Chapter X: Part 10

BAR'LEY, the name of several cereal plants of the genus Hordeum, ord. Gramineae: (grasses), yielding a grain used as food and also for making malt, from which are prepared beer, porter, and whisky. Barley has been known and cultivated from remote antiquity, and beer was made from it among the Egyptians. It is mentioned in _Exodus_, in connection with the ten plagues; and it is referred to in ancient Chinese records. Excellent barley is produced in Britain. The species principally cultivated are _Hord[)e]um dist[)i]chum_, two-rowed barley; _H. vulg[=a]re_, four-rowed barley; and _H. hexastichum_, six-rowed, of which the small variety is the sacred barley of the ancients. The varieties of the four- and six-rowed species are generally coarser than those of the two-rowed, and adapted for a poorer soil and more exposed situation. Some of these are called _bere_ or _bigg_. In Britain barley occupies more than 22-1/2 per cent of the land under corn, but in N. America the extent of it as a crop is comparatively small, being in Canada, however, relatively greater than in the States, and the Canadian barley is of very high quality. Barley is better adapted for cold climates than any other grain, and some of the coarser varieties are cultivated where no other cereal can be grown. Russia devotes a surface of over 20,000,000 acres to barley, i.e. a little under 11 per cent of the cereal area of the country. Germany has 4,000,000 and France 1,800,000 acres of barley. Some species of the genus, three of which are natives of Britain, are mere grasses. _Pot_ or _Scotch barley_ is the grain deprived of the husk in a mill. _Pearl barley_ is the grain polished and rounded and deprived of husk and pellicle. _Patent barley_ is the farina obtained by grinding pearl barley. _Barley-water_, a decoction of pearl barley, is used in medicine as possessing emollient, diluent, and expectorant qualities.

BARLEY-SUGAR. See _Confectionery_; _Sugar_.

BAR'LOW, Joel, an American poet and diplomatist, born 1755. After an active and changeful life as chaplain, lawyer, editor, land-agent, lecturer, and consul, he went to Paris and acquired a fortune. On his return to America he was appointed Minister Plenipotentiary to France (1811), but died near Cracow in 1812 on his way to meet Napoleon. His principal poem, _The Columbiad_ (_The Vision of Columbus_), dealing with American history from the time of Columbus, was published in 1807.

BARM. See _Yeast_.

BAR'MECIDES (-s[=i]dz), a distinguished Persian family, whose virtues and splendour form a favourite subject with Mahommedan poets and historians. Two eminent members of this family were Khaled-ben-Barmek, tutor of Haroun al Rashid, and his son Yahya, grand vizier of Haroun. The expression _Barmecide Feast_, meaning a visionary banquet or make-believe entertainment, originates from the Barber's story of his Sixth Brother in the _Arabian Nights' Entertainments_.

BAR'MEN, a German city on the Wupper, in the Prussian Rhine Province, government of Duesseldorf, and forming a continuation of the town of Elberfeld, in the valley of Barmen. It has extensive ribbon and other textile manufactures; also dyeworks, manufactures of chemicals, metal wares, buttons, yarns, iron, machines, pianos, organs, soap, &c. In 1919 Barmen was the scene of Spartacist disorders. Pop. 169,214.

BARMOUTH, Welsh name ABERMAW, a small seaport and watering-place of Wales, in Merionethshire, at the entrance of Barmouth Bay, a fine estuary. It is picturesquely situated, and has become a favourite resort of tourists and others. Pop. (1921), 3559.

BAR'NABAS, the surname, according to _Acts_, iv, 36-7, given by the apostles to Joseph, a fellow-labourer of St. Paul, and, like him, ranked as an apostle. He is said to have founded at Antioch the first Christian community, to have been first Bishop of Milan, and to have suffered martyrdom at Cyprus. His festival is held on the 11th June.

BARNABAS, SAINT, EPISTLE OF, an epistle in twenty-one chapters unanimously ascribed to Barnabas by early Christian writers, but without any support of internal evidence. It was probably written about A.D. 130 (or, according to others, between A.D. 70 and 79) by one who was not a Jew, and under the influence of Alexandrian Judaistic thought. See _Codex_ (_Sinaiticus_).

BARNABITES, an order of monks founded in Milan in 1530 and named after the Milan church of St. Barnabas which was allotted them to preach in. On their expulsion from France in 1905, the majority of the Barnabites sought refuge in England. A few monasteries of the order still exist in Italy, Belgium, Austria, and Spain.

BAR'NACLE, the name of a family (Lepadidae) of marine crustaceous animals, ord. Cirripedia. They are enveloped by a mantle and shell, composed of five principal valves and several smaller pieces, joined together by a membrane attached to their circumference; and they are furnished with a long, flexible, fleshy stalk or peduncle, provided with muscles, by which they attach themselves to ships' bottoms, submerged timber, &c. They feed on small marine animals, brought within their reach by the water and secured by their tentacula. Some of the larger species are edible. According to an old fable, these animals produced barnacle geese.

BARNACLE GOOSE (_Anser Bernicla_ or _leucopsis_), a summer visitant of the northern seas, in size rather smaller than the common wild goose, and having the forehead and cheeks white, the upper body and neck black. A fable asserts that the crustaceans called barnacles changed into geese, and various theories have been framed to account for its origin. Max Mueller supposes the geese were originally called _Hiberniculae_ or Irish geese, and that barnacle is a corruption of this; but the resemblance of a barnacle to a goose hanging by the head may account for it. The Brent Goose is also sometimes called the Barnacle Goose, but the two should not be confused.

BARNARD-CASTLE, a town, England, County Durham, giving name to a parliamentary division of the county. There are a large thread-mill and carpet manufactories; the Bowes Museum and Art Gallery, endowed by private munificence, and costing over L80,000; and the Northern Counties School, richly endowed. The castle was originally built about 1178 by Bernard Baliol, grandfather of John Baliol. Pop. 4737.

