which exude from the branches of the cornel[3185] are received on a plate of red-hot iron[3186] without it touching the wood; the rust of which is applied for the cure of incipient lichens. The arbutus or unedo[3187] bears a fruit that is difficult of digestion, and injurious to the stomach.

CHAP. 80.—THE LAUREL; SIXTY-NINE OBSERVATIONS UPON IT.

All parts of the laurel, both the leaves, bark, and berries, are of a warming[3188] nature; and a decoction of them, the leaves in particular, is very useful for affections of the bladder and uterus.[3189] The leaves, applied topically, neutralize the poison of wasps, bees, and hornets, as also that of serpents, the seps,[3190] dipsas,[3191] and viper, in particular. Boiled in oil, they promote the catamenia; and the more tender of the leaves beaten up with polenta, are used for inflammations of the eyes, with rue for inflammations of the testes, and with rose-oil, or oil of iris,[3192] for head-ache. Three leaves, chewed and swallowed for three days in succession, are a cure for cough, and beaten up with honey, for asthma. The bark of the root is dangerous to pregnant women; the root itself disperses calculi, and taken in doses of three oboli in aromatic wine, it acts beneficially on the liver. The leaves, taken in drink, act as an emetic;[3193] and the berries, pounded and applied as a pessary, or else taken in drink, promote menstruation. Two of the berries with the skin removed, taken in wine, are a cure for inveterate cough and hardness of breathing; if, however, this is accompanied with fever, they are given in water, or else in an electuary with raisin wine, or boiled in hydromel. Employed in a similar manner, they are good for phthisis, and for all defluxions of the chest, as they have the effect of detaching the phlegm and bringing it off.

For stings inflicted by scorpions, four laurel-berries are taken in wine. Applied with oil, they are a cure for epinyctis, freckles, running sores, ulcers of the mouth, and scaly eruptions. The juice of the berries is curative of porrigo and phthiriasis; and for pains in the ears, or hardness of hearing, it is injected into those organs with old wine and oil of roses. All venomous creatures fly at the approach of persons who have been anointed with this juice: taken in drink, the juice of the small-leaved[3194] laurel in particular, it is good for stings inflicted by them. The berries,[3195] used with wine, neutralize the venom of serpents, scorpions, and spiders; they are applied also, topically, with oil and vinegar, in diseases of the spleen and liver, and with honey to gangrenous sores. In cases of lassitude and shivering fits, it is a very good plan to rub the body with juice of laurel-berries mixed with nitre. Some persons are of opinion that delivery is accelerated by taking laurel-root to the amount of one acetabulum, in water, and that, used fresh, it is better than dried. It is recommended by some authorities, to take ten of the berries in drink, for the sting of the scorpion; and in cases of relaxation of the uvula, to boil a quarter of a pound of the berries, or leaves, in three sextarii of water, down to one third, the decoction being used warm, as a gargle. For head-ache, also, it is recommended to bruise an uneven number of the berries in oil, the mixture being warmed for use.

The leaves of the Delphic laurel[3196] bruised and applied to the nostrils from time to time, are a preservative[3197] against contagion in pestilence, and more particularly if they are burnt. The oil of the[3198] Delphic laurel is employed in the preparation of cerates and the medicinal composition known as “acopum,”[3199] and is used for fits of shivering occasioned by cold, for the relaxation of the sinews, and for the cure of pains in the side and the cold attacks in fevers.[3200] Warmed in the rind of a pomegranate, it is applied topically for the cure of ear-ache. A decoction of the leaves boiled down in water to one third, used as a gargle, braces the uvula, and taken in drink allays pains in the bowels and intestines. The more tender leaves, bruised in wine and applied at night, are a cure for pimples and prurigo.

The other varieties of the laurel possess properties which are nearly analogous. The root of the laurel of Alexandria,[3201] or of Mount Ida,[3202] accelerates delivery, being administered in doses of three denarii to three cyathi of sweet wine; it acts also as an emmenagogue, and brings away the after-birth. Taken in drink in a similar manner, the wild laurel, known as “daphnoides” and by the other names which we have mentioned,[3203] is productive of beneficial effects. The leaves of it, either fresh or dried, taken in doses of three drachmæ, in hydromel with salt, act as a purgative[3204] upon the bowels. The wood, chewed, brings off phlegm, and the leaves act as an “emetic;” they are unwholesome, however, to the stomach. The berries, too, are sometimes taken, fifteen in number, as a purgative.

CHAP. 81.—MYRTLE; SIXTY OBSERVATIONS UPON IT.

The white[3205] cultivated myrtle is employed for fewer medicinal purposes than the black one.[3206] The berries[3207] of it are good for spitting of blood, and taken in wine, they neutralize the poison of fungi. They impart an agreeable smell[3208] to the breath, even when eaten the day before; thus, for instance, in Menander we find the Synaristosæ[3209] eating them. They are taken also for dysentery,[3210] in doses of one denarius, in wine: and they are employed lukewarm, in wine, for the cure of obstinate ulcers on the extremities. Mixed with polenta, they are employed topically in ophthalmia, and for the cardiac disease[3211] they are applied to the left breast. For stings inflicted by scorpions, diseases of the bladder, head-ache, and fistulas of the eye before suppuration, they are similarly employed; and for tumours and pituitous eruptions, the kernels are first removed and the berries are then pounded in old wine. The juice of the berries[3212] acts astringently upon the bowels, and is diuretic: mixed with cerate it is applied topically to blisters, pituitous eruptions, and wounds inflicted by the phalangium; it imparts a black tint,[3213] also, to the hair.

The oil of this myrtle is of a more soothing nature than the juice, and the wine[3214] which is extracted from it, and which possesses the property of never inebriating, is even more so. This wine, used when old, acts astringently upon the stomach and bowels, cures griping pains in those regions, and dispels nausea.

The dried leaves, powdered and sprinkled upon the body, check profuse perspirations, in fever even; they are good, too, used as a fomentation, for cœliac affections, procidence of the uterus, diseases of the fundament, running ulcers, erysipelas, loss of the hair, scaly and other eruptions, and burns. This powder is used as an ingredient, also, in the plasters known as “liparæ;”[3215] and for the same reason the oil of the leaves is used for a similar purpose, being extremely efficacious as an application to the humid parts of the body, the mouth and the uterus, for example.

