Chapter IX: Part 9

BANNS OF MARRIAGE, public notice of the intended celebration of a marriage given either by proclamation, viva voce, by a clergyman, session-clerk, or precentor in some religious assembly, or by posting up written notice in some public place. Dissent of parents or guardians renders null and void the publication of the banns of minors. In France the banns must be published on two distinct Sundays, and the marriage cannot take place until three days after the second publication. In America the practice is confined to the Roman Catholics, although it is still recognized in the statutes of some of the States.

BANNU, a district in the north-west of Hindustan, traversed by the Indus; area, 3847 sq. miles; pop. 390,000, nearly half being Afghans.

BANQUETTE (bang-ket') in fortification, the elevation of earth behind a parapet, on which the garrison or defenders may stand. The height of the parapet above the banquette is usually about 4 feet 6 inches; the breadth of the banquette from 2-1/2 or 3 feet to 4 or 6 feet, according to the number of ranks to occupy it. It is frequently made double, that is, a second is made still lower.

BANSHEE', or BENSHI', a fairy woman believed in Ireland and some parts of Scotland to attach herself to a particular house, and to appear or make her presence known by wailing before the death of one of the family.

BAN'TAM, a residency occupying the whole of the W. end of the Island of Java. It formed an independent kingdom, governed by its own sultan, till 1683, and the Dutch exercised suzerainty with brief intermission until its formal incorporation by them at the beginning of last century. It produces rice, coffee, sugar, cinnamon, &c. Serang is its capital. The town Bantam was the first Dutch settlement in Java (1595), and for some time their principal mart, though now not so prosperous.

BAN'TAM FOWL, a small but spirited breed of domestic fowl, first brought from the East Indies, supposed to derive its name from Bantam in Java. Most of the sub-varieties have feathered legs; but these are not to be preferred. In point of colour the black and nankeen varieties are the best. A well-bred bantam does not weigh more than a pound.

BANTENG' (_Bos Banteng_ or _Sondaicus_), a wild species of ox, native of Java and Borneo, having a black body, slender white legs, short sleek hair, sharp muzzle, and the back humped behind the neck.

BANTING SYSTEM, a course of diet for reducing superfluous fat, adopted and recommended in 1863 by W. Banting of London. The dietary recommended was the use of butcher-meat principally, and abstinence from beer, farinaceous food, and vegetables. See _Corpulence_.

BAN'TRY, a seaport near the head of Bantry Bay, County Cork, Ireland. Pop. 3159.--The _bay_, one of three large inlets at the S.W. extremity of Ireland, affords an unsurpassed anchorage, and is about 25 miles long by 4 to 6 broad, and from 10 to 40 fathoms deep, with no dangerous rocks or shoals.

BANTU (baen-toe'), the ethnological name of a group of African races below about 6deg N. latitude, and including the Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechuanas, the tribes of the Loango, Congo, &c., but not the Hottentots.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Deniker, _Races of Man_; J. Roscoe, _The Northern Bantu_.

BANU. See _Bannu_.

BANX'RING (genus Tapaia), a quadruped belonging to the Insectivora, inhabiting the Indian Archipelago, bearing some resemblance externally to a squirrel, but having a long pointed snout.

BAN'YAN (_Ficus benghalensis_), a tree of India, of the fig genus. The most peculiar feature of this tree is its method of throwing out from the horizontal branches supports which take root as soon as they reach the ground, enlarge into trunks, and, extending branches in their turn, soon cover a prodigious extent of ground. A celebrated banyan tree has been known to shelter 7000 men beneath its shade. The wood is soft and porous, and from its white glutinous juice bird-lime is sometimes prepared. Both juice and bark are regarded by the Hindus as valuable medicines, and the tree itself is sacred. The banyan tree is described by Southey in his poem _The Curse of Kehama_.

BA'OBAB (_Adansonia digit[=a]ta_) or MONKEY-BREAD TREE, a tree belonging to the nat. ord. (or sub-ord.) Bombaceae, and the best-known species of its genus, which was named after the naturalist Adanson. Though not tall, it is one of the bulkiest of trees, its trunk sometimes measuring 30 feet in diameter, and as the profusion of leaves and drooping boughs sometimes almost hides the stem, the whole forms a hemispherical mass of verdure 140 to 150 feet in diameter and 60 to 70 feet high. It is a native of the African savannahs, and is cultivated in many of the warmer parts of the world. The roots are of extraordinary length, a tree 77 feet in girth having a tap-root 110 feet in length. The leaves are deep green, divided into five unequal parts lanceolate in shape, and radiating from a common centre. The flowers resemble the white poppy, having snowy petals and violet-coloured stamens; and the fruit, which is large and of an oblong shape, is said to taste like gingerbread, with a pleasant acid flavour. The wood is pale-coloured, light, and contains a large store of water, which enables the tree to withstand prolonged drought. The tree is liable to be attacked by a fungus which, growing in the woody part, renders it soft and pithlike. By the negroes of the west coast these trunks are hollowed into chambers, and dead bodies are suspended in them. There they become perfectly dry and well preserved, without further preparation or embalming. The baobab is emollient and mucilaginous; the pulverized leaves constitute _lalo_, which the natives mix with their daily food.

BAPAUME, a French town in the department of Pas-de-Calais. It has been the scene of several battles. In 1793 the French were compelled by the allied troops to abandon the place, and in the Franco-German war one of the most closely-contested battles was fought there on 3rd Jan., 1871. Bapaume, occupied by the Germans in the European War, was recaptured by British troops on 29th Aug., 1918, the great battle of Bapaume having begun on 21st Aug. Pop. (1911) 2917.

BAPH'OMET, the imaginary idol or symbol which the Templars were accused of employing in their mysterious rites, and of which little is known. The word is supposed to be a corruption of Mahomet, to whose faith the Templars were accused of having a leaning. See _Gnosticism_.