BARNAR'DO, Thomas John, philanthropist, born in Ireland in 1845, qualified as a medical practitioner, studying in London, Edinburgh, and Paris, established his first home for neglected London children in 1867, and for the rest of his life was engaged in the same class of work. Up to his death in 1905 he had nearly 60,000 destitute waifs cared for and trained in the institutions with which his name is connected, many of the children having been sent to Canada or other colonies. The Barnardo homes and institutions have become very numerous, being established in various English counties as well as in London, a few being in Canada. A naval training-school for boys is included among them. It was a rule of the founder that no destitute child should be refused admission. The homes have since 1899 been under a council or body incorporated under the title of the National Incorporated Waifs Association, but continue to be managed on the same lines as before. Dr. Barnardo published _Something Attempted, Something Done_; _The Rescue of Waifs_; &c.--Cf. J. H. Batt, _Dr. Barnardo, the Foster-father of Nobody's Children_.

BARNAUL', a town of Siberia, government of Tomsk, on the Barnaulski, near its influx into the Obi. The town is of wood but well built, with museum, observatory, &c. It is an important mining centre for lead, copper, and silver, has a copper-mint, kilns, and factories. Pop. 61,330.

BARNAVE (b[.a]r-naev), Antoine-Pierre-Joseph-Marie, a distinguished French revolutionist, born 1761, died 1793. He successfully maintained against Mirabeau the right of the National Assembly, as against that of the king, to declare for peace or war, but afterwards asserted the inviolability of the king's person. He was impeached, condemned, and guillotined.

BARNES, an urban district of England, in Surrey, on the right bank of the Thames, a short distance above London, connected with Middlesex by Hammersmith Suspension Bridge. There is here a common of 120 acres, one of the preserved open spaces of the metropolitan area. Pop. (1921), 34,281.

BARNES (baernz), Albert, theologian, born in the State of New York, 1798. In 1825 he was ordained pastor of the Presbyterian Church of Morristown, New Jersey, and from 1830 till his death in 1870 had charge of the first Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia. He is chiefly known by his _Notes on the New Testament_ and _Notes on the Old Testament_.

BARNES, Rt. Hon. George Nicoll, British Labour leader, born at Dundee, in Scotland, in 1859. After working as an engineer he became assistant secretary of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers in 1892, and was general secretary from 1896 to 1906. He entered Parliament in 1906, became Minister for Pensions in 1916, member of War Cabinet in 1917, and was Minister without portfolio from 1919 to Jan., 1920. He was a British representative at the Peace Conference in Paris.

BARNES, William, English dialect poet and philologist, born in Dorsetshire in 1800, died 1886. Of humble birth, he first entered a solicitor's office, then taught at a school in Dorchester, and having taken orders became rector of Winterbourne Came in his native county and died there. He acquired a knowledge of many languages, and published works on Anglo-Saxon and English, as _An Anglo-Saxon Delectus_, _A Philological Grammar_ (grounded upon English), _Grammar and Glossary of the Dorset Dialect_, &c., but is best known by his _Poems of Rural Life in the Dorset Dialect_ and _Poems of Rural Life in Common English_.

BAR'NET, a town of England, in Herts, 11 miles from London, where was fought in 1471 a battle between the Yorkists and Lancastrians, resulting in the defeat of the latter and the death of Warwick, Edward IV being thus established king. Pop. (1921), 11,772.

BARNETT, John, musical composer, son of Bernhard Beer, a German, born at Bedford 1802, died 1890. He composed music as a lad, and his songs and ballads soon had great vogue. In 1834 his opera _The Mountain Sylph_ was produced with success, and three years after was followed by the less successful _Fair Rosamond_. For many years before his death he was little heard of.

BARNETT, John Francis, nephew of the former, born in 1837, died in 1916, was also a distinguished musician and teacher, author of cantatas: _The Ancient Mariner_, _Paradise and the Peri_, _The Raising of Lazarus_, _The Building of the Ship_, and of various other works.

BARNEVELDT (baer'ne-velt), Johan van Olden, grand pensionary of Holland during the struggle with Philip II of Spain, born in 1547. After the assassination of William of Orange, and the conquest of the south provinces by the Spaniards under Parma, he headed the embassy to secure English aid. Finding, however, that the Earl of Leicester proved a worse than useless ally, he secured the elevation of the young Maurice of Nassau to the post of Stadtholder, at the same time by his own wise administration doing much to restore the prosperity of the State. After serving as ambassador to France and England, he succeeded in 1607 in obtaining from Spain a recognition of the independence of the States, and two years later in concluding with her the twelve years' truce. Maurice, ambitious of absolute rule and jealous of the influence of Barneveldt, was interested in the continuance of the war, and lost no opportunity of hostile action against the great statesman. In this he was aided by the strongly-marked theologic division in the State between the Gomarites (the Calvinistic and popular party) and the Arminians, of whom Barneveldt was a supporter. Maurice, who had thrown in his lot with the Gomarites, encouraged the idea that the Arminians were the friends of Spain, and procured the assembly of a synod at Dort (1618), which violently condemned them. Barneveldt and his friends Grotius and Hoogerbeets were arrested, and subjected to a so-called trial; and Barneveldt, to whom the country owed its political existence and the Commons their retention of legislative power, was beheaded on 13th May, 1619. His sons, four years later, attempted to avenge his death; one was beheaded, the other escaped to Spain.

BARNOLDSWICK, an urban district of England, West Riding of Yorkshire, 9 miles south-west of Skipton, with cotton manufactures and other industries. Pop. (1921), 11,951.

BARNS'LEY, a municipal borough of England, West Riding of Yorkshire. Its staple industries are the manufacture of linens, iron, and steel, and there are numerous collieries in the neighbourhood. Created a parliamentary borough in 1918, Barnsley returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921), 53,670.

BARN'STAPLE, a county and municipal borough in England, county of Devon, giving its name to a parliamentary division of the county on the right bank of the Taw, where it receives the Yeo; manufactures of lace, paper, pottery, furniture, toys and turnery, and leather. Pop. 14,409.

BAROACH. See _Broach_.