The leaves themselves, beaten up with wine, neutralize[3216] the bad effects of fungi; and they are employed, in combination with wax, for diseases of the joints, and gatherings. A decoction of them, in wine, is taken for dysentery and dropsy. Dried and reduced to powder, they are sprinkled upon ulcers and hæmorrhages. They are useful, also, for the removal of freckles, and for the cure of hang-nails,[3217] whitlows, condylomata, affections of the testes, and sordid ulcers. In combination with cerate, they are used for burns.

For purulent discharges from the ears, the ashes of the leaves are employed, as well as the juice and the decoction: the ashes are also used in the composition of antidotes. For a similar purpose the blossoms are stripped from off the young branches, which are burnt in a furnace, and then pounded in wine. The ashes of the leaves, too, are used for the cure of burns. To prevent ulcerations from causing swellings in the inguinal glands, it will suffice for the patient to carry[3218] a sprig of myrtle about him which has never touched the ground or any implement of iron.

CHAP. 82.—MYRTIDANUM: THIRTEEN REMEDIES.

We have already described the manner in which myrtidanum[3219] is made. Applied in a pessary, or as a fomentation or liniment, it is good for affections of the uterus, being much more efficacious than the bark of the tree, or the leaves and seed. There is a juice also extracted from the more tender leaves, which are pounded in a mortar for the purpose, astringent wine, or, according to one method, rain-water, being poured upon them a little at a time. This extract is used for the cure of ulcers of the mouth, the fundament, the uterus, and the abdomen. It is employed, also, for dyeing the hair black, the suppression of exudations at the arm-pits,[3220] the removal of freckles, and other purposes in which astringents are required.

CHAP. 83.—THE WILD MYRTLE, OTHERWISE CALLED OXYMYRSINE, OR CHAMÆMYRSINE, AND THE RUSCUS: SIX REMEDIES.

The wild myrtle, oxymyrsine,[3221] or chamæmyrsine, differs from the cultivated myrtle in the redness of its berries and its diminutive height. The root of it is held in high esteem; a decoction of it, in wine, is taken for pains in the kidneys and strangury, more particularly when the urine is thick and fetid. Pounded in wine, it is employed for the cure of jaundice, and as a purgative for the uterus. The same method is adopted, also, with the young shoots, which are sometimes roasted in hot ashes and eaten as a substitute for asparagus.[3222]

The berries, taken with wine, or oil and vinegar, break calculi[3223] of the bladder: beaten up with rose-oil and vinegar, they allay head-ache. Taken in drink, they are curative of jaundice. Castor calls the wild myrtle with prickly leaves, or oxymyrsine, from which brooms are made, by the name of “ruscus”[3224]—the medicinal properties of it are just the same.

Thus much, then, with reference to the medicinal properties of the cultivated trees; let us now pass on to the wild ones.

SUMMARY.—Remedies, narratives, and observations, nine hundred and eighteen.

ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—C. Valgius,[3225] Pompeius Lenæus,[3226] Sextius Niger[3227] who wrote in Greek, Julius Bassus[3228] who wrote in Greek, Antonius Castor,[3229] M. Varro,[3230] Cornelius Celsus,[3231] Fabianus.[3232]

FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Theophrastus,[3233] Democritus,[3234] Orpheus,[3235] Pythagoras,[3236] Mago,[3237] Menander[3238] who wrote the “Biochresta,” Nicander,[3239] Homer, Hesiod,[3240] Musæus,[3241] Sophocles,[3242] Anaxilaüs.[3243]

MEDICAL AUTHORS QUOTED.—Mnesitheus,[3244] Callimachus,[3245] Phanias[3246] the physician, Timaristus,[3247] Simus,[3248] Hippocrates,[3249] Chrysippus,[3250] Diocles,[3251] Ophelion,[3252] Heraclides,[3253] Hicesius,[3254] Dionysius,[3255] Apollodorus[3256] of Citium, Apollodorus[3257] of Tarentum, Plistonicus,[3258] Medius,[3259] Dieuches,[3260] Cleophantus,[3261] Philistion,[3262] Asclepiades,[3263] Crateuas,[3264] Petronius Diodotus,[3265] Iollas,[3266] Erasistratus,[3267] Diagoras,[3268] Andreas,[3269] Mnesides,[3270] Epicharmus,[3271] Damion,[3272] Dalion,[3273] Sosimenes,[3274] Tlepolemus,[3275] Metrodorus,[3276] Solo,[3277] Lycus,[3278] Olympias[3279] of Thebes, Philinus,[3280] Petrichus,[3281] Micton,[3282] Glaucias,[3283] Xenocrates.[3284]

FOOTNOTES:

[1] In B. ii. c. 63.

[2] Of course this is only mere declamation; it is not probable that the animals have any notion at all of _sharpening_ the weapons that nature has given; in addition to which, this mode of sharpening them against hard substances would only wear away the enamel, and ultimately destroy them. The acts of animals in a moment of rage or frenzy have evidently been mistaken here for the dictates of instinct, or even a superior intelligence.

[3] See B. xxv. c. 25, and B. xxvii. c. 76.

[4] In B. viii. c. 36. 41, 42. The works of the ancients, Fée remarks, are full of these puerilities.

[5] This sentiment is not at all akin to the melancholy view which our author takes of mankind at the beginning of B. vii. and in other parts of this work. It is not improbable that his censures here are levelled against some who had endeavoured to impede him in the progress of his work.

[6] “Arvorum sacerdotes,” the priests of the fields.

[7] Or foster-mother. It has been suggested that the Rogations of the Roman church may have possibly originated in the Ambarvalia, or ceremonial presided over by the Arval priesthood.

[8] Made of salt and the meal or flour of spelt. Salt was the emblem of wisdom, friendship, and other virtues.

[9] This, Fée observes, is not the case with any kind of wheat; with manioc, which has an acrid principle, the process may be necessary, in order to make it fit for food.

[10] Or Feast of the Furnace or Oven. See Ovid’s Fasti, B. ii. l. 5-25.

[11] Called the Terminalia. See Ovid’s Fasti, B. ii. l. 641, _et seq._

[12] Tertullian, De Spect. i. 16, calls this goddess by the name of Sessia.