BAPTISM (from the Gr. _baptiz[=o]_, from _bapt[=o]_, to immerse or dip), a rite which is generally thought to have been usual with the Jews even before Christ, being administered to proselytes. All that can be said, however, with some certainty is that the Jewish baptism was not of later origin than the Christian baptism. Anyhow, from this baptism that of St. John the Baptist differed, because he baptized Jews also as a symbol of the necessity of perfect purification from sin. Christ himself never baptized, but directed his disciples to administer this rite to converts (_Mat._ xxviii, 19); and baptism, therefore, became a religious ceremony among Christians, taking rank as a sacrament with all sects which acknowledge sacraments. It should, however, be borne in mind that among many peoples a rite is found which has considerable likeness to Christian baptism. In the primitive Church the person to be baptized was dipped in a river or in a vessel, with the words which Christ had ordered, generally adopting a new name further to express the change. Sprinkling, or, as it was termed, _clinic_ baptism, was used only in the case of the sick who could not leave their beds. The Greek Church and Eastern schismatics retained the custom of immersion; but the Western Church adopted or allowed the mode of baptism by pouring or sprinkling, since continued by most Protestants. This practice can be traced back certainly to the third century, before which its existence is disputed. Since the Reformation there have been various Protestant sects called Baptists, holding that baptism should be administered only by immersion, and to those who can make a personal profession of faith. The Montanists in Africa baptized even the dead, and in Roman Catholic countries the practice of baptizing church bells--a custom of tenth-century origin--continues to this day. Being an initiatory rite, baptism is only administered once to the same person. The Roman and Greek Catholics consecrate the water of baptism, but Protestants do not. The act of baptism is accompanied only with the formula that the person is baptized in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; but, among most Christians, it is preceded by a confession of faith made by the person to be baptized if an adult, and by his parents or sponsors if he be a child. The Roman Catholic form of baptism is far more elaborate than the Protestant. This Church teaches that all persons not baptized are damned, and that even unbaptized infants are not admitted into Heaven; but for those whose chief fault was that they had not been baptized, even St. Augustine himself believed in a species of mitigated damnation. Protestants hold that though the neglect of the sacrament is a sin, yet the saving new birth may be found without the performance of the rite which symbolizes it. Naming the person baptized forms no essential part of the ceremony, but has become almost universal, probably from the ancient custom of renaming the catechumen.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_ (vol. ii); S. Baring-Gould, _Origin and Development of Religious Belief_; J. E. Hanaver, _Baptism, Jewish and Christian_; Harnack, _History of Dogma_; article _Baptism_ in _Encyclopedia of Ethics and Religion_; Corblet, _Histoire du Sacrement du Bapteme_; P. Mauro, _Baptism: its place and importance in Christianity_.

BAP'TISTERY, a building or a portion of a building in which is administered the rite of baptism. In the early Christian Church the baptistery was distinct from the basilica or church, but was situated near its west end, and was generally circular or octagonal in form, and dome-roofed. About the end of the sixth century the baptistery began to be absorbed into the church, the font being placed within and not far from the western door. Some detached baptisteries still remain in use, as those of the Lateran, Rome (the earliest in existence), at Pisa, Parma, Ravenna, Aquileia, Siena, Florence, &c., that of Florence being 108 feet in diameter externally, and richly decorated. Baptisteries were dedicated to St. John the Baptist.

BAP'TISTS, a Protestant sect, distinguished by their opinions respecting the mode and subjects of baptism. With regard to the mode, they maintain the necessity of immersion, and with regard to the subjects, they consider that baptism ought not to be administered to children at all, nor to adults in general, but to those only who profess repentance and faith. They are sometimes called _Anti-paedobaptists_, to express their variance from those who defend infant baptism, and who are called _Paedobaptists_. Apart from the special sect of that name, Baptists are to be found equally among Calvinists and Arminians, Trinitarians and Unitarians. The Baptists as a whole adopt the Independent or Congregational form of church government, and their ecclesiastical assemblies are held for the purpose of mutual stimulus and intercourse, and not for the general government of the body, or for interference with individual churches. The Particular Baptists of England (so called from believing that Christ died only for the elect), the Baptists of Scotland and Ireland, the Associated Baptists of America, and some of the Seventh-day Baptists, are Calvinistic. The other classes, such as the General Baptists (who believe that Christ died for all), are Arminian, or at least not Calvinistic. Most Baptists profess to be Trinitarians. The Free-will Baptists, the Christian Society, and most of the General Baptists of England admit of open communion; the other bodies decline communion with any Christians but Baptists. The Associated or Calvinistic Baptists long ranked in the United States as the most numerous denomination of Christians. The Seventh-day Baptists, or Sabbatarians, observe the seventh day of the week. The Free-will Baptists profess the doctrine of free salvation. The Anabaptists of the Reformation period are not to be confounded with the Baptists, by whom their principles were expressly disclaimed. The first regular Baptist Church appears to have been formed in the reign of Elizabeth, but we may date their first public acknowledgment as distinct from the Anabaptists from their petition to Parliament in 1620. The year 1633 provides the earliest record of the formation of a Particular Baptist Church in London. In 1689 a Baptist General Assembly, held in London, formulated a confession of thirty-two articles and a catechism. The Baptist Union, formed in 1832, comprehends the greater number of members of the sect in Great Britain and Ireland. In July, 1905, a world-congress of Baptists was held in London, and the Baptist World Alliance was constituted. The total number of members of Baptist Churches in the United Kingdom was 405,104 in 1922, and 408,029 in 1920. There are nine colleges for training ministers, of which the chief are: Bristol Baptist College; Regent's Park; Rawdon, Bradford; and the Metropolitan Pastors' College. The Regular Baptists in the United States numbered 7,504,447 members in 1922, and nearly 6,000,000 in 1920, in addition to which there are Anti-mission Baptists, Free-will Baptists, and Seventh-day Baptists. In Canada there are in all about 128,730 Baptists.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. C. Vedder, _A Short History of the Baptists_; A. H. Newman, _History of the Baptist Churches in the United States_; _The Baptist Handbook_ (annually); _The American Baptist Year-book_ (annually); W. E. MacIntyre, _Baptist Churches, 1500-1914_.

BAR, in law, the railing that encloses the place which counsel occupy in courts of justice; hence the phrase, _at the bar of the court_, that is, in open court. Hence also persons duly admitted as pleaders or advocates before the courts of England are denominated _barristers_ (see _Barrister_), and the whole body of such barristers or advocates are called the _bar_. The enclosed place or dock in which persons accused of crimes stand in court is also called the bar. Near the door of both Houses of Parliament there is also a bar, beyond which none but the members and clerks are admitted, and at which counsel, witnesses, offenders against privilege, &c., are heard.