BARO'DA, a non-tributary State, but subordinate to the Indian Government, situated in the north of the Bombay presidency. It consists of a number of detached territories in the province of Guzerat, and is generally level, fertile, and well cultivated, producing luxuriant crops of grain, cotton, tobacco, opium, sugar-cane, and oil-seeds. There is a famous breed of large white oxen used as draught cattle. Area, 8182 sq. miles; pop. (1911) 2,032,798. The ruler is called the _Gaekwar_. The dissensions of the Baroda family have more than once called for British intervention, and in 1875 the ruling Gaekwar was tried and deposed in connection with the charge of attempting to poison the British Resident. Since 1908 there is a Legislative Council of 17 members.--_Baroda_, the capital, is the third city in the Bombay presidency. It consists of the city proper within the walls and the suburbs without, and is largely composed of poor and crowded houses, but has also some fine buildings, and is noted for its Hindu temples kept up by the State. Pop. 99,345.--Cf. E. St. C. Weeden, _A Year with the Gaekwar of Baroda_.

BAROGRAPH, a kind of aneroid barometer, which, by means of special mechanism and appliances, is made to furnish automatically a continuous record of the successive changes in atmospheric pressure. The paper that receives the record is made to move by clockwork while in contact with the index pencil, which rises and falls according to alterations of atmospheric pressure.

BAROM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the weight or pressure of the atmosphere and thus determining changes in the weather, the height of mountains, and other phenomena. It had its origin about the middle of the seventeenth century in an experiment of Torricelli, an Italian, who found that if a glass tube about 3 feet in length, open at one end only, and filled with mercury, were placed vertically with the open end in a cup of the same fluid metal, a portion of the mercury descended into the cup, leaving a column only about 30 inches in height in the tube. He inferred, therefore, that the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the mercury in the cup forced it up the tube to the height of 30 inches, and that this was so because the weight of a column of air from the cup to the top of the atmosphere was only equal to that of a column of mercury of the same base and 30 inches high. Pascal confirmed the conclusion in 1645; six years afterwards it was found by Perrier that the height of the mercury in the Torricellian tube varied with the weather; and in 1655 Boyle proposed to use the instrument to measure the height of mountains.

The common or _cistern_ barometer, which is a modification of the Torricellian tube, consists of a glass tube 33 inches in length and about one-third of an inch in diameter, hermetically sealed at the top, and having the lower end resting in a small vessel containing mercury, or bent upwards and terminating in a glass bulb partly occupied by the mercury and open to the atmosphere. The tube is first filled with purified mercury, and then inverted, and there is affixed to it a scale to mark the height of the mercurial column, which comparatively seldom rises above 31 inches or sinks below 28 inches. In general the rising of the mercury presages fair weather, and its falling the contrary, a great and sudden fall being the usual presage of a storm. The weather-points on the ordinary barometric scale are as follows: At 28 inches, stormy weather; 28-1/2, much rain or snow; 29, rain or snow; 29-1/2, changeable; 30, fair or frost; 30-1/2, settled fair or frost; 31, very dry weather or hard frost. Certain attendant signs, however, have also to be noted: thus, when fair or foul weather follows almost immediately upon the rise or fall of the mercury, the change is usually of short duration; while if the change of weather be delayed for some days after the variation in the mercury, it is usually of long continuance. The direction of the wind has also to be taken into account.

The _siphon_ barometer consists of a bent tube, generally of uniform bore, having two unequal legs, the longer closed, the shorter open. A sufficient quantity of mercury having been introduced to fill the longer leg, the instrument is set upright, and the mercury takes such a position that the difference of the levels in the two legs represents the pressure of the atmosphere. In the best siphon barometers there are two scales, one for each leg, the divisions on one being reckoned upwards, and on the other downwards from an intermediate zero point, so that the sum of the two readings is the difference of levels of the mercury in the two branches.

The _wheel_ barometer is the one that is most commonly used for domestic purposes. It is far from being accurate, but it is often preferred for ordinary use on account of the greater range of its scale, by which small differences in the height of the column of mercury are more easily observed. It usually consists of a siphon barometer having a float resting on the surface of the mercury in the open branch, a thread attached to the float passing over a pulley, and having a weight as a counterpoise to the float at its extremity. As the mercury rises and falls the thread and weight turn the pulley, which again moves the index of the dial.

The _mountain_ barometer is a portable mercurial barometer with a tripod support and a long scale for measuring the altitude of mountains. To prevent breakage, through the oscillations of such a heavy liquid as mercury, it is usually carried inverted, or it is furnished with a movable basin and a screw, by means of which the mercury may be forced up to the top of the tube. For delicate operations, such as the measurement of altitudes, the scale of the barometer is furnished with a nonius or vernier, which greatly increases the minuteness and accuracy of the scale. For the rough estimate of altitudes the following rule is sufficient: As the sum of the heights of the mercury at the bottom and top of the mountain is to their difference, so is 52,000 to the height to be measured, in feet. (See also _Heights, Measurement of_.) In exact barometric observations two corrections require to be made, one for the depression of the mercury in the tube by capillary attraction, the other for temperature, which increases or diminishes the bulk of the mercury. In regard to the measurement of heights, the general rule is to subtract the ten-thousandth part of the observed altitude for every degree of Fahrenheit above 32deg.

In the _aneroid_ barometer, as its name implies (Gr. _a_, not, _n[=e]ros_, liquid), no fluid is employed, the action being dependent upon the susceptibility to atmospheric pressure shown by a flat circular metallic chamber from which the air has been partially exhausted, and which has a flexible top and bottom of corrugated metal plate. By an ingenious arrangement of springs and levers the depression or elevation of the surface of the box is registered by an index on the dial, by which means it is also greatly magnified, being given in inches to correspond with the mercurial barometer. Aneroids are, however, generally less reliable than mercurial barometers, with which they should be frequently compared. The illustration shows an aneroid without its case. At the centre of the partially exhausted metal chamber is a small pillar [M], connected with a steel spring [R]. The rise and fall of the top of the chamber, due to changing atmospheric pressure, is transmitted by means of the levers [L], and [_m_] to a metallic axis [_r_], and this axis carries a lever [_t_], whose end is attached to a chain [_s_], which turns a drum on whose axis the index needle is fixed.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Abbe, _Meteorological Apparatus_; Marvin, _Barometers and the Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure_.