[13] Cœlius Rhodiginus, Turnebus, and Vossius, conjecture that the name of this goddess, who might only be named in the field, was Tutelina. Hardouin thinks that it was Segesta, here mentioned.

[14] Four Roman feet in width, and 120 in length.

[15] Quartarius.

[16] “Faba,” a bean; “Lens,” a lentil; and “Cicer,” a chick-pea.

[17] A “bubus,” from “oxen.” Caius Junius Bubulcus was twice Consul, and once Master of the Horse.

[18] “Farreum” was a form of marriage, in which certain words were used, in presence of ten witnesses, and were accompanied by a certain religious ceremony, in which “panis farreus” was employed; hence this form of marriage was called “confarreatio.”

[19] Farreum.

[20] De Re Rust. Preface.

[21] See B. xxxiii. c. 13.

[22] St. Augustin, De Civ. Dei., mentions a goddess, Bubona, the tutelar divinity of oxen. Nothing seems to be known of these games.

[23] See B. xxxiii. c. 13. Macrobius says that it was Janus.

[24] Table vii. s. 2.

[25] On the “Nundinæ,” or ninth-day holiday: similar to our market-days. According to _our_ mode of reckoning, it was every _eighth_ day.

[26] From “ador,” the old name for “spelt:” because corn was the chief reward given to the conqueror, and his temples were graced with a wreath of corn.

[27] In the first place, it is difficult to see what there is in this passage to admire, or “wonder at,” if that is the meaning of “admiror;” and then, besides, it has no connection with the context. The text is probably in a defective state.

[28] See c. 69 of this Book.

[29] “Vagina.” The meaning of this word here has not been exactly ascertained. It has been suggested that the first period alludes to the appearance of the stalk from its sheath of leaves, and the second to the formation of the ear.

[30] A.U.C. 298.

[31] See B. xxxiv. c. 11. A.U.C. 317.

[32] Nundinis.

[33] On the road to Ostia. It was said to have received its name from the Horatii and Curiatii.

[34] A.U.C. 345.

[35] A.U.C. 550. He alludes to the introduction of Cybele, from Pessinus in Galatia, in the Second Punic war.

[36] A.U.C. 604. See B. viii. c. 6.

[37] Manius Curius Dentatus, Consul A.U.C. 464.

[38] A.U.C. 497.

[39] From “sero,” to sow. See the Æneid, B. vi. l. 844, where this circumstance is alluded to.

[40] “Prata Quintia.” Hardouin says that in his time this spot was still called _I Prati_: it lay beyond the Tiber, between the vineyard of the Medici and the castle of Sant Angelo.

[41] He alludes to the twofold meaning of the word “coli,” “to be tilled,” or “to receive homage from.”

[42] “Ergastulorum.” The “Ergastula” were places of punishment attached to the country houses of the wealthy, for the chastisement of refractory slaves, who were usually made to work in chains.

[43] In the First Book, as originally written. This list of writers is appended in the present Translation to each respective Book.

[44] This is probably written in humble imitation of the splendid exordium of the Georgics of Virgil.

[45] De Re Rust. Preface.

[46] Fée remarks, that we still recruit our armies mostly from the agricultural class.

[47] De Re Rust. c. 1.

[48] Quoted by Columella, De Re Rust. B. i. 4. The sad fate of Regulus is known to all readers of Roman history.

[49] From Columella, B. i. c. 3.

[50] De Re Rust. c. 1.

[51] It is still thought so in France, Fée says, and nothing has tended more than this notion to the depreciation of the prices of wine.

[52] Hence the usual Latin name, “prata.”

[53] “Si sat bene.” Cicero, De Officiis, B. ii. n. 88, gives this anecdote somewhat more at length.

[54] De Re Rust. c. 2.

[55] “Alienâ insaniâ frui.” We have a saying to a similar effect: “Fools build houses, and wise men buy them.”

[56] “Frons domini plus prodest quam occipitium.” See Cato, De Re Rust. c. 4; also Phædrus, B. iv. Fab. 19.

[57] Cato, c. 3. Varro and Columella give the same advice.

[58] See B. iii. c. 9.

[59] Sylla the Fortunate, the implacable enemy of Marius.

[60] Because, though the last comer, he had obtained the best site in the locality.

[61] Od. v. 469. If the river has a bed of sand and high banks, it is really advantageous than otherwise.

[62] In B. xvii. c. 3.

[63] Not to be found in his works which have come down to us.

[64] Prunus spinosa of Linnæus.

[65] See B. xix. c. 30; probably one of the genus Allium sphærocephalum of Linnæus.

[66] “Herba pratensis.” It is not known with certainty to what plant he alludes. Fée suggests that it may be the Poa pratensis, or else a phleum, alopecurus, or dactylis. All the plants here mentioned by Pliny will thrive in a calcareous soil, and their presence, as Fée remarks, is of bad augury.

[67] He alludes to the famous maxim in the Georgics, B. ii. l. 412:—

——Laudato ingentia rura, Exiguum colito——

“Praise a large farm, cultivate a small one.”

[68] By introducing slovenly cultivation.

[69] That small part of it known to the Romans. Hardouin says that the province of Zeugitana is alluded to, mentioned in B. v. c. 3.

[70] And reside on the farm.

[71] Villicus.

[72] De Re Rust. c. 5.

[73] A.U.C. 737.

[74] Probably because it entailed too great an expense. It may have been deeply mortgaged: otherwise it is not clear why the heir refused to take it, as he might have sold a part.

[75] He means to say that it is so much labour lost, as it will take care of itself; but this is hardly in accordance with his numerous directions given in B. xv. Virgil, Geor. B. ii. 421, _et seq._, speaks of the olive as requiring no attention when it has once taken root.

[76] See B. xvii. c. 3.

[77] In throwing away money and labour upon land that does not require it.

[78] Virgil, Georg. I. 268, _et seq._, speaks of the work that might be done on feast days—making hedges, for instance, irrigating land, catching birds, washing sheep, and burning weeds.

[79] “Ne familiæ male sit.”

[80] In B. xvii. c. 3.

[81] The Pteris aquilina, or female fern. No such juices drop from it as here mentioned by Pliny, Fée says.

[82] A superstition quite unworthy of our author; and the same with respect to that mentioned in the next line.

[83] Sub-soil drainage is now universally employed, with the agency of draining-tiles, made for the purpose.

