Chapter II: Part 2

EDENTA'TA ([=e]-), or TOOTHLESS ANIMALS, the name applied to a primitive order of mammals mostly native to the neotropical region, but also represented in South Africa and South Asia. The body is often covered by horny scales or bony plates, the digits are clawed, and the teeth either imperfect or absent altogether. I. New World forms.--(1) _Ant-eaters._ Toothless, with long narrow snout, and protrusible tongue. Covered with dense fur. The great ant-eater (_Myrmecoph[)a]ga jubata_) lives on the ground; the much smaller Tamandua and Cycloturus are arboreal. (2) _Sloths._ Toothed arboreal leaf-eaters, covered by coarse fur, and provided with very strong curved claws, by which they hang upside down from branches. The three-toed sloth (Bradypus) has three digits in the fore-limb, the two-toed sloth (Cholaepus) only two. (3) _Armadillos._ Burrowing forms protected by a strong carapace of bony plates, and possessing numerous imperfect teeth. (4) _Extinct types._ The so-called ground sloths were of large size, Megatherium being nearly as large as an elephant, and Mylodon not much smaller. Glossodon, allied to the latter, survived into the human period. Glyptodon resembled a gigantic armadillo. II. Old World forms.--(1) The _aard-vark_ (Orycteropus) is a burrowing African form about the size of a pig, covered with coarse hair; long ears and snout; 20 imperfect grinding teeth. (2) _Scaly ant-eaters_ or _pangolins_ (Manis), native to South Africa and South Asia, are toothless forms not unlike the American ant-eaters in build, but the body is covered dorsally and laterally by large overlapping scales.

EDES'SA, the name of two ancient cities.--1. The ancient capital of Macedonia, and the burial-place of its kings, now _Vodhena_. It is probably the same as the still more ancient Aegae. Philip II was murdered at Edessa in 336 B.C.--2. An important city in the north of Mesopotamia, which, subsequent to the establishment of Christianity, became celebrated for its theological schools. In 1098, in the first Crusade, Edessa came into the hands of Baldwin, but ultimately became part of the Turkish Empire. It is thought to be the modern Urfah or Orfa.

EDFU, or EDFOO' (ancient APOLLINOPOLIS), a village in Upper Egypt, province of Assouan, on the left bank of the Nile, with manufactures of cottons and pottery. Its ancient magnificence is attested by several remains, especially a temple, founded by Ptolemy Philopator (181-145 B.C.), the largest in Egypt after those of Karnak and Luxor. Pop. 12,594.

ED'GAR (_the Peaceful_), one of the most distinguished of the Saxon Kings of England, was the son of King Edmund I. He succeeded to the throne in 959, and managed the civil and military affairs of his kingdom with great vigour and success. In ecclesiastical affairs he was guided by Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, and he was a great patron of the monks. He died in 975, and was succeeded by his son Edward the Martyr.

EDGAR ATHELING, grandson of Edmund Ironside and son of Edward the Outlaw, was born in Hungary, where his father had been conveyed in infancy to escape the designs of Canute. After the battle of Hastings, Edgar (who had been brought to England in 1057) was proclaimed King of England by the Saxons, but made peace with William and accepted the earldom of Oxford. Having been engaged in some conspiracy against the king, he was forced to seek refuge in Scotland, where his sister Margaret became the wife of Malcolm Canmore. Edgar subsequently was reconciled to William and was allowed to live at Rouen, where a pension was assigned to him. In 1097, with the sanction of William Rufus, he undertook an expedition to Scotland for the purpose of displacing the usurper Donald Bane, in favour of his nephew Edgar, son of Malcolm Canmore, and in this object he succeeded. He afterwards took part in Duke Robert's unsuccessful struggle with Henry I, but was allowed to spend the remainder of his life quietly in England.

EDGEHILL, a ridge in Warwickshire, England, 7 miles north-west of Banbury, where was fought a fierce but indecisive battle on 23rd Oct., 1642, between the Royalists under Charles I and the forces of the Parliament under the Earl of Essex.

EDGEWORTH, Maria, Irish novelist, born at Black Bourton, Oxfordshire, 1st Jan., 1767, died 22nd May, 1849, at Edgeworthstown. She was the daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth (1744-1817) of Edgeworthstown, County Longford, Ireland. Her first novel, _Castle Rackrent_, a tale of Irish life, published in 1800, immediately established her reputation. Her later works include: _Belinda_, _Moral Tales_, _Leonora_, _Popular Tales_, _Tales of Fashionable Life_, _Patronage_, _Harrington_, _Ormond_, and _Helen_, besides an _Essay on Irish Bulls_, and a work on _Practical Education_, largely based on Rousseau's _['E]mile_. Miss Edgeworth's characteristics are a simple and lucid style and considerable power of observation, but she was not a great creative artist.