BAR'ON, originally, in the feudal system, the vassal or immediate tenant of any superior; but the term was afterwards restricted to the king's barons, and again to the greater of these only, who attended the Great Council, or who, at a later date, were summoned by writ to Parliament. It was the second rank of nobility, until dukes and marquesses were introduced and placed above the earls, and viscounts also set above the barons, who therefore now hold the lowest rank in the British peerage. The present barons are of three classes: (1) barons by writ, whose ancestors have long sat in the Upper House; (2) by patent; (3) by tenure, i.e. holding the title as annexed to land. The coronet is a plain gold circle with six balls or 'pearls' on its edge, the cap being of crimson velvet.

BARON AND FEME, a term used for husband and wife in English law.

BAR'ONET, a hereditary dignity in Great Britain and Ireland, next in rank to the peerage, originally instituted by James I in 1611, nominally to promote the colonization and defence of Ulster, each baronet, on his creation, being then obliged to pay into the treasury a sum of L1095, exclusive of fees. Baronets of Ireland were instituted in 1620, and of Scotland in 1625, the latter being called baronets of Nova Scotia, because their creation was originally intended to further the colonization of Nova Scotia. But the baronets of Scotland and of England have been baronets of Great Britain if created since 1707; since 1801 all creations have been known as baronetcies of the United Kingdom. A baronet has the title of 'Sir' prefixed to his Christian and surname, and his wife is 'Lady' so-and-so. Baronets rank before all knights except Knights of the Garter, the Thistle, and St. Patrick. They have as their badge a 'bloody hand' (the arms of Ulster), that is, a left hand, erect and open, cut off at the wrist, and red in colour.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pixley, _History of the Baronetage_; G. E. Cokayne, _Complete Baronetage_; _The Baronetage under 27 Sovereigns, 1309-1910_.

BARO'NIUS, or BARONIO, Caesar, Italian ecclesiastical historian, born 1538; educated at Naples; in 1557 went to Rome; was one of the first pupils of St. Philip of Neri, and member of the oratory founded by him; afterwards cardinal and librarian of the Vatican Library. He owed these dignities to the services which he rendered the Church by his _Ecclesiastical Annals_, comprising valuable documents from the papal archives, on which he laboured from the year 1580 until his death, 30th June, 1607. They were continued, though with less power, by other writers, of whom Raynaldus takes the first rank; others are Laderchi and Theiner.

BARON OF BEEF, two sirloins not cut asunder.

BARONS' WAR, the war carried on for several years by Simon de Montfort and other barons of Henry III against the king, beginning in 1263.

BARONY, a manor or landed estate under a baron, who formerly had certain rights of jurisdiction in his barony and could hold special courts. In Ireland baronies are still the chief subdivisions of the counties.

BAROSMA. See _Bucku_.

BAROT'SELAND, a former kingdom of South Africa, now a part of Rhodesia.

BAROUCHE (ba-roesh'), a four-wheeled carriage with a falling top and two inside seats in which four persons can sit, two facing two.

BARQUE (baerk), a three-masted vessel of which the fore-mast and main-mast are square-rigged, but the mizzen-mast has fore-and-aft sails only.

BARQUISIMETO (b[.a]r-k[=e]-s[=e]-m[=a]'t[=o]), a city in the north of the Republic of Venezuela, capital of the State of Lara. Pop. about 32,000.

BAR'RA, or BAR, a small kingdom in Africa, near the mouth of the Gambia. The Mandingoes, who form a considerable part of the inhabitants, are Mahommedans and the most civilized people on the Gambia. Pop. 200,000. The coast here belongs to Britain. The chief town is Barrinding, where the so-called king resides. See _Gambia_.

BARRA, an island of the Outer Hebrides, west coast of Scotland, belonging to Inverness-shire; 8 miles long and from 2 to 5 miles broad, of irregular outline, with rocky coasts, surface hilly but furnishing excellent pasture. On the west coast the Atlantic, beating with all its force, has hollowed out vast caves and fissures. Large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep are reared on the island. The coasts of this and adjacent islands abound with fish, and fishing is an important industry. The inhabitants, about 2500, are Roman Catholics, and speak Gaelic.

BARRA, a town about 3 miles east of Naples. Pop. 12,080.

BARRACAN', or BARRAGAN, strictly, a thick strong stuff made in Persia and Armenia of camel's hair, but the name has been applied, by Byron and others, to various wool, flax, and cotton fabrics.

BAR'RACK (Sp. _barraca_), originally a small cabin or hut for troops, but now applied to the permanent buildings in which troops are lodged. Despite the obvious evils of the quartering system, the introduction of barracks by George III met with considerable opposition in the British Parliament as dangerous to liberty, by estranging the soldier from the citizen, and fitting him to become a tool of despotism.

BARRACKPUR (-poer'), a town and military cantonment, Hindustan, on the left bank of the Hughli, 10 miles N.N.E. of Calcutta. The suburban residence of the Viceroy is in Barrackpur Park. Pop. 31,907.

BARRACOON', a negro barrack or slave depot, formerly plentiful on the west coast of Africa, in Cuba, Brazil, &c.

BARRACU'DA, a name for certain large and ferocious fishes of the genus Sphyraena, and allied to the mullets, inhabiting southern seas, and caught in abundance for food.

BARRAFRAN'CA, a town of Sicily, province Caltanissetta. Pop. 11,170.

BARRAMUN'DA. See _Ceratodus_.

BARRANQUILLA (b[.a]r-r[.a]n-k[=e]l'y[.a]), a port of S. America, in Colombia, on a branch of the River Magdalena, near its entrance into the Caribbean Sea, connected by rail with the seaport Puerto Colombia. Pop. 64,543.

BARRAS (b[.a]-rae), Paul Francois Jean Nicholas, Comte de, member of the French National Convention and of the Executive Directory, born in Provence 1755, died 1829. After serving in the army in India and Africa, he joined the revolutionary party and was a deputy in the _tiers etat_. He took part in the attack upon the Bastille and upon the Tuileries, and voted for the death of Louis XVI. In the subsequent events he displeased Robespierre, and on this account joined the members of the committee, who foresaw danger awaiting them, and being entrusted with the chief command of the forces of his party he made himself master of Robespierre. On 4th Feb., 1795, he was elected president of the Convention, and on 5th Oct., when the troops of the sections which favoured the royal cause approached, Barras for a second time received the chief command of the forces of the Convention. On this occasion he employed General Bonaparte, for whom he procured the chief command of the army of the interior, and afterwards the command of the army in Italy. From the events of the 18th Fructidor (4th Sept., 1797) he governed absolutely until the 13th June, 1799, when Sieyes entered the Directory, and in alliance with Bonaparte procured his downfall in the revolution of the 18th Brumaire (9th Nov., 1799). He afterwards resided at Brussels, Marseilles, Rome, and Montpellier under surveillance. His _Memoirs_ (in four volumes) were published in French and in English in 1895-6.