[84] The flower of the lupine could not possibly produce any such effect; and the juice of cicuta, or hemlock, in only a very trifling degree.

[85] This word answers to the Latin “frumenta,” which indicates all those kinds of corn from which bread was prepared by the ancients.

[86] See c. 59 of this Book.

[87] Triticum hibernum of Linnæus, similar to the “siligo” mentioned in the sequel. Winter wheat was greatly cultivated in Apulia.

[88] “Far.” This name is often used in the classics, to signify corn in general; but in the more restricted sense in which it is here employed, it is “Triticum dicoccum,” the “Zea” of the Greeks. It consists of two varieties, the single grained, the Triticum monococcum of Linnæus, and the double-grained, the Triticum spelta of Linnæus, which is still called “farra” in Friuli.

[89] Hordeum sativum of Linnæus.

[90] See c. 66 of this Book.

[91] Panicum Italicum of Linnæus.

[92] Panicum miliaceum of Linnæus. This was probably one of the first grains from which bread was made.

[93] The Sesamum orientale of Linnæus. It is no longer cultivated in Europe, though formerly it was much used in Greece.

[94] It is very doubtful if this is the same as clary, the Salvia horminum of Linnæus, as that is one of the Labiatæ, whereas here, most probably, a leguminous plant is spoken of.

[95] It has been asserted that this is identical with the Sisymbrium polyceratium of Linnæus, rock-gentle, rock-gallant, or winter-cress. Fée, however, is strongly of opinion that it can only be looked for in the Sisymbrium irio of Linnæus.

[96] Ervum lens of Linnæus.

[97] The Cicer arietinum of naturalists, the Garbanzo of the Spaniards. It abounds in the south of Europe and in India.

[98] A variety of spelt was called by this name; but it was more generally applied to a kind of flummery, pottage or gruel.

[99] Hence our word “forage.”

[100] Lupinus hirsutus and pilosus of Linnæus.

[101] From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. viii. c. 2.

[102] All this, of course, depends upon numerous circumstances.

[103] This is certainly the fact, as Fée says, but it is the same with all the graminea.

[104] A characteristic of the Panicum miliaceum in particular.

[105] Or porridge; “puls.”

[106] It has been suggested that this was maize, but that is indigenous to South America. Fée has little doubt that it is the Holcus sorgho of Linnæus, the “Indian millet,” that is meant.

[107] From the Greek φόβη. The stalk and husk of the sorgho is covered with a fine down. The reading “cornis” has been adopted.

[108] This is considered by Fée to be very improbable.

[109] In reality these vary, according to the rapidity of the growth.

[110] Strictly speaking, spelt has seven.

[111]This depends upon the time when it is sown, and numerous other circumstances.

[112] Strictly speaking, he is right; but still there is a swelling in the stalk, to be perceived at the points where the leaves take their rise.

[113] This is incorrect; they all of them throw out leaves from the root.

[114] The same as the “Ervum” probably, the fitch, orobus, or bitter vetch.

[115] Not so with the pea, as known to us.

[116] This is only true at the end of the season, and when the plant is dying.

[117] These annuals lose their leaves only that have articulations on the stem; otherwise they die outright at the fall of the leaf.

[118] If by “tunica” he means the husk of chaff, which surrounds the grain, the assertion is contrary to the fact, in relation to barley and the oat.

[119] Only another name, Fée thinks, for the Triticum hibernum, or winter-wheat. Spelt or zea has been suggested, as also the white barley of the south of Europe; see c. 20.

[120] Egyptian wheat, or rather what is called mummy-wheat, is bearded equally to barley.

[121] Siligo.

[122] Before grinding.

[123] Oats and rye excepted.

[124] Here the word “far” means “a meal,” or “flour,” a substitute for that of “far,” or “spelt.”

[125] Triticum monococcum, according to some. Fée identifies it with the Triticum spelta of Linnæus.

[126] A variety, probably, of the Triticum hibernum of Linnæus, with white grains; the white-wheat of the French, from which the ancient Gauls made their malt; hence the French word “brasser,” to “brew.”

[127] From Theophrastus, De Causis, B. iv.

[128] That of the Ukraine and its vicinity, which is still held in high esteem.

[129] Panis militaris.

[130] To the modius of wheat.

[131] He alludes to beer, or sweet-wort. See B. xiv. c. 29.

[132] He alludes to yeast. See B. xxii, c. 82.

[133] This assertion, from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. viii. c. 4, is not based on truth. It is possible that he may allude in reality to some other gramineous plant.

[134] Trimestre.

[135] Bimestre.

[136] Columella (B. ii. c. 6) does _not_ state to this effect; on the contrary, he speaks of the existence of a three months’ wheat; but he asserts, and with justice, that wheat sown in the autumn is better than that sown in March.

[137] If he alludes here to what Theophrastus says, his assertion is simply that, in Bactria, the grains are as large as an olive-stone.

[138] There is no wild barley in India at the present day.

[139] Porridge, or fermenty.

[140] Oryza sativa of Linnæus.

[141] Like our rice-milk, probably. See B. xxii. c. 26.

[142] They are not carnose or fleshy, but thin, and similar to those of the reed.

[143] On the contrary, it is tough and fibrous.

[144] The barley was, originally, the prize given to the victor in the Eleusinian games.

[145] Or “barley-fed.”

[146] The ἀλφίτον of the Greeks.

[147] This, as Fée observes, would tend to give it a very disagreeable flavour.

[148] “Acetabulum.”

[149] Similar to our pearl barley, probably.

[150] “Anguli.” Dalechamps interprets this as two rows of grain; but Fée thinks that it signifies angles, and points. The Polygonum fagopyrum of Linnæus, he says, buck-wheat, or black-wheat, has an angular grain, but he doubts whether that can possibly be the grain here alluded to.

[151] There is no barley without a beard; it is clearly a variety of wheat that is alluded to.

[152] Triticum spelta of Linnæus.

[153] “Semen,” the same as zea, or spelt.

[154] Siligo.

[155] Ἄμυλον.

[156] De Re Rust. c. 87. This “amylum” seems somewhat to resemble our starch.

[157] The Hordeum distichum of Linnæus.

[158] Hordeum hexastichum of Linnæus. The Hordeum vulgare, or common barley, has but four rows.