BAR, in music, is a line drawn through the stave to mark the rhythm of small portions; the notes composing these are also called a bar.

BAR, in heraldry, an ordinary resembling the fesse, stretching like it horizontally across the shield but narrower.

BAR, CONFEDERATION OF. See _Poland_.

BAR'ABA, the name of a great steppe in the West Siberian governments of Tomsk, Akmolinsk, and Tobolsk.

BARABIN'ZIANS, a rude, uncultivated tribe of Tartars, living on the banks of the River Irtish, and subsisting chiefly on the produce of their herds and on fish supplied by the lakes of the Baraba steppe.

BARAGUEY-D'HILLIERS (b[.a]-r[.a]-g[=a]-d[=e]l-y[=a]),Louis, a distinguished French general under the first Empire, born in Paris, 1764. After serving under Custine and other generals he joined the army of Italy, and took Bergamo and Venice, of which he became Governor. He took part in the expedition to Egypt, served in the campaigns in Germany and Spain, and commanded a division of the "Great Army" in the Russian campaign of 1812. He was entrusted with the direction of the vanguard in the retreat, but was compelled to capitulate. Napoleon ordered him to return to France as under arrest, but, overcome with grief and fatigue, he died at Berlin on the way, Dec., 1812.

BARANOVITCHI, a town in Russia, government of Minsk. A battle was fought here between the Russians and the Germans in July, 1916. See _European War_.

BARB, a horse of the Barbary breed, introduced by the Moors into Spain, and of great speed, endurance, and docility.

BAR'BACAN, or BARBICAN, generally an advanced work defending the entrance to a castle or fortified town, as before the gate or drawbridge, and often of formidable size and strength.

BARBA'DOES, or BARBADOS, the most eastern of the West India Islands, first mentioned in 1518, and occupied by the British in 1625. Length, 21 miles; breadth, 13; area, 106,470 acres or 166 sq, miles, about 74,000 being under cultivation. It is divided into eleven Church of England parishes; capital, Bridgetown. It is one of the most densely-populated areas in the world, the population in 1917 being estimated at 186,656, or nearly 1100 to the square mile. The climate is very hot, though moderated by the constant trade-winds; and the island is subject to dreadful hurricanes. The surface is broken, now without forests, and with few streams; the highest point is 1145 feet above the sea-level. There are few indigenous mammals or birds. The black lowland soil gives great returns of sugar in favourable seasons. The chief exports, besides sugar, are molasses and rum; imports: rice, salt meat, corn, butter, flour, &c. Both exports and imports were over L2,000,000 in 1918. Barbadoes has a considerable transit trade, being in some measure the central mart for all the Windward Islands. It is the see of a bishop and the head-quarters of the British forces in the West Indies. There is a railway across the island, also tramways, telephones, &c. The island forms a distinct government under a Governor, an Executive and a Legislative Council of 9 members, and a House of Assembly of 24 members. Liberal provision is made for education both by old foundations and by annual vote.

BARBADOES LEG, a form of elephantiasis.

BAR'BARA, ST., according to the legend, belonged to Nicomedia, in Asia Minor, and was beheaded by her father for having turned Christian, he being immediately thereafter struck dead by lightning. The latter part of this legend caused her, probably, to be invoked in storms, and to be considered the patron saint of artillerists.

BARBARELLI. See _Giorgione_.

BARBARIAN (Gk. _barbaros_), a name given by the Greeks, and afterwards by the Romans, to everyone who spoke an unintelligible language; and hence coming to connote the idea of _rude_, _illiterate_, _uncivilized_. This word, therefore, did not always convey the idea of something odious or savage; thus a Greek character in Plautus calls Naevius a barbarous poet, because he had not written in Greek; and Cicero terms illiterate persons without taste 'barbarians'.

BARBAROSSA ('red-beard'), the name of two famous Turkish corsairs of the sixteenth century, who ravaged the shores of the Mediterranean, and established themselves in Algiers. The elder of the brothers, Aruch or Horuk, was killed in 1518; the younger and more notorious, Hayraddin, who captured Tunis, died in 1546. See _Frederick Barbarossa_.

BAR'BARY, a general name for the most northerly portion of Africa, extending about 2600 miles from Egypt to the Atlantic, with a breadth varying from about 140 to 550 miles, comprising Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya (Tripolitania, Barqa, and Fezzan). The principal races are: the Berbers, the original inhabitants, from whom the country takes its name; the Arabs, who conquered an extensive portion of it during the times of the caliphs; the Bedouins, Jews, Turks, and the French colonists of Algeria, &c. The country, which was prosperous under the Carthaginians, was, next to Egypt, the richest of the Roman provinces, and the Italian States enriched themselves by their intercourse with it. In the fifteenth century, however, it became infested with adventurers who made the name of Barbary corsair a terror to commerce, a condition of things finally removed by the French occupation of Algeria.

BARBARY APE (_In[)u]us ecaud[=a]tus_), a species of ape, or tailless monkey, with greenish-brown hair, of the size of a large cat, remarkable for docility, also called the _magot_. It is common in Barbary and other parts of Africa, and some used to live formerly on Gibraltar Rock, being the only European monkey, though probably not indigenous. It has been the 'showman's ape' from time immemorial.

BAR'BASTEL, or BARBASTELLE, a bat with hairy lips (_Barbastellus comm[=u]nis_), a native of England.

BARBAS'TRO, a city, Spain, Arragon, province of Huesca, with an interesting cathedral, and some trade and manufactures. Pop. 7202.

BAR'BAULD, Anna Letitia, English poet and general writer, was born in Leicestershire, 1743, daughter of a Presbyterian minister named Aikin. She published a small volume of miscellaneous poems in 1772, and in 1773, in conjunction with her brother, Dr. John Aikin, a collection of pieces in prose. In 1774 she married the Rev. Rochemont Barbauld. Her _Early Lessons and Hymns for Children_, and various essays and poems, won considerable popularity. She edited a collection of English novels, with critical and biographical notices; a selection from the British essayists of the reign of Anne, and another from Richardson's correspondence. Her last long poem, _Eighteen Hundred and Eleven_, appeared in 1812. She died at Stoke-Newington, 1825.

BAR'BECUE, a word of West Indian origin, meaning a hog, or other large animal, roasted whole. In the United States the word means a large gathering of people in the open air, for a social or political feast, where whole animals are roasted and eaten.