BAR'RATRY, in commerce, any fraud committed by the master or mariners of a ship, whereby the owners, freighters, or insurers are injured; as by deviation from the proper course of the voyage, by the captain, for his own private purposes; fraudulent negligence; embezzlement of any part of the cargo, &c.

BARRATRY, COMMON, in law, the stirring up of lawsuits and quarrels between other persons, the party guilty of this offence being indictable as a _common barrator_ or _barretor_. The commencing of suits in the name of a fictitious plaintiff is common barratry. In old Scots law it denotes the taking of bribes by a judge.

BARREL, a well-known variety of wooden vessel; but the term is also used as a definite measure and weight. A barrel of beer is 36 gallons, of flour 196 lb., of beef or pork 200 lb. The Italian _barile_ varies from 7 to 31 English gallons; the French _barrique_ of Bordeaux contains 50 English gallons = 228 French litres.

BARREL-ORGAN, a musical instrument usually carried by street musicians, in which a barrel, studded with pegs or staples, when turned round, opens a series of valves to admit air to a set of pipes, or acts upon wire strings like those of the piano, thus producing a fixed series of tunes.

BARREN GROUNDS, a large tract in the North-West Territories of Canada, extending northwards from Churchill River to the Arctic Ocean between Great Bear and Great Slave Lake and Hudson's Bay. It largely consists of swamps, lakes, and bare rock.

BARRHEAD', a town, Scotland, Renfrewshire, on the Levern, 7 miles S.W. of Glasgow; chief industries: printing of cottons, the spinning of cotton yarn, dyeing, bleaching, iron and brass founding, and sanitary ware. Pop. 11,387.

BARRIE, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 55 miles N.W. Toronto, picturesquely situated on Lake Simcoe, a favourite summer resort. Pop. 6420.

BARRIE, Sir James Matthew, a novelist and playwright, born in 1860 at Kirriemuir, Forfarshire; studied at Edinburgh University, graduating as M.A. in 1882. After working on a Nottingham journal he was a journalist in London. His first book, _Better Dead_ (1887), a satire on London life, was followed by the highly successful _Auld Licht Idylls_ (1888), with its sequel _A Window in Thrums_ (that is, Kirriemuir) (1889). Among his novels and tales are _When a Man's Single_, _My Lady Nicotine_, _The Little Minister_, _Sentimental Tommy_, _Tommy and Grizel_, _The Little White Bird_. Successful plays are _Peter and Wendy_, _The Professor's Love Story_, _The Little Minister_ (based on the novel), _The Admirable Crichton_, _Quality Street_, _Little Mary_, _Peter Pan_, _What Every Woman Knows_, _Dear Brutus_, _A Kiss for Cinderella_, _Mary Rose_. His plays on the whole have been even more successful than his other works. He was created a baronet in 1913, and elected Rector of the University of St. Andrews in 1919.--Cf. J. A. Hammerton, _J. M. Barrie and his Books_.

BARRIER REEF, a coral reef, or rather series of reefs, extending for 1260 miles off the N. E. coast of Australia, at a distance from land ranging from 10 to 100 miles. In sailing along this coast, steamers generally take the route inside the reef, where there is a channel about 12 fathoms deep throughout, protected by the reefs themselves; the outer channel is safer for sailing vessels.

BARRIER TREATY, the treaty (1718) by which, when the Spanish Netherlands were ceded to Austria, the Dutch secured the right to garrison several border fortresses of the country at the expense of Austria, to serve as a barrier against France. It was declared void in 1781 by Joseph II.

BAR'RINGTON, Daines, son of Viscount Barrington, lawyer, antiquarian, and naturalist, born 1727, died 1800. He wrote many papers for the Royal Society and the Society of Antiquaries; published some separate works, and was a correspondent of White of Selborne, who addressed to him a number of the letters in _The Natural History of Selborne_.

BAR'RISTER, in England or Ireland, an advocate or pleader, who has been admitted by one of the Inns of Court, viz. the Inner Temple, Middle Temple, Lincoln's Inn, or Gray's Inn, to plead at the bar. It is they who speak before all the higher courts, being instructed in regard to the case they have in hand by means of the _brief_ which they receive from the solicitor who may happen to engage their services, and which has a certain fee endorsed upon it as the sum to be paid for the barrister's services in the case. Before a student can be admitted to the bar he must have been a member of one of those societies, and have kept twelve terms there. The examinations, which had dwindled into mere forms, have been revived and made more stringent. Barristers are sometimes called _utter_ or _outer barristers_, to distinguish them from the king's counsel, who sit within the bar in the courts and are distinguished by a silk gown. Barristers are also spoken of as _counsel_, as in the phrase _opinion of counsel_, that is, a written opinion on a case obtained from a barrister before whom the facts have been laid. All judges are selected from the barristers. A barrister cannot maintain an action for his fees, which are considered purely honorary. A _revising barrister_ is a barrister appointed to revise the list of persons in any locality who have a vote for a member of Parliament. The term corresponding to barrister is in Scotland _advocate_, in the United States _counsellor-at-law_; but the position of the latter is not quite the same.--Cf. J. R. V. Marchant, _Barrister-at-law_.

BAR'ROS, Joao de, Portuguese historian, born 1496. He was attached to the Court of King Emmanuel, who, after the publication in 1520 of Barros' romance, _The Emperor Clarimond_, urged him to undertake a history of the Portuguese in India, which appeared thirty-two years later. King John III appointed Barros Governor of the Portuguese settlements in Guinea, and General Agent for these colonies, further presenting him in 1530 with the province of Maranham, in Brazil, for the purpose of colonization. For his losses by the last enterprise the king indemnified him, and he died in retirement in 1570. Besides his standard work, the _Decadas_, a history of the Portuguese in India (a complete edition of which appeared at Lisbon between 1778 and 1788), he wrote a moral dialogue on compromise, and the first _Portuguese Grammar_.