[159] These varieties are not known at the present day, and Fée questions if they ever existed. There is a black barley found in Germany, the Hordeum nigrum of Willdenow.

[160] A calcareous soil is the best adapted for barley.

[161] Nova Carthago, or New Carthage.

[162] This fallacious opinion is shared with Galen, De Facult. Anim. B. vi. c. 11.

[163] Siligo.

[164] Triticum.

[165] The Triticum dicoccum, or spelt.

[166] Probably rye. See the next Chapter.

[167] Semen.

[168] In c. 20, also in c. 29. This grain, which was in reality a kind of spelt, received its name probably from having been the first cultivated.

[169] Il. ii. c. 548: “the land that produces zea.”

[170] Not ἀπὸ τοῦ ζῆν, from “living.”

[171] Merely, as Fée says, from the faulty method employed in its preparation, as starch has, in all cases, the same physical appearance.

[172] In c. 17 of this Book.

[173] In c. 3 of this Book.

[174] “Puls,” like our porridge.

[175] Any food that was originally eaten with “puls,” and afterwards with bread, was so called, such as meat, vegetables, &c.

[176] “Offam.” This word, which in the later writers signifies a “cake,” originally meant a hardened lump of porridge.

[177] Pulte fritillâ.

[178] “Siligo.” There are numerous contradictions in Pliny with reference to this plant, but it is now pretty generally agreed that it is the Triticum hibernum of Linnæus: the “froment tousselle” of the French. It was formerly the more general opinion that it was identical with spelt; but that cannot be the case, as spelt is red, and siligo is described as white.

[179] “Sine virtute.” It is doubtful what is the meaning of this.

[180] Sine pondere.

[181] In other places he says, most unaccountably, that wheat “degenerates into siligo.”

[182] As to this practice, see c. 29.

[183] “Quam vocant castratam.”

[184] From this account, it would appear that there were twenty-four sextarii to the modius; but the account in general is very contradictory.

[185] Salt water is rarely used for this purpose in modern times. See this passage discussed in Beckmann on Inventions, _Bohn’s Ed._ vol. i. p. 164.

[186] “Artopticio.” See c. 27 of this Book.

[187] Without tin, probably; or the tin bread may have been baked before the fire, similar to the method adopted at the present day with the American ovens.

[188] “Similago.” Founders still use meal occasionally for making moulds; it is also employed in making paper.

[189] The mention of “hundreds” here is evidently faulty, unless the other part of the passage is corrupt. Fée suggests twenty-two and twenty-seven.

[190] But above we find him stating that “secundarius,” “seconds” flour, and “cibarius,” or “coarse,” meal, are the same thing. His contradictions cannot apparently be reconciled.

[191] The whole of this passage, as Brotier remarks, is evidently corrupt.

[192] Fée has no doubt that this was siligo, or winter-wheat, in a very high state of cultivation.

[193] Il. v. l. 195.

[194] There are still some varieties both of winter-wheat and spelt that have the beard.

[195] It is generally thought that this is the oat, the Avena sativa of Linnæus, while some have suggested rice. Fée thinks that by the name, some exotic gramineous plant is meant.

[196] Probably a variety of spelt, as Sprengel conjectures, from Galen and other writers. See c. 16 of this Book.

[197] Fée thinks that it is the grain of the Festuca fluitans of Linnæus that is here alluded to, and identifies it with the “ulva palustris” of Virgil, Geor. iii. 174.

[198] The Latin word “degener” cannot here mean “degenerate,” in our sense of the word, but must merely imply a change of nature in the plant.

[199] See B. xvii. c. 3.

[200] We know of no such fruitfulness as this in the wheat of Europe. Fifteen-fold, as Fée remarks, is the utmost amount of produce that can be anticipated.

[201] Fée mentions instances of 150, 92, and 63 stalks arising from a single grain; but all these fall far short of the marvels here mentioned by Pliny.

[202] The Triticum compositum of Linnæus; supposed to have originally come from Egypt or Barbary.

[203] “Centigranium.” Probably the same as the last.

[204] In c. 10 of this Book.

[205] See c. 10.

[206] Pinguius.

[207] Already mentioned in c. 10.

[208] See B. xix. c. 47; and B. xx. c. 57.

[209] This would rather _grate_ the grain than _pound_ it, as Beckmann observes. See his Hist. Inv., vol. i. pp. 147 and 164, _Bohn’s Ed._, where the meaning of this passage has been commented upon. Gesner, also, in his Lexicon Rusticum, has endeavoured to explain it.

[210] Ruido.

[211] It is surprising to find the Romans, not only kneading their bread with sea-water, but putting in it pounded bricks, chalk, and sand!

[212] Beard chaff; so called, probably, from the sharpness of the points, like needles (acus).

[213] See B. xxxiii. c. 3; where he says, that a fire lighted with this chaff, fuses gold more speedily than one made with maple wood.

[214] The Tartars still employ millet as one of their principal articles of food. They also extract a kind of wine from it.

[215] Virgil alludes to this, Georg. iii. 463.

[216] Panic is still employed more than any other grain in the south of France.

[217] Or grape-juice. This must have tended to affect the taste of the bread.

[218] Ervum.

[219] “Cicercula.” See B. xxii. c. 72.

[220] This remark is founded upon just notions.

[221] Ostrearius.

[222] From ἄρτος, and λάγανον, bread and cake.

[223] From σπεύδω, to hasten. A sort of crumpet, probably.

[224] Furnaceus.

[225] Artopticeus.

[226] “Clibanis.” The clibanus was a portable oven or mould, broader at the bottom than the top.

[227] Aquaticus.

[228] See cc. 10 and 29 of this Book.

[229] It would appear to be somewhat similar to our rusks.

[230] Which ended A.U.C. 586.

[231] A. ii. s. 9, l. 4. “Ego hinc artoptam ex proxumo utendam peto.” It is thought by some commentators, that the word used by Pliny here was, in reality, “Artoptasia,” a female baker; and that he alludes to a passage in the Aulularia, which has now perished.

[232] Which in Pliny’s time signified “baker.”

[233] The Stipa tenacissima of Linnæus, Fée says; or else the Lygeum spartum of Linnæus.

[234] As to the cereal so called, see c. 10 of this Book.

[235] Or perfumed oils.