ED'INBURGH, the metropolis of Scotland, and one of the finest as well as most ancient cities in the British Empire, lies within 2 miles of the south shore of the Firth of Forth. It is picturesquely situated, being built on three eminences which run in a direction from east to west, and surrounded on all sides by lofty hills except on the north, where the ground slopes gently towards the Firth of Forth. The central ridge, which constituted the site of the ancient city, is terminated by the castle on the west, situated on a high rock, and by Holyrood House on the east, not far from which rise the lofty elevations of Salisbury Crags, Arthur's Seat (822 feet high), and the Calton Hill overlooking the city. The valley to the north, once the North Loch, but now drained and traversed by the North British Railway, leads to the New Town on the rising ground beyond, a splendid assemblage of streets, squares, and gardens. The houses here, all built of a beautiful white freestone found in the neighbourhood, are comparatively modern and remarkably handsome. The principal streets of the New Town are Princes Street, George Street, and Queen Street. From Princes Street, which is lined by fine gardens adorned with Sir W. Scott's monument and other notable buildings, a magnificent view of the Old Town with its picturesque outline may be obtained. The principal street of the Old Town is that which occupies the crest of the ridge on which the latter is built, and which bears at different points the names of Canongate, High Street, Lawnmarket, and Castle Hill. This ancient and very remarkable street is upwards of one mile in length, rising gradually with a regular incline from a small plain at the east end of the town, on which stands the palace of Holyrood, and terminating in the huge rock on which the castle is built, 437 feet above sea-level. The houses are lofty and of antique appearance. Amongst the notable buildings are the ancient Parliament House, since the Union the seat of the supreme courts of Scotland; St. Giles' Church or Cathedral, an imposing edifice in the later Gothic style, dating from the fourteenth century and carefully restored between 1879 and 1883; the Tron Church; Victoria Hall (where the General Assembly of the Established Church meets), with a fine spire; and also John Knox's House, besides some of the old family houses of the Scottish nobility and other buildings of antiquarian interest. From this main street descend laterally in regular rows numerous narrow lanes called _closes_, many of them extremely steep, and very few at their entrances more than 6 feet wide; those which are broader, and admit of the passage of carriages, are called _wynds_. In these and the adjacent streets the houses are frequently more than 120 feet in height, and divided into from six to ten stories, or _flats_, the communication between which is maintained by broad stone stairs, winding from the lowest part of the building to the top. In the Old Town the most remarkable public building is the castle, an extensive mass, of which the oldest portion--and the oldest building in the city--is St. Margaret's Chapel, the private oratory of the Saxon princess Margaret, queen of Malcolm Canmore; another portion being a lofty range of old buildings, in a small apartment of which Queen Mary gave birth to James VI in 1566; while in an adjoining apartment are kept the ancient regalia of Scotland. Here is also the old Parliament Hall, restored during 1888 and 1889. The castle as a fortress contains accommodation for 2000 soldiers, and the armoury space for 30,000 stand of arms. An old piece of ordnance built of staves of malleable iron, cask fashion, and known as _Mons Meg_, stands conspicuous in an open area. The palace of Holyrood, or Holyrood House as it is more generally called, stands, as already mentioned, at the lower or eastern extremity of the street leading to the castle. No part of the present palace is older than the time of James V (1528), while the greater portion of it dates only from the time of Charles II. In the north-west angle of the building are the apartments which were occupied by Queen Mary, nearly in the same state in which they were left by that unfortunate princess. Adjoining the palace are the ruins of the chapel belonging to the Abbey of Holyrood, founded in 1128 by David I. On the south side of the Old Town, and separated from it also by a hollow crossed by two bridges (the South Bridge and George IV Bridge), stands the remaining portion of the city, which, with the exception of a few unimportant streets, is mostly modern. Besides the buildings already noticed, Edinburgh possesses a large number of important edifices and institutions, chief amongst which are the Royal Institution (accommodating the Royal Society and other bodies), a beautiful Grecian building; the National (Picture) Gallery, another fine building in the Greek style, the two buildings standing on a conspicuous site between East and West Princes Street Gardens; the National Portrait Gallery, a building due to private munificence and accommodating also the National Museum of Antiquities; the Museum of Science and Art; the Episcopal Cathedral of St. Mary's, one of the largest religious edifices of modern times; the university buildings, including those of the medical department, standing apart from the others; the infirmary buildings; the high school, register office, and others. Amongst the more prominent educational institutions are the university, the high school, the academy, the United Free Church New College, the Edinburgh School of Medicine (connected with the Royal College of Physicians and the Royal College of Surgeons), Medical College for Women, College of Agriculture, the Edinburgh Veterinary College, Fettes College, the Heriot-Watt College, normal schools, technical, commercial, and other institutions, and endowed secondary schools. The Advocates' Library, the largest in Scotland, contains upwards of 550,000 printed volumes and 3000 MSS.; the university library, 200,000; the library of Writers to the Signet, 100,000. There is also a rate-supported public library in a building erected at the expense of the late Andrew Carnegie. Printing, bookbinding, coach-building, type-founding, machine-making, the making of rubber goods, furniture-making, ale-brewing on a very large scale, and distilling are the principal industries. Edinburgh is the head-quarters of the book trade in Scotland, and the seat of the chief Government departments. It is a great resort of tourists and other travellers. On account of its picturesque and commanding situation and its literary fame, Edinburgh is often called the 'Modern Athens'. The origin of Edinburgh is uncertain. Its name is by many thought to be derived from Eadwinsburh, the Burgh of Edwin, a powerful Northumbrian king of the early seventh century, who absorbed the Lothians in his rule. The town was made a royal burgh in the time of David I; but it was not till the fifteenth century that it became the recognized capital of Scotland, and from that time it was the scene of many important events in Scottish history. The city is now governed by a council, which elects from its members a Lord Provost, a city treasurer, and seven bailies. It returns five members to Parliament, and within the municipal boundaries are included Portobello, Granton, Liberton, Duddingston, and since 1920 also the port of Leith. Pop. 420,281.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. B. Gillies, _Edinburgh, Past and Present_; M. O. Oliphant, _Royal Edinburgh, Her Saints, Kings, Prophets, and Poets_; W. H. O. Smeaton, _Edinburgh and its Story_; H. E. Maxwell, _Edinburgh: a Historical Study_.