BARBED WIRE, wire-rope for fencing or other purposes, having fixed in it short bent pieces of wire with sharp projecting points, which serve to keep animals from pressing against it. There is an Act of Parliament (1893) to prevent the use of barbed-wire fences that form a nuisance on a public road or path; and a person employing barbed wire for fencing may render himself liable for damages caused by it to another person who is legitimately using the adjoining ground. Barbed wire plays an important part in the construction of obstacles in modern warfare. During the European War, all systems of trenches were protected by thick belts of wire. This wire was laid out in various different ways, two of the best being known as the Concertina Fence and the Double-apron Fence.

BARBEL (Barbus), a genus of freshwater fishes of the carp family, distinguished by the four fleshy filaments growing from the lips, two at the nose and one at each corner of the mouth, forming the kind of beard to which the genus owes its name. Of the several species the European _Barbus vulg[=a]ris_, common in most rivers, has an average length of from 12 to 18 inches, and in form and habits strongly resembles the pike. Its body is elongated and rounded, olive-coloured above and bluish on the sides, and covered with small scales. The upper jaw, which is much longer than the lower, forms a snout, with which it bores into the mud for worms, insects, aquatic plants, &c. It is common in the Thames, where it gives good sport to the angler; but its flesh is very coarse, and at the time of spawning the roe is dangerous to eat.

BARBER, one whose occupation is to shave or trim the beard, or to cut and dress hair. The practice of surgery was formerly a part of the craft, and by an Act of Henry VIII the Company of Barbers was incorporated with the Company of Surgeons--the company being then known as the Barber-surgeons--with the limitation, however, that the surgeons were not to shave or practise 'barbery', and the barbers were to perform no higher surgical operation than blood-letting and tooth-drawing. This continued till the time of George II. The signs of the old profession--the pole which the patient grasped, its spiral decoration in imitation of the bandage, and the basin to catch the blood--are still sometimes retained. The barbers' shops, always notorious for gossip, were in some measure the news centres of classic and mediaeval times. The ancient hall in London, formerly used by the Barber-surgeons, is still standing in Markwell Street, Cripplegate.

BARBERINI (b[.a]r-be-r[=e]'n[=e]), a celebrated Florentine family, which, since the pontificate of Maffeo Barberini (Urban VIII, 1623-44), has occupied a distinguished place among the nobility of Rome. During his reign Urban was chiefly intent on the aggrandizement of his three nephews, of whom two were appointed cardinals, and the third Prince of Palestrina.

ris aristata)_]

BAR'BERRY, a genus of shrubs, nat. ord. Berberidaceae. The common barberry (_Berb[)e]ris vulg[=a]ris_) has serrate, pointed leaves (the primary ones reduced to tripartite spines), hanging clusters of yellow flowers, and small, orange-red berries, which are sometimes made into preserves. The inner bark and roots yield a fine yellow dye (berberine). The shrub is a native of temperate Asia, but is now generally diffused through Europe and N. America. In Britain it has been almost universally banished from hedgerows, owing to its connection with the black rust of wheat. Numerous other species inhabit Asia and America; those of the section Mahonia have pinnate leaves. _B. aristata_ is an erect bush, with furrowed red-brown branches, and pendulous clusters of yellow flowers; it thrives best in the south. See _Irritability_ and _Rust_.

BAR'BERTON, the chief mining-centre of De Kaap gold-fields, Transvaal, about 80 miles from Lydenburg, and 150 to 160 from Delagoa Bay. British prisoners were confined here in the Boer War (1899-1902). Pop. about 2000 (whites).

BAR'BETS (Bucconidae), a family of climbing birds with a thick conical beak, having tufts of bristles at its base. Their wings are short and their flight somewhat heavy. They have been divided into three sub-genera: The _barbicans_ (Pogonias), inhabiting India and Africa, and feeding chiefly on fruit; the _barbets_ proper (Bucco), found in Africa and America, and nearly related to the woodpeckers; and the _puff-birds_ (Tamatia), inhabiting America, and feeding on insects.

BARBETTE (b[.a]r-bet'), an elevation of earth behind the breastwork of a fortification, from which the artillery may be fired over the parapet instead of through an embrasure. In ships of war the name is given to a strong breastwork of armour over which heavy guns are fired. See _Fortification_.

BARBEYRAC (b[.a]r-b[=a]-r[.a]k), Jean, an able writer on jurisprudence and natural law, translator of Grotius and Cumberland, and translator and annotator of Pufendorf. Born 1674; professor of law at Lausanne and Groningen; died 1744.

BARBICAN. See _Barbacan_.

BARBIE DU BOCAGE (b[.a]rb-y[=a] due b[=o]-kaezh), Jean Denis, a distinguished geographer, born in Paris in 1760, who laid the foundation of his fame in 1788 by his _Atlas_ to Barthelemy's _Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis_. His maps and plans to the works of Thucydides, Xenophon, &c., exhibit much erudition, and materially advanced the science of ancient geography. He also prepared many modern maps, and published various excellent dissertations. He held many honourable posts, and died in 1825.

BARBIER (b[.a]rb-y[=a]), Antoine Alexandre, bibliographer (1765-1825). He was appointed keeper of the library of the Conseil d'Etat in 1798; Napoleon made him his librarian in 1807; and he was afterwards librarian to Louis XVIII. His _Catalogue de la Bibliotheque du Conseil d'Etat_ (1801-3), and _Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anonymes et Pseudonymes_ (1806-9), are both valuable works.

BARBIERI (b[.a]r-b[=e]-[=a]'r[=e]), Giovanni Francesco (otherwise known as _Guercino_ (the squinter) _da Cento_), an eminent and prolific historical painter, born near Bologna 1590, died in 1666. His style showed the influence of Caravaggio and of the Caracci, his best work being of the latter school. Chief work, a _St. Petronilla_ in the Capitol at Rome; but most of the large galleries have pictures by him.

BARBIERI, Paolo Antonio, a celebrated still-life and animal painter, was a brother of Guercino; born 1596, died 1640.

BARBITONE. See _Veronal_.

BARBIZON (b[.a]r-b[=e]-z[=o]n), a French village about 25 miles south by east of Paris, on the borders of the Forest of Fontainebleau, and 6 miles north-west of the town of that name. It has given its name to a French school of painters, including Corot, Millet, Rousseau, Jules Dupre, and Daubigny.