[236] See B. iii. c. 9. A volcanic district.

[237] In c. 20 of this Book.

[238] Grain from which the husk is removed.

[239] A sub-carbonate of lime; it is still known in those parts of Campania, and is called “lumera.”

[240] Teneritatem.

[241] From the Greek, meaning “white earth.”

[242] Fée enquires, and with good reason, how the African mixture accommodated itself to the stomachs of those who ate it.

[243] Residue.

[244] Seconds.

[245] Sieve flour.

[246] A porridge or pap, made of ground grain. It is mentioned by Cato, c. 86.

[247] The Faba vulgaris of the modern naturalists. It is supposed to have originally come from Persia.

[248] It is said that this mixture is still employed in the Valais and in Savoy.

[249] Fabata.

[250] Beans were used in ancient times, in place of balls or pebbles, in voting by ballot. Hence it has been suggested that Pythagoras, in recommending his disciples to abstain from beans, meant to advise them to have nothing to do with politics.

[251] The sacrifices offered to the Manes or spirits of deceased relations. See Ovid’s Fasti, B. ii. l. 565.

[252] “Brought home.” The bean was offered up, to ensure good luck.

[253] Didymus, in the Geoponica, B. ii. c. 33, repeats this absurdity.

[254] Georg. i. 215.

[255] This notion still prevails, and the bean, while in blossom, is dug into the ground to manure it, both in England and France.

[256] It does not appear, however, that this was done with the view of digging in the beans.

[257] Or Bean Islands. See B. iv. c. 27.

[258] The Nymphæa nelumbo of Linnæus is alluded to, but it is no longer to be found in Egypt. Pliny is supposed to derive this from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. iv. c. 10, but his translation is not exactly correct.

[259] Pisum sativum of Linnæus.

[260] Meaning a wart or pimple on the face.

[261] Cicer arietinum of the botanists.

[262] “Gigni cum salsilagine.” It abounds in India, and while blossoming, it distils a corrosive acid, which corrodes the shoes of those who tread upon it.

[263] There are still the red and the white kinds, the large and the small.

[264] Cicercula: the Lathyrus sativus of Linnæus. It is difficult to cook and hard of digestion. See c. 26.

[265] This must be said in reference to some of the pease when in a dried state.

[266] A variety of the Phaseolus vulgaris of Linnæus: the “haricot” of the French. The French bean and the scarlet-runner are cooked in a similar manner among us.

[267] 15th of October.

[268] 1st of November.

[269] The Napo-brassica of Linnæus. The turnip cabbage, or rape-colewort.

[270] This taste, it is most probable, is nowhere in existence at the present day.

[271] This is not by any means an exaggeration.

[272] Acrimonia.

[273] These coloured varieties, Fée says, belong rather to the Brassica oleracea, than to the Brassica rapa. It is not improbable, from the structure of this passage, that Pliny means to say that the colours are artificially produced.

[274] In reality, belonging to the Crucifera, the rape is hermaphroditical.

[275] Wild horse-radish, which is divided into two varieties, the Raphanus raphanistrum of Linnæus, and the Cochlearia Armoracia, may possibly be meant, but their roots bear no resemblance to the radish.

[276] An enormous price, apparently.

[277] The Brassica napus of Linnæus.

[278] 1st of March.

[279] The Neptunalia and the Vulcanalia; 23rd of July and 23rd of August.

[280] In consequence of the brittleness of the pod.

[281] This is an exaggeration of certain phænomena observed in the leaves of all leguminous plants.

[282] In B. xvii. c. 6.

[283] “Ex areâ.” This reading is favoured by the text of Columella. B. ii. c. 10, who says the same. But “ex arvo,” from the field, _i. e._ the “moment it is gathered”—seems preferable, as being more consistent with the context,

[284] From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. viii. c. 1. 11, &c.

[285] It is still thought that the lupine enriches the soil in which it grows.

[286] Marcellus Empiricus says, that boiled lupine meal, spread as a plaster, and laid on the abdomen, will destroy intestinal worms.

[287] Vicia sativa of Linnæus.

[288] Or orobus, the Ervum ervilia of Linnæus.

[289] It is thought by many that the ervum is unwholesome, being productive of muscular weakness. The blade of it is said to act as a poison on pigs. However, we find the farina, or meal, extolled by some persons for its medicinal qualities; and if we are to trust to the advertisements in the newspapers, it is rising rapidly in esteem. See B. xxii. c. 73.

[290] From Columella, B. ii. c. 11.

[291] Trigonella fœnum Græcum of Linnæus.

[292] “Scarificatio.”

[293] Probably the Secale cereale of Linnæus, cultivated rye.

[294] It is now held in high esteem in many parts of Europe.

[295] Rye has no bitterness, and this assertion has led some to doubt if it is identical with the “secale” of Pliny.

[296] Perhaps identical with the Vicia cracca of Linnæus.

[297] In c. 54 and 60, and elsewhere. See B. xvii. c. 35.

[298] Probably, fitches.

[299] Fée suggests that this may be the Avena sterilis, or else the Avena fatua of Linnæus.

[300] De Re Rust. B. i. c. 31.

[301] “Medica,” in Latin, a kind of clover, the Medicago sativa of Linnæus.

[302] Fée is inclined to doubt this.

[303] Pliny exaggerates here: Columella, B. ii. c. 11, says, only “ten:” a field, however, sown with it will last, with a fresh sowing, as long as twenty years.

[304] See B. xiii. c. 47.

[305] Columella, B. ii. c. 11, says April.

[306] By the aid of careful watering, as many as eight to fourteen cuttings are obtained in the year, in Italy and Spain. In the north of Europe there is but one crop.

[307] In B. xiii. c. 47.

[308] He borrows this notion of the oat being wheat in a diseased state, from Theophrastus. Singularly enough, it was adopted by the learned Buffon.

[309] From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. viii. c. 10.

[310] This but rarely happens in our climates, as Fée remarks.

[311] The grains are sometimes, though rarely, found devoured on the stalk, by a kind of larvæ.

[312] Some coleopterous insect, probably, now unknown, and not the Cantharis vesicatoria, or “Spanish fly,” as some have imagined. Dioscorides and Athenæus state to the same effect as Pliny.

[313] The proper influence of the humidity of the earth would naturally be impeded by a coating of these substances.