BARRO'SA, a village, Spain, near the S. W. coast of Andalusia, near which General Graham, when abandoned by the Spaniards, defeated a superior French force in 1811.

BAR'ROW, a river in the south-east of Ireland, province Leinster, rising on the borders of the King's and Queen's Counties, and after a southerly course joining the Suir in forming Waterford harbour. It is next in importance to the Shannon, and is navigable for vessels of 200 tons for 25 miles above the sea. Its principal tributary is the Nore.

BAR'ROW, Isaac, an eminent English mathematician and divine, born in London in 1630; studied at the Charterhouse and at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1649. After a course of medical studies he turned to divinity, mathematics, and astronomy, and took his M. A. degree in 1652, and, failing to obtain the Cambridge Greek professorship, went abroad. In 1659 he was ordained; in 1660 elected Greek professor at Cambridge; in 1662 professor of geometry in Gresham College; and in 1663 Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge, a post which he resigned to Newton in 1669. In 1670 he was created D. D., in 1672 master of Trinity College, and in 1675 vice-chancellor of Cambridge University. He died in 1677. His principal mathematical works (written in Latin) were: _Euclidis Elementa_ (1655); _Euclidis Data_ (1657); _Mathematicae Lectiones_ (1664-6); _Lectiones Opticae_ (1669); _Lectiones Geometricae_ (1670); _Archimedis Opera_; _Apollonii Conicorum lib. iv_; _Theodosii Spherica_, (1675). All his English works, which are theological, were left in MS., and published by Dr. Tillotson in 1685, the best edition being that prepared by the Rev. A. Napier in 1859. As a mathematician Barrow was deemed inferior only to Newton. The Latin edition of his mathematical works was prepared by Whewell in 1860.

BARROW, Sir John, Bart., geographer and man of letters, born in 1764 in Lancashire. At the age of sixteen he went in a whaler to Greenland; and later on was teacher of mathematics in a school at Greenwich. In 1792 he was sent with Lord Macartney, in his embassy to China, to take charge of philosophical instruments for presentation to the Chinese emperor. His account of this journey was of great value, and not less so was the account of his travels in South Africa, whither he went in 1797 as secretary to Macartney. In 1804 he was appointed second secretary to the Admiralty, a post occupied by him for forty years. In 1835 he was made a baronet; and he died in 1848, three years after his retirement. Besides the accounts of his own travels, he published lives of Earl Macartney, Lord Anson, and Lord Howe; _Voyages of Discovery and Research within the Arctic Regions_; an _Autobiography_ written at the age of eighty-three, &c.

BAR'ROW-IN-FUR'NESS, a seaport, county and parliamentary borough of Lancashire, in the district of Furness, opposite the Island of Walney, a town that has increased from a fishing-hamlet with 100 inhabitants in 1848 to a town of 74,254 inhabitants in 1921. Its prosperity is due to the mines of red hematite iron-ore which abound in the district, and to the railway rendering its excellent natural harbour available. It has several large docks, besides graving-docks, a floating dock capable of receiving vessels of 3000 tons, a large timber pond, &c. There is an extensive trade in timber, cattle, grain, and flour; and iron-ore and pig-iron are largely shipped. It has numerous blast-furnaces, and one of the largest Bessemer-steel works in the world. Besides ironworks, a large business is done in shipbuilding, the making of railway wagons and rolling-stock, ropes, sails, bricks, &c. A town hall, erected at a cost of L60,000, was opened in 1887. Barrow-in-Furness returns one member to Parliament.

BAR'ROWS, mounds of earth or stones raised to mark the resting-place of the dead, and distinguished, according to their shape, as _long_, _bowl_, _bell_, _cone_, and _broad_ barrows. The practice of barrow-burial is of unknown antiquity and almost universal, barrows being found all over Europe, in Northern Africa, Asia Minor, Afghanistan, Western India, and in America. In the earliest barrows the enclosed bodies were simply laid upon the ground, with stone or bone implements and weapons beside them. In barrows of later date the remains are generally enclosed in a stone cist. Frequently cremation preceded the erection of the barrow, the ashes being enclosed in an urn or cist. A detailed description of an ancient barrow-burial is given in the Anglo-Saxon poem _Beowulf_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Canon W. Greenwell, _British Barrows_; J. Anderson, _Scotland in Pagan Times_; W. C. Borlase, _The Dolmens of Ireland_.

BARROW STRAIT, the connecting channel between Lancaster Sound and Baffin's Bay on the east and the Polar Ocean on the west. Named after Sir John Barrow.

BARRY, a seaport of S. Wales, Glamorganshire, 7 miles south-west of Cardiff, with large docks, exporting much coal. Pop. (1921), 38,927.

BAR'RY, Sir Charles, an English architect, born in London, 1795. After executing numerous important buildings, such as the Reform Clubhouse, London, St. Edward's School, Birmingham, &c., he was appointed architect of the new Houses of Parliament at Westminster, with the execution of which he was occupied for more than twenty-four years. He was elected a Royal Academician in 1844, was knighted in 1852, and died suddenly in 1860.

BARRY, Comtesse Du. See _Du Barry_.

BARRY, Edward Middleton, R.A. (1830-80), son of Sir Charles Barry, was also a distinguished architect, and designed many important buildings, though he was disappointed in regard to his plans for the Albert Memorial, National Gallery, and New Law Courts.

BARRY, James, a painter and writer on art, born at Cork, 1741; studied abroad with the aid of Burke; was elected Royal Academician on his return; and worked seven years on the paintings for the hall of the Society for the Encouragement of the Arts. His first picture which attracted attention was _St. Patrick baptizing the King of Cashel_. In 1773 he published his _Inquiry into the Real and Imaginary Obstructions to the Increase of the Arts in England_, and in 1782 was elected professor of painting to the Academy. He was expelled in 1797 on the ground of his authorship of the _Letter to the Society of Dilettanti_. His chief painting was his _Victors at Olympia_. He died in 1806.