BAR'BOUR, John, an ancient Scottish poet, contemporary with Chaucer, born about 1316. By 1357 he was Archdeacon of Aberdeen, and in the following year was appointed a commissioner to treat for the ransom of David II. He appears as Auditor of the Exchequer more than once; he travelled through England on several occasions, and was pensioned by Robert II. His chief poem, _The Bruce_ (Brus), written about 1375, was first published in 1571, and the chief manuscripts of the poem are those in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, dated 1489, and in St. John's College, Cambridge. Of another long poem, setting forth the Trojan origin of the Scottish kings, no MS. remains, unless a portion of two Troy books in the Cambridge and Bodleian libraries may be ascribed to Barbour. He has also been credited with having compiled a _Book of Legends of Saints_, existing in a single MS. at Cambridge, and published in 1881-2 by Horstman in his _Legenden Sammlung_. He died in 1395. He was the father of Scottish poetry and history, and his _Bruce_ is linguistically of high value. Though wanting in the higher qualities of poetry, it is truthful and natural, and often exhibits a high moral dignity.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Andrew Lang, _History of Scotland_; Irving, _History of Scottish Poetry_.

BARBUDA (b[.a]r-boe'da), one of the West Indies, annexed by Britain in 1628; about 15 miles long and 8 miles wide; lying north of Antigua; pop. 580. It is flat, fertile, and healthy. Corn, cotton, pepper, and tobacco are the principal produce, but the island is only partially cleared for cultivation. There is no harbour, but a well-sheltered roadstead on the west side. It is a dependency of Antigua.

BARBUSSE, Henri, a French author born at Asnieres in 1874. He served in the French army during the European War, and his descriptions of the realities of modern warfare have made him famous. His works include _Le Feu_ and _Clarte_.

BARBY (baer'b[=e]), a German town on the Elbe, in the government of Magdeburg, with an old castle. Pop. 5202.

BAR'CA, a division of N. Africa, between the Gulf of Sidra and Egypt, annexed by Italy in 1911-2; capital, Bengazi. It formed a portion of the ancient Cyrenaica, and from the time of the Ptolemies was known as Pentapolis from its five Greek cities. It became part of Tripoli, and later a separate province under Turkish dominion. On 18th Oct., 1912, it was formally recognized as a dependency of Italy, and forms with Tripoli the Italian colony of Libya. The country consists of a rocky plateau. A large portion of it is desert, but some parts, especially near the coast, are fertile, and yield abundant crops and excellent pasture, the chief being wheat, barley, dates, figs, and olives. Flowering shrubs, roses, honeysuckles, &c., occur in great variety. There are hardly any permanent streams, but the eastern portion is tolerably well watered by rains and springs. The exports are grain and cattle, with ostrich feathers and ivory from the interior. Next to Bengazi (pop. 35,000), the seaport of Derna is the chief town (pop. 8000). The population probably does not exceed 300,000. See _Cyrenaica_ and _Tripoli_.

BARCAROLLE (-rol'), a species of song sung by the _barcaruoli_, or gondoliers, of Venice, and hence applied to a song or melody composed in imitation. A very well-known example is to be found in Offenbach's _Tales of Hoffmann_.

BARCELLONA (b[.a]r-chel-[=o]'n[.a]), seaport, Sicily, province of Messina, immediately contiguous to Pozzo di Gotto, and practically forming one town with it. Joint pop. 26,172.

BARCELONA (b[.a]r-thel-[=o]'n[.a]), next to Madrid the chief city of Spain, capital of the province of Barcelona, and formerly capital of the kingdom of Catalonia; finely situated on the northern portion of the Spanish Mediterranean coast. It is divided into the upper and lower town; the former modern, regular, stone-built, and often of an English architectural type, the latter old, irregular, brick-built, and with traces of Eastern influence in the architecture. The harbour is suited to accommodate large vessels. The principal manufactures are cottons, silks, woollens, machinery, paper, glass, chemicals, stoneware, soap; exports manufactured goods, wine and brandy, fruit, oil, &c.; imports coals, textile fabrics, machinery, cotton, fish, hides, silks, timber, &c. The city contains a university, several public libraries, a museum, a large arsenal, cannon-foundry, &c. Barcelona was, until the twelfth century, governed by its own counts, but was afterwards united with Arragon. In 1640, with the rest of Catalonia, it placed itself under the French Crown; in 1652 it submitted again to the Spanish Government; in 1697 it was taken by the French, but was restored to Spain at the Peace of Ryswick. It has had several severe visitations of cholera and yellow fever, and has been the scene of many serious and sanguinary revolts, as in 1836, 1840, and 1909. Pop. 618,766.--The province has an area of 2968 sq. miles; pop. 1,191,386 (1918). It is generally mountainous, but well cultivated, and among the most thickly peopled in Spain.

BARCELONA, a town of Venezuela, near the mouth of the Neveri, which is navigable for vessels of small size, but larger vessels anchor off the mouth of the river. Pop. 13,000.

BARCELONA NUTS, hazel-nuts exported from the Barcelona district of Spain.

BAR'CLAY, Alexander, a poet of the sixteenth century, most probably a native of Scotland, born about 1475; for some years a priest and chaplain of St. Mary Ottery, in Devonshire; afterwards a Benedictine monk of Ely; subsequently a Franciscan, and also the holder of one or two livings; died 1552. His principal work was a satire, entitled _The Shyp of Folys of this Worlde_, part translation and part imitation of Brandt's _Narrenschiff_ (Ship of Fools), and printed by Pynson in 1509. He also wrote _The Myrrour of Good Maners_, and some _Egloges_ (Eclogues), both printed by Pynson, as well as translations, &c.