[314] This plant has not been identified; but none of the gramineous plants are noxious to cattle, with the exception of the seed of darnel.

[315] Lolium temulentum of Linnæus.

[316] See B. xxi. c. 58.

[317] “Carduus.” A general term, probably including the genera Centaurea (the prickly kinds), Serratula, Carduus, and Cnicus. The Centaurea solstitialis is the thistle most commonly found in the south of Europe.

[318] Gallium Aparine of Linnæus.

[319] Barley, wheat, oats, and millet have, each its own “rubigo” or mildew, known to modern botany as uredo.

[320] The Erineum vitis of botanists.

[321] This rarely happens except through the violence of wind or rain.

[322] See c. 32 of this Book.

[323] The Cuscuta Europæa, probably, of Linnæus; one of the Convolvuli.

[324] “Æra.” It is generally considered to be the same with darnel, though Pliny probably looked upon them as different.

[325] The Ægilops ovata, probably, of Linnæus. Dalechamps and Hardouin identify it with the barren oat, the Avena sterilis of Linnæus.

[326] To the Greek πελέκυς, or battle-axe. It is probably the Biserrula pelecina of Linnæus, though the Astragalus hamosus and the Coronilla securidaca of Linnæus have been suggested.

[327] Pliny has here committed a singular error in translating from Theophrastus, de Causis, B. iv. c. 14, who only says that a cold wind in the vicinity of Philippi makes the beans difficult to cook or boil, ἀτεράμονες. From this word he has coined two imaginary plants, the “ateramon,” and the “teramon.” Hardouin defends Pliny, by suggesting that he has borrowed the passage from another source, while Fée doubts if he really understood the Greek language.

[328] More probably one of the Coleoptera. He borrows from Theophrastus, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 10.

[329] This will only prevent the young plants from becoming a prey to snails and slugs.

[330] This plan is attended with no good results.

[331] Georg. i. 193. It is generally said that if seed is steeped in a solution of nitre, and more particularly hydrochloric acid, it will germinate with accelerated rapidity; the produce, however, is no finer than at other times.

[332] “Fractæ.” Perhaps, more properly “crushed”

[333] The odour of cypress, or savin, Fée thinks, might possibly keep away noxious insects.

[334] The “always living,” or perennial plant, our “house-leek,” the Sedum acre of Linnæus. See B. xxv. c. 102.

[335] “Little finger,” from the shape of the leaves.

[336] He must have allowed himself to be imposed upon in this case.

[337] Fée thinks that this may possibly be efficacious against the attacks of rats, as the author of the Geoponica, B. x., states.

[338] Virgil, Georg, i. 111, recommends the same plan, and it is still followed by agriculturists. It is not without its inconveniences, however.

[339] This is not consistent with truth, for no fresh ear will assume its place.

[340] De Re Rust. c. 6.

[341] De Re Rust. c. 34.

[342] “Ador.” See c. 10 of this Book.

[343] From Varro; De Re Rust. i. 23.

[344] A.U.C. 553.

[345] There is nothing wonderful in a few grains of corn germinating in the cleft of a tree.

[346] In B. v. c. 10.

[347] First of April.

[348] _I. e._ Egypt Proper, the Delta, or Lower Egypt, Thebais being in Upper Egypt.

[349] The overflow of these rivers is by no means to be compared with that of the Nile.

[350] Fée remarks, that the plough here described differs but little from that used in some provinces of France.

[351] Resupinus.

[352] Gallia Togata. Rhætia is the modern country of the Grisons.

[353] According to Goropius Becanus, from _plograt_, the ancient Gallic for a plough-wheel. Hardouin thinks that it is from the Latin “plaustra rati;” and Poinsinet derives it from the Belgic _ploum_, a plough, and _rat_, or _radt_, a wheel.

[354] “Crates;” probably made of hurdles; see Virgil, Georg. i. 95.

[355] De Re Rust. c. 61.

[356] These rules are borrowed mostly from Varro, B. i. c. 19, and Columella, B. ii. c. 4.

[357] “Vere actum” “worked in spring.”

[358] Virgil says the same, Georg. i. 9.

[359] Crosswise, or horizontally.

[360] Zig-zag, apparently.

[361] A rude foreshadowing of the spade husbandry so highly spoken of at the present day.

[362] “Prevaricare,” “to make a balk,” as we call it, to make a tortuous furrow, diverging from the straight line.

[363] He probably means the heavy “rastrum,” or rake, mentioned by Virgil, Georg. i. 164. It is impossible to say what was the shape of this heavy rake, or how it was used. Light, or hand rakes were in common use as well.

[364] “A gong crooked;” hence its meaning of, folly, dotage, or madness.

[365] Georg. i. 47. Servius seems to understand it that the furrow should be untouched for two days and two nights before it is gone over again.

[366] Fée declines to give credit to this story.

[367] A.U.C. 830.

[368] “Semen,” “seed-wheat,” a variety only of spelt.

[369] In c. 65 of this Book.

[370] Runcatio.

[371] Crates.

[372] Georg. i. 71.

[373] In B. xvii. c. 7.

[374] See B. v. c. 3, and B. xvi. c. 50. It is also mentioned by Ptolemy and Procopius. It was situate evidently in an oasis.

[375] Or arm’s length from the elbow.

[376] He surely does not mention this as an extravagant price, more especially when he has so recently spoken (in c. 34) of rape selling at a sesterce per pound.

[377] How was this ascertained? Fée seems to think that it is the Festuca fluitans of Linnæus that is alluded to, it being eagerly sought by cattle.

[378] In B. xvii. c. 3.

[379] Tenerum.

[380] Adoreum.

[381] “Tertio” may possibly mean the “third time,” _i. e._ for every third crop.

[382] In B. xvii. c. 6.

[383] “Ares” seems to be a preferable reading to “arescat,” “before it dries.”

[384] Schneider, upon Columella, B. ii. c. 15, would reject these words, and they certainly appear out of place.

[385] Poinsinet would supply here “tricenis diebus,” “in thirty days,” from Columella, B. ii. c. 15.

[386] “Sterile.” This is not necessarily the case, as we know with reference to what is called mummy wheat, the seed of which has been recovered at different times from the Egyptian tombs.