BARRY CORNWALL. See _Procter, Bryan Waller_.

BAR'SABBAS, surnamed Justus, son of Alpheus, brother of James the Less and of Judas, and one of the candidates for the apostolical office left vacant by Judas Iscariot. According to tradition, he was afterwards Bishop of Eleutheropolis, near Jerusalem, and suffered martyrdom. Another Barsabbas, surnamed Judas, supposed to be the brother of the above, is mentioned in the _Acts_ as a companion of St. Paul and Barnabas at Antioch. He is supposed to have died in Jerusalem at a very advanced age.

BAR-SHOT, a double-headed shot consisting of two pieces connected by a bar.

BARSI, a town of India, in Sholapur district, Bombay, 43 miles north of Sholapur and 128 miles east of Poona, with a trade in cotton, oil, &c. Pop. 21,000.

BAR-SUR-AUBE (b[.a]r-s[.u]r-[=o]b), an ancient town, France, department Aube, where, in 1814, a hotly-contested action was fought between Napoleon and the Allies. Pop. 4533.

BART, BARTH, or BAERT (baert), Jean, a famous French sailor, born at Dunkirk, 1650, the son of a poor fisherman. He became captain of a privateer, and after some brilliant exploits was appointed captain in the royal navy. In recognition of his further services he was made commodore, subsequently receiving letters of nobility. Brusque, if not vulgar, in manner, and ridiculed by the Court for his indifference to ceremony, he made the navy of the nation everywhere respected, and furnished some of the most striking chapters in the romance of naval warfare. After the Peace of Ryswick he lived quietly at Dunkirk, and died there while equipping a fleet to take part in the War of the Spanish Succession, 1702.

BARTAS (b[.a]r-tae), Guillaume de Salluste du, a French poet, termed 'the divine' by contemporary English writers, born 1544. Principal work, _La Semaine ou la Creation du Monde_, a poem on the creation, translated into English by Joshua Sylvester. It is said to have had a considerable influence on Milton's _Paradise Lost_. He died of wounds received at Ivry, 1590.

BARTFELD (b[.a]rt'felt), an old town in Czecho-Slovakia, formerly Hungary, county of Saros, on the Tepl, with mineral springs in the neighbourhood. Pop. 6160, mostly Slovaks.

BARTH (baert), Heinrich, African traveller, born at Hamburg, 1821, died in 1865. He graduated at the University of Berlin as Ph.D. in 1844, and set out in 1845 to explore all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. The first volume of his _Wanderungen durch die Kuestenlaender des Mittelmeeres_ was published in 1849, in which year he was invited by the British Government to join Dr. Overweg in accompanying Richardson's expedition to Central Africa. The expedition set out from Tripoli in Feb., 1850, and, in spite of the death both of Richardson and Overweg, Barth did not return to Tripoli till the autumn of 1855. His explorations, which extended over an area of about 2,000,000 sq. miles, determined the course of the Niger and the true nature of the Sahara. The English account of it was entitled _Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa_ (5 vols., 1857-8). An important work on the African languages was left unfinished.

BARTH, Jean. See _Bart_.

BARTHELEMY (b[.a]r-t[=a]l-m[=e]), Jean Jacques, French author, born 1716. He was educated under the Jesuits, for holy orders, but declined all offers of clerical promotion above the rank of Abbe He gained considerable repute as a worker in philology and archaeology; and after his appointment as Director of the Royal Cabinet of Medals, in 1753, spent some time travelling in Italy collecting medals and antiquities. His best-known work, not inaptly characterized by himself as an unwieldy compilation, was his _Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grece_ (1787). It was very popular and was translated into various tongues. Though taking no part in the revolution, he was arrested on a charge of being an aristocrat in 1793, but was set at liberty, and subsequently offered the post of librarian of the National Library. He died in 1795.

BARTHELMY-SAINT-HILAIRE (b[.a]r-t[=a]l-m[=e]-san-t[=e]-l[=a]r), Jules, French scholar and statesman, born 1805, died in 1895. He was professor of Greek and Latin philosophy in the College de France, but resigned the chair after the _coup d'etat_ of 1852 and refused to take the oath. He was reappointed in 1862; and in 1869 was returned to the Corps Legislatif. After the revolution he was a member of the National Assembly; and was elected Senator for life in 1876. He published a translation of Aristotle, and works on Buddhism, Mohammed and Mohammedanism, the Vedas, &c.

BARTHEZ (b[.a]r-t[=a]), Paul Joseph, an eminent French physician, born at Montpellier 1734, died 1806. At Montpellier he founded a medical school, which acquired a reputation throughout all Europe. Having settled in Paris, he was appointed by the king consulting physician, and by the Duke of Orleans his first physician. The Revolution deprived him of the greatest part of his fortune, and drove him from Paris, but Napoleon brought him forth again, and loaded him in his advanced age with dignities. Among his numerous writings may be mentioned _Nouvelle Mecanique des Mouvements de l'Homme et des Animaux_; _Traitement des Maladies Goutteuses_; _Consultation de Medecine_, &c. His _Traite du Beau_ was published posthumously (1807).

BARTHOLDI (b[.a]r-tol'd[=e]), Auguste, French sculptor, born 1834, died 1904; best known for his colossal statue of Liberty, now overlooking the harbour of New York.

BARTHOLIN (baer'to-lin), Kaspar, Swedish writer, born 1585, died 1630. He studied medicine, philosophy, and theology; was made doctor of medicine at Basel in 1610, rector of the University of Copenhagen 1618, and professor of theology 1624. His _Institutiones Anatomicae_ was for long a standard textbook in the universities.--His son, Thomas, born at Copenhagen 1616, died 1680, was equally celebrated as a philologist, naturalist, and physician. He was professor of anatomy at Copenhagen, 1648; physician to the king, Christian V, in 1670; and Councillor of State, 1675.--His sons, Kaspar (born 1654, died 1704) and Thomas (born 1659, died 1690) were also highly distinguished--the former as an anatomist, the latter as an archaeologist.

BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE OF ST., the brutal slaughter of the French Protestants, which began on 24th Aug., 1572, by secret orders from Charles IX, at the instigation of his mother, Catherine de' Medici, and in which, according to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, including women and children, were murdered throughout the country. During the minority of Charles and the regency of his mother, a long war raged in France between the Catholics and Huguenots, the leaders of the latter being the Prince of Conde and Admiral Coligny. In 1570 overtures were made by the Court to the Huguenots, which resulted in a treaty of peace. This treaty blinded the chiefs of the Huguenots, particularly Admiral Coligny, who was tired of the civil war. The king appeared to have entirely disengaged himself from the influence of the Guises and his mother; he invited Coligny to his Court, and honoured him as a father. The most artful means were employed to increase this delusion. The sister of the king was married to the Prince de Bearn (18th Aug., 1572) in order to allure the most distinguished Huguenots to Paris. On 22nd Aug. a shot from a window wounded the admiral. The king hastened to visit him, and swore to punish the author of the villainy; but on the same day he was induced by his mother to believe that the admiral had designs on his life. "God's death!" he exclaimed; "kill the admiral; and not only him, but all the Huguenots; let none remain to disturb us." The following night Catherine held the council, which fixed the execution for the night of St. Bartholomew, 24th Aug., 1572. After the assassination of Coligny, a bell from the tower of the royal palace at midnight gave to the assembled companies of burghers the signal for the general massacre of the Huguenots. The Prince of Conde and the King of Navarre saved their lives by going to mass and pretending to embrace the Catholic religion. By the king's orders the massacre was extended throughout the whole kingdom; and the horrible slaughter continued for thirty days in almost all the provinces.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry White, _Massacre of St. Bartholomew and History of the Religious Wars_; Lavisse, _Histoire de France_ (vol. vi).

BARTHOL'OMEW, ST., the apostle, is probably the same person as _Nathanael_, mentioned in the _Gospel of St. John_ as an upright Israelite and one of the first disciples of Jesus. He is said to have taught Christianity in the south of Arabia, into which, according to Eusebius, he carried the _Gospel of St. Matthew_ in the Hebrew language, and to have suffered martyrdom. The ancient Church had an apocryphal gospel bearing his name, of which nothing has been preserved. A festival is held in his memory on 24th Aug.

BARTHOLOMEW, ST., or ST. BARTHELEMY, an island, one of the West Indies, in the Leeward group, belonging to France, about 24 miles in circumference. It produces some tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo, &c. Pop. 3000. The only town is Gustavia. The island, occupied by France in 1648, was ceded to Sweden in 1784, but was again acquired by France in 1877 at the cost of 275,000 francs.

BARTHOLOMEW FAIR, a celebrated fair, established in the reign of Henry I (1133), formerly held in West Smithfield, London, on St. Bartholomew's Day (24th Aug., O. S.), but abolished since 1855.

BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL, ST., one of the great hospitals of London, formerly the priory of St. Bartholomew, and made a hospital by Henry VIII in 1547. On an average over 6000 patients are annually admitted to the hospital, while about 150,000 out-patients are treated at its out-door dispensaries. A medical school is attached to it, attended by more than four hundred students.

BARTHOU, Louis, French statesman, born at Orloron-Sainte-Marie in 1862. He practised as an advocate until he entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1889. He was a member of several Cabinets, and was appointed Premier in March, 1913, but resigned in December of the same year. He was Minister of Foreign Affairs in Painleve's Cabinet during the European War. In April, 1922, he headed the French delegation to the Genoa Conference. His works include _Mirabeau_; _Lamartine, Orateur_; _Les Amours d'un Poete_, &c.

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BAR'TIZAN, a small overhanging turret pierced with one or more apertures for archers, projecting generally from the angles on the top of a tower, or from the parapet, or elsewhere, as in a mediaeval castle. The word, probably a corruption of _bratticing_, was apparently first used by Sir Walter Scott.

BART'LETT, William Henry, an English artist, born 1809, died, on a voyage from Malta to Marseilles, 1854. He travelled extensively abroad, and the illustrated works descriptive of the countries visited by him (Switzerland, the Bosporus and the Danube, Syria and Palestine, Egypt, Canada, United States, &c.) obtained great success with the public, the engravings being from sketches by his own pencil.

BARTOLINI (b[.a]r-to-l[=e]'n[=e]), Lorenzo, a celebrated Italian sculptor, born at Florence about 1778, died 1850. He studied and worked in Paris, and was patronized by Napoleon. On the fall of the Empire he returned to Florence, where he continued to exercise his profession. Among his greater works may be mentioned his groups of _Charity_, and _Hercules and Lichas_, a colossal bust of Napoleon, and the beautiful monument in the cathedral of Lausanne, erected in memory of Lady Stratford Canning. Bartolini ranks next to Canova among modern Italian sculptors.

BARTOLOMMEO (-m[=a]'o), Fra, or BACCIO DELLA PORTA (b[.a]ch[=o]'), Italian painter, born at Florence 1475, died there 1517. He studied painting in Florence, and acquired a more perfect knowledge of art from the works of Leonardo da Vinci. He was an admirer and follower of Savonarola, on whose death he took the Dominican habit, and assumed the name of Fra Bartolommeo. He was the friend of Michael Angelo and Raphael; painted many religious pictures, among them a _Saint Mark_ and a _Saint Sebastian_, which are greatly admired. His colouring, in vigour and brilliancy, comes near to that of Titian and Giorgione. His _Holy Family_ is in the National Gallery, London.

BARTOLOZZI (-lot's[=e]), Francesco, a distinguished engraver, born at Florence in 1725, or, according to others, in 1730, died at Lisbon 1815. In Venice, in Florence, and Milan he etched several pieces on sacred subjects, and then went to London, where he received great encouragement. After forty years' residence in London, he went to Lisbon on the invitation of the Prince Regent of Portugal. He became director of the National Academy at Lisbon, where he remained till his death.

BAR'TON, Andrew, one of Scotland's first great naval commanders; flourished during the reign of James IV, and belonged to a family which for two generations had produced able and successful seamen. In 1497 he commanded the escort which accompanied Perkin Warbeck from Scotland. After doing considerable damage to English shipping, he was killed in an engagement with two ships which had been specially fitted out against him (1512).