BARCLAY, John, poet and satirist, son of a Scottish father, born at Pont-a-Mousson (Lorraine) in 1582, and probably educated in the Jesuits' College there. Having settled in England, he published a Latin politico-satirical romance, entitled _Euphormionis Satyricon_, having as its object the exposure of the Jesuits. In 1616 he left England for Rome, received a pension from Pope Paul V, and died in 1621. His chief work is a singular romance in Latin, entitled _Argenis_ (Paris, 1621), thought by some to be an allegory bearing on the political state of Europe at the period. Several seventeenth-century romances were indebted to this work, among others Fenelon's _Telemaque_ and Calderon's _Argenis y Poliarco_. It has been translated into several modern languages. His shorter poems appeared in the _Delitiae Poetarum Scotorum_,

BARCLAY, Robert, the celebrated apologist of the Quakers, born in 1648 at Gordonstown, Moray, and educated at Paris, where he became a Roman Catholic. He was recalled home by his father, whose example he followed in becoming a Quaker. His first treatise in support of his adopted principles, published at Aberdeen in the year 1670, under the title of _Truth Cleared of Calumnies_, together with his subsequent writings, did much to rectify public sentiment in regard to the Quakers. His chief work, in Latin, _An Apology for the True Christian Divinity_, was soon reprinted at Amsterdam, and quickly translated into German, Dutch, French, and Spanish, and, by the author himself, into English. His fame was now widely diffused; and, in his travels with William Penn and George Fox through England, Holland, and Germany, to spread the opinions of the Quakers, he was received everywhere with the highest respect. The last of his productions, _On the Possibility and Necessity of an Inward and Immediate Revelation_, was not published in England until 1686; from which time Barclay lived quietly with his family. He died, after a short illness, at his own house of Ury, Kincardineshire, in 1690. He was a friend of and had influence with James II.

BARCLAY, Sir Thomas, British barrister, born in 1853. Educated at the Universities of London, Paris, Bonn, and Jena, he was sent to Paris in 1876 as correspondent of _The Times_. He has been greatly instrumental in bringing about a better understanding between England and France. He was knighted in 1904, and entered Parliament in 1910. His works include: _Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_; _The Turco-Italian War and its Problems_; _Law and Usage of War_.

BARCLAY DE TOLLY, Michael, Prince, a distinguished general and field-marshal of Russia, born in 1755. His family, of Scottish origin, had been established in Livonia since 1689. He entered the army at an early age, served in various campaigns against the Turks, Swedes, and Poles, and in 1811 was named Minister of War. On the invasion of Napoleon he was transferred to the chief command of the army, and adopted a plan of retreat; his forces did not greatly exceed 100,000 men, but the Court became impatient, and after the capture of Smolensk by the French he was superseded by Kutusov. Sinking all personal feeling, he asked leave to serve under his successor, commanded the right wing at the battle of the Moskwa, maintained his position, and covered the retreat of the rest of the army. After the battle of Bautzen, in 1813, he was reappointed to the chief command, which he had soon after to resign to Prince Schwarzenberg. He forced the surrender of General Vandamme after the battle of Dresden, took part in the decisive battle of Leipzig, and was made a field-marshal in Paris. In 1815 he received from the emperor the title of prince, and from Louis XVIII the badge of the Order of Military Merit. He died in 1818.

BAR-COCHBA (b[.a]r-ko_h_'b[.a]), or BAR-COCHEBAS, Simon, a Jewish impostor, who pretended to be the Messiah, raised a revolt, and made himself master of Jerusalem about A.D. 132, and of about fifty fortified places. Hadrian sent to Britain for Julius Severus, one of his ablest generals, who gradually regained the different forts and then took and destroyed Jerusalem. Bar-cochba retired to a mountain fortress, and perished in the assault of it by the Romans three years after, about 135.

BAR'COO. See _Cooper's Creek_.

BARD, one of an order among the ancient Celtic tribes, whose occupation was to compose and sing verses in honour of the heroic achievements of princes and brave men, generally to the accompaniment of the harp. Their verses also frequently embodied religious or ethical precepts, genealogies, laws, &c. Their existence and function was known to the Romans two centuries B.C.; but of the Gallic bards only the tradition of their popularity survives. The first Welsh bards of whom anything is extant are Taliesin, Aneurin, and Llywarch, of the sixth century. A considerable lacuna then occurs in their history until the order was reconstituted in the tenth century by King Howel Dha, and again in the eleventh by Gryffith ap Conan. Edward I is said to have hanged all the Welsh bards as promoters of sedition. Some modern attempts have been made in Wales to revive bardism, and the Cambrian Society was formed in 1818, for this purpose and for the preservation of the remains of the ancient literature. The revived Eisteddfodau, or bardic festivals, have been so far exceedingly popular. In Ireland there were three classes of bards: those who sang of war, religion, &c., those who chanted the laws, and those who gave genealogies and family histories in verse. They were famous harpists. In the Highlands of Scotland there are considerable remains of compositions supposed to be those of their old bards still preserved.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Jones, _Relics of the Welsh Bards_; Walker, _Memoirs of the Irish Bards_; Dottin, _Manuel de l'Antiquite Celtique_; John Rhys and D. Brynmor-Jones, _The Welsh People_; D. D. Evans, _Ancient Bards of Britain_.

BARDESA'NES, a Syrian Gnostic, poet, astrologer, and philosopher, born 154 or 164 at Edessa, died 222. His system started with the statement that from the union of God with matter sprang Christ and a female Holy Ghost, from whom in turn sprang various existences. He propagated his doctrines in Syrian hymns (_Hymn on the Soul_), the first in the language. His son, Harmonius, was also an able hymn-writer. The Bardesanists maintained themselves till the twelfth century, the later adherents having practically adopted Manichaeism.

BARDWAN', or BURDWAN', a division of Bengal, upon the Hugli, comprising the six districts of Bardwan, Hugli, Howrah, Midnapur, Bankura, and Birbhum. Area, 13,850 sq. miles; pop. 8,245,000.--The district _Bardwan_ has an area of 2697 sq. miles, and a pop. of 1,532,500. Apart from its products, rice, grain, hemp, cotton, indigo, &c., it has a noted coal-field of about 500 sq. miles in area, with an annual output of about half a million tons.--The town of _Bardwan_ has a fine palace of the Maharajah and a pop. of 35,022.

BAREBONE, or BARBONE, Praise-God, the name of a leather-seller in Fleet Street, London, who obtained a kind of lead in the convention which Cromwell substituted for the Long Parliament, and which was thence nicknamed the Barebone Parliament. After its dissolution he disappeared till 1660, when he presented a petition to Parliament against the restoration of the monarchy. In 1661 he was committed to the Tower for some time, but his subsequent history is unknown.

BAREFOOTED FRIARS. See _Monasticism_.