[387] The threshing floor was made with an elevation in the middle, and the sides on an incline, to the bottom of which the largest grains would be the most likely to fall.

[388] “Far” or spelt is of a red hue in the exterior.

[389] This appearance is no longer to be observed, if, indeed, Pliny is correct: all kinds of corn are white in the interior of the grain.

[390] Hand-sowing is called by the French, “semer à la volée.”

[391] This occult or mysterious method of which Pliny speaks, consists solely of what we should call a “happy knack,” which some men have of sowing more evenly than others.

[392] Sors genialis atque fecunda est.

[393] This Chapter is mostly from Columella, B. ii. c. 9.

[394] In c. 19 of this Book.

[395] Probably the mixture called “farrago” in c. 10 and c. 41.

[396] Upon this point the modern agriculturists are by no means agreed.

[397] From Cato, De Re Rust. c. 5.

[398] “Segetem ne defrudes.” The former editions mostly read “defruges,” in which case the meaning would be, “don’t exhaust the land.”

[399] This passage of Attius is lost, but Hermann supposes his words to have run thus:—

——serere, cum est
Luna in Ariete, Geminis, Leone, Libra, Aquario.

[400] In c. 8 of this Book.

[401] Georg. i. 208.

[402] Georg. i. 227.

[403] See c. 74 of this Book.

[404] Columella, B. ii. c. 8.

[405] Favonius. See B. ii. c. 47.

[406] The five days’ festival in honour of Minerva. It begins on the fourteenth before the calends of April, or on the nineteenth of March. Virgil, Georg. i. 208, says that flax and the poppy should be sown in autumn.

[407] Fifteenth of October.

[408] First of November.

[409] Georg. i. 204.

[410] “To be an early winter.”

[411] “To be a long winter.”

[412] Confectum sidus.

[413] In B. xvii. c. 2.

[414] Georg. i. 335.

[415] A.U.C. 830.

[416] Twenty-seventh of January.

[417] Ad solis cursum.

[418] Soon after the corrections made by order of Julius Cæsar, the Pontifices mistook the proper method of intercalation, by making it every third year instead of the fourth; the consequence of which was, that Augustus was obliged to correct the results of their error by omitting the intercalary day for twelve years.

[419] He most probably refers to the list of writers originally appended to the First Book; but which in the present Translation is distributed at the end of each Book. For the list of astronomical writers here referred to, see the end of the present Book.

[420] Or Ἀστρικὴ βίβλος. It is now lost.

[421] In his work mentioned at the end of this Book. It is now lost.

[422] _I. e._ Asia Minor.

[423] _I. e._ the north-west parts of Africa.

[424] See c. 39 of that Book.

[425] “Ratione solis.” This theory of the succession of changes every four years, was promulgated by Eudoxus. See B. ii. c. 48.

[426] See c. 69, as to Arcturus and Aquila.

[427] He speaks of Equinoctial hours, these being in all cases of the same length, in contradistinction to the Temporal, or Unequal hours, which with the Romans were a twelfth part of the Natural day, from sunrise to sunset, and of course were continually varying.

[428] Twenty-fifth of December.

[429] Fere.

[430] In this Translation, the names of the Constellations are given in English, except in the case of the signs of the Zodiac, which are universally known by their Latin appellations.

[431] He begins in c. 64, at the winter solstice, and omits the period between the eleventh of November and the winter solstice altogether, so far as the mention of individual days.

[432] “Cum sidus vehemens Orionis iisdem diebus longo decedat spatio.” This passage is apparently unintelligible, if considered, as Sillig reads it, as dependent on the preceding one.

[433] In his Œconomica.

[434] In B. ii. c. 47.

[435] “Vestis institor est.” This passage is probably imperfect.

[436] “Lacernarum.”

[437] “Puleium.” See B. ii. c. 41.

[438] De Re Rust. i. 34.

[439] The setting of the Vergiliæ.

[440] De Divinat. B. i. c. 15. They are a translation from Aratus.

[441] De Re Rust. c. 38. Pliny has said above, that flax and the poppy should be sown in the spring.

[442] The Papaver Rhœas of Linnæus is still used for affections of the throat.

[443] For the grape and the olive.

[444] First of November.

[445] In the more northern climates this is never done till the spring.

[446] This is merely imaginary.

[447] Or king-fisher. It was a general belief that this bird incubated on the surface of the ocean.

[448] Hence the expression, “Halcyon days.”

[449] Vadimonia.

[450] In B. xvi. c. 74.

[451] “Ridicas.”

[452] “Palos.”

[453] Thirtieth of December. According to the Roman reckoning, the _third_ day would be the day but one before.

[454] Fourth of January.

[455] Eighth of January.

[456] Seventeenth of January.

[457] Twenty-fifth of January.

[458] “Regia Stella.”

[459] Fourth of February.

[460] Or wine-vats; by the use of the word “laminas,” he seems to be speaking not of the ordinary earthen dolia, but the wooden ones used in Gaul and the north of Italy.

[461] Sixteenth of February.

[462] Twenty-second of February.

[463] Fifth of March.

[464] On the fifth of March, Ovid says, Fasti, iii. l. 407. Columella makes it rise on the sixth of the nones, or the second of March.

[465] Eighth of March.

[466] Or, more literally, the “Northern Fish.”

[467] Fifteenth of March, the day on which he was assassinated, in accordance, it is said, with the prophecy of a diviner, who had warned him to beware of the ides of March.

[468] Eighteenth of March.

[469] Twenty-first of March.

[470] In c. 46 and c. 47.

[471] Seventh of February.

[472] In B. xvii. c. 35.

[473] Fée approves of this method of weeding before the corn is in ear.

[474] In a day, probably.

[475] Georg. i. 63.

[476] De Re Rust. 40.

[477] See B. xvii. c. 8.

[478] Alluding to his quotation from Cicero in c. 61.

[479] Or mastich.

[480] See c. 7 of this Book.

[481] It is not known whence he derived this unfounded notion.

[482] Twenty-fifth of March.

[483] First of April.

[484] This passage is omitted in the original, but was probably left out by inadvertence.

[485] Third of April.

[486] Fifth of April.

[487] Eighth of April.

[488] Eighteenth of April.

[489] Sixteenth of April.

[490] Twentieth of April.

[491] Twenty-first of April. See B. xix. c. 24.