BAREGE (ba-r[=a]zh'), a light, open tissue of silk and worsted, or cotton and worsted, for women's dresses, originally manufactured near Bareges. It is now made chiefly at Bagneres-de-Bigorre.

BAREGES (b[.a]-r[=a]zh), a watering-place, south of France, department Hautes-Pyrenees, about 4000 feet above the sea, celebrated for its thermal springs, which are frequented for rheumatism, scrofula, &c. The place is hardly inhabited except in the bathing season, June till September.

BAREGINE (ba-r[=a]zh'in; from _Bareges_), a gelatinous product of certain algae growing in sulphuric mineral springs, and imparting to them the colour and odour of flesh-broth.

BAREILLY (ba-r[=a]'li), a town of Hindustan, in the United Provinces, capital of a district of same name, on a pleasant and elevated site. It has a fort and cantonments, a Government college, and manufactures sword-cutlery, gold and silver lace, perfumery, furniture and upholstery. On the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny the native garrison took possession of the place, but it was retaken by Lord Clyde in May, 1858. Pop. 129,462.--The district has an area of 1595 sq. miles; pop. 1,089,550.

BAR'ENTS, William, a Dutch navigator of the end of the sixteenth century, who, on an expedition intended to reach China by the North-East Passage, discovered Novaya Zemlya. He wintered there in 1596-7, and died before reaching home.

BARET'TI, Joseph, an Italian writer, born at Turin, 1719. In 1748 he came to England, and in 1753 published in English a _Defence of the Poetry of Italy against the Censures of M. Voltaire_. In 1760 he brought out a useful _Italian and English Dictionary_. After an absence of six years, during part of which he edited the _Frusta Letteraria_ (Literary Scourge) at Venice, he returned to England, and in 1768 published an _Account of the Manners and Customs of Italy_. Not long after, in defending himself in a street brawl, he stabbed his assailant and was tried for murder at the Old Bailey but acquitted, Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, Garrick, Reynolds, and Beauclerk giving testimony to his good character. An _English and Spanish Dictionary_, and various other works, followed before his death in 1789.

BARFLEUR (b[.a]r-fl_eu_r), at one time the best port on the coast of Normandy, and the reputed port from which William the Conqueror sailed. It was destroyed in the year 1346 by Edward III. Present pop. 1304.

BARFRUSH', or BARFURUSH', Same as _Balfroosh_.

BARGAIN AND SALE, a legal term denoting the contract by which lands, tenements, &c., are transferred from one person to another. See _Conveyancing_.

BARGE, a term similar in origin to _barque_, but generally used of a flat-bottomed boat of some kind, whether used for loading and unloading vessels, or as a canal-boat, or as an ornamental boat of state or pleasure.

BARGE-BOARD (perhaps a corruption of _verge-board_), in architecture, a board generally pendent from the eaves of gables, so as to conceal the rafters, keep out rain, &c. They are sometimes elaborately ornamented. The portion of the roof projecting from the wall at the gable-end, and beneath which the barge-board runs, is termed the _barge-course_.

BARHAM (bar'am), Rev. Richard Harris, a humorous writer, born in 1788 at Canterbury; educated at St. Paul's School, London, and at Brasenose, Oxford; appointed in succession curate of Ashford, curate of Westwell, rector of Snargate in Romney Marsh, and one of the minor canons of St. Paul's Cathedral. He published two novels, _Baldwin_ and _My Cousin Nicholas_, wrote nearly a third of the articles in Gorton's _Biographical Dictionary_, and contributed to _Blackwood's Magazine_. In 1824 he was appointed priest in ordinary of the Chapel Royal, and afterwards rector of St. Mary Magdalene and St. Gregory-by-St.-Paul, London. In 1837, on the starting of _Bentley's Miscellany_, he laid the main foundation of his literary fame by the publication in that periodical of the _Ingoldsby Legends_. He died in 1845.

BARHEBRAE'US. See _Abulfaragius_.

BARI (bae'r[=e]; ancient, BARIUM), a seaport, S. Italy, on a small promontory of the Adriatic, capital of the province Terra di Bari. It was a place of importance as early as the third century B.C., and has been thrice destroyed and rebuilt. The present town, though poorly built for the most part, has a large Norman castle, a fine cathedral and priory, &c. It manufactures cotton and linen goods, hats, soap, glass, and liqueurs; has a trade in wine, grain, almonds, oil, &c., and is now an important seaport. In 1915 the town suffered considerably from floods. Pop. 109,218.--The province has an area of 2048 sq. miles, and is fertile in fruit, wine, oil, &c.; pop. 935,982.

BARI, a negro people of Africa, dwelling on both sides of the White Nile, between lat. 3deg 30' and 6deg N. They practise agriculture, cattle-rearing, smithwork, &c. Their country was conquered by Baker for Egypt.

BARIL'LA, is the commercial name for impure sodium carbonate imported from Spain and the Levant. At one time all sodium carbonate required for industrial purposes was prepared from barilla obtained by burning various marine plants (Salsola, Salicornia, and others). Only 25 per cent of the weight of the ash contained soda, and consequently its import was expensive and considerably added to the price of the manufacture of glass and soap. During the Napoleonic wars the price of barilla rose to such a height that Napoleon offered a reward for the discovery of a process for the manufacture of sodium carbonate. A chemist, Leblanc, in 1791 invented a new process by which sodium carbonate could be obtained from common salt, and this entirely superseded barilla. Plants are still grown in Southern France and Spain to obtain soda and other substances from the ash; but almost all the sodium carbonate of the present day is manufactured chemically.

BARING, the name of a famous English family of bankers and financiers, statesmen and diplomats, from which has arisen the financial house of Baring Brothers & Co., and of which members now hold four peerages, namely, two earldoms--Northbrook and Cromer--and two baronies--Ashburton and Revelstoke. The founder of the house was Francis Baring (1740-1810), whose father was a cloth manufacturer near Exeter, and grandfather pastor of the Lutheran Church at Bremen, the family being thus of German origin. Francis Baring settled in London, attained a high position in the mercantile and financial world, was long a member of Parliament and a director of the East India Company, and was made a baronet in 1793. Of his sons, one, Alexander, was created Baron Ashburton (in 1835), and rendered important political services in connection with the boundary treaty concluded between Britain and the United States, and known by his title (see _Ashburton_, _Ashburton Treaty_). His son, the second Lord Ashburton (1799-1864), held a position of some note in politics, and his first wife, a daughter of the sixth Earl of Sandwich, was fond of the society of both politicians and literary men, among those who were on friendly terms with her being Carlyle and Thackeray. Sir Francis Baring's eldest son, Thomas, was father of Francis Thornhill Baring, first Lord Northbrook (1796-1866), whose eldest son, Thomas, was created Earl of Northbrook in 1876, and held successively a number of high positions, among them that of Viceroy of India (1872-6) and First Lord of the Admiralty (1880-5). (See _Northbrook_.) Another son of Sir Francis, Henry Baring, was father of Edward Baring, the first Baron Revelstoke (born in 1828, died in 1897), who was long one of the most conspicuous members of the financial world of London, and was raised to the peerage as baron in 1885. He had full management of the great house of Baring Brothers, which under him was long most prosperous, but in 1890 fell into temporary difficulties. Henry Baring was father also of Evelyn Baring, Earl Cromer (q.v.).

BARING-GOULD (b[=a]-ring-g[=o]ld'), Sabine, English clergyman and author, born at Exeter, 1834. Educated at Cambridge, he held several livings in the English Church, and in 1881 became rector of Lew Trenchard, Devon. After publishing several books on theological and miscellaneous subjects, he distinguished himself as a novelist. Among his works are: _Iceland, its Scenes and Sagas_; _Curious Myths of the Middle Ages_; _The Origin and Development of Religious Belief_; _Lives of the Saints_ (in 15 vols.); _Village Sermons_; _The Vicar of Morwenstowe_ (an account of the Rev. R. S. Hawker); _The Mystery of Suffering_; _History of the Church in Germany_; _The Tragedy of the Caesars_; _Cliff Castles and Cave Dwellings_; _The Church Revival_; &c.; besides the novels _Mehalah_, _John Herring_, _Richard Cable_, _The Gaverocks_, _Court Royal_, _The Pennycomequicks_, &c.; and short stories or novelettes.

BARINGO, a lake in Africa, N.E. of the Victoria Nyanza, about 20 miles long.

BAR'ITONE, or BAR'YTONE, a male voice, the compass of which partakes of those of the common bass and the tenor, but does not extend so far downwards as the one, nor to an equal height with the other. Its best tones are from the lower A of the bass clef to the lower F in the treble.

BA'RIUM (from the Gr. _barys_, heavy), the metal of which _baryta_ is the oxide; specific gravity 4; symbol Ba. It is only found in compounds, such as the common sulphate (or _barytes_) and carbonate, and was isolated by Davy in 1808. It is a yellow malleable metal, which readily oxidizes, decomposes water, and fuses at a low temperature. Its nitrate and chlorate are used in pyrotechny. Barium salts, when brought into a non-luminous flame, burn with a yellowish-green colour. See _Baryta_.

A, Epidermis. B, Cells containing chlorophyll or colouring matter. C, Liber or Bast. D, Cambium. E, Sapwood.]

BARK, properly the _periderm_, or outer covering, of woody stems and roots, composed of dead tissues cut off from the living parts of the organ by one or more layers of impervious cork. It serves to prevent loss of water, and also affords protection against animals and fungi. The outermost bark is continually sloughed in the form of scales (Scots Pine) or sheets (Common Birch), being regenerated from within by the activity of the cork-cambium (_phellogen_). Bark is usually rich in waste-products, many of which are of economic value, such as tannin, gums, &c. Bottle-cork is the bark of the cork-oak. Bark for tanning is obtained from oak, hemlock-spruce, species of acacia, &c. Peruvian and Angostura barks, cinnamon, &c., are other useful barks. As commonly used, bark denotes all the tissues external to the _cambium_.

BARK. See _Barque_.

BARK, PERUVIAN. See _Cinchona_.

BARKER, Granville, playwright, was born in London in 1877. His principal plays are: _The Voysey Inheritance_ (1905), _Waste_ (1907), _The Madras House_ (1910). He has published a book (in which William Archer collaborated) called _A National Theatre_, and another entitled _The Red Cross in France_. His revivals of Shakespeare have introduced some new ideas of mounting and stage-effects.

BARKER'S MILL, also called Scottish turbine, a hydraulic machine on the principle of what is known as the hydraulic tourniquet. This consists of an upright vessel free to rotate about a vertical axis, and having at its lower end two discharging pipes projecting horizontally on either side and bent in opposite directions at the ends, through which the water is discharged horizontally, the direction of discharge being mainly at right angles to a line joining the discharging orifice to the axis. The backward pressures at the bends of the tubes, arising from the two issuing jets of water, cause the apparatus to revolve in an opposite direction to the issuing fluid. The machine was invented by a Dr. Barker towards the end of the seventeenth century.

BARKING, a town, England, county of Essex, on the Roding, 7 miles N.E. of London, with some important manufacturing works. Near it is the outfall of the sewage of a large part of London. Pop. (1921), 35,543.

BARKSTON ASH, a parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire.

BARK-STOVE, or BARK-BED, a sort of hothouse for forcing or for growing plants that require a great heat combined with moisture, both of which are supplied by the fermentation that sets up in a bed of spent tanner's bark contained in a brick pit under glass.

BAR'LAAM AND JOS'APHAT, a famous mediaeval spiritual romance, which is in its main details a Christianized version of the Hindu legends of Buddha. The story first appeared in Greek in the works of Joannes Damascenus in the eighth century. It is, however, more probably the work of a monk of the Sabbas monastery, near Jerusalem, and written at the beginning of the seventh century. The compilers of the _Gesta Romanorum_, Boccaccio, Gower, and Shakespeare have all drawn materials from it.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Max Mueller, _Chips from a German Workshop_; J. Jacobs, _Barlaam and Josaphat_, (There is a translation by Rev. G. R. Woodward and H. Mattingly in the Loeb Library).

BAR-LE-DUC (b[.a]r-l-d[.u]k), a town of North-East France, capital of department Meuse, with manufactures of cotton and woollen stuffs, leather, confectionery, &c. Pop. 17,068.

BARLET'TA, a seaport in South Italy, province of Bari, on the Adriatic, with a fine Gothic cathedral; it has a considerable export trade in grain, wine, almonds, &c. Pop. 44,233.