EDINBURGH, COUNTY OF, or MIDLOTHIAN, is bounded north by the Firth of Forth, along which it extends 11 or 12 miles; and by the counties of Linlithgow, Haddington, Berwick, Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, and Roxburgh; area, 234,926 acres, over half of which is arable or under permanent pasture. The south-south-east and south-west parts of the county are diversified with hills, of which the two principal ranges are the Pentlands and Moorfoots, the former stretching across the county to within 4 miles of Edinburgh. The principal rivers are the North and South Esks and the Water of Leith, all running into the Forth. The lowlands towards the Forth are the most fertile; the farms are of considerable size, and the most approved methods of agriculture are in use. The hilly parts are chiefly under pasturage and dairy farming. The chief crops are oats, barley, turnips, and potatoes. The manufactures are comparatively limited, but include ale, whisky, gunpowder, paper, and tiles. The fisheries are valuable. The chief towns are: Edinburgh, Dalkeith, and Musselburgh. Midlothian and Peebles return two members to Parliament. Pop. 506,378.

EDINBURGH, DUKE OF, H.R.H. Prince Alfred Ernest Albert, K.G., K.T., K.P., &c., Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the second son of Queen Victoria, was born at Windsor Castle, 6th Aug., 1844, died in 1900. At the age of fourteen he joined the navy as naval cadet, and served on various foreign stations. In 1862 he declined the offer of the throne of Greece. On his majority he received L15,000 a year from Parliament, and was created Duke of Edinburgh, Earl of Kent, and Earl of Ulster. In 1867 he was appointed to the command of the frigate _Galatea_, in which he visited Australia, Japan, China, and India. In 1873 he received an additional annuity of L10,000, and next year he married the Grand-Duchess Marie, only daughter of the Emperor of Russia. In 1882 he was made a vice-admiral, and subsequently held important commands. In 1898 he succeeded his uncle as ruler of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and resigned L15,000 of his annuity and his other privileges as an English prince, but retained his rank of admiral. He had one son (who predeceased him) and four daughters. He was succeeded as Duke of Saxe-Coburg by his nephew, Leopold Charles, Duke of Albany.

EDINBURGH REVIEW, THE, a quarterly review established in 1802. It had an immediate and striking success, the brilliancy and vigour of its articles being much above the standard of the periodical literature of that time. In politics it was Whig, and did good service to the party. The _Review_ was founded by a knot of young men living in Edinburgh, the more prominent of whom were Brougham, Jeffrey, Sydney Smith, and Francis Horner. It was edited from 1803 to 1829 by Jeffrey, under whom it was very successful. In reply to his criticisms Byron wrote his _English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_. Among the famous contributors to the _Review_ were Lord Macaulay, Lord John Russell, and John Stuart Mill.

EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY, the latest of the Scottish universities, was founded in 1582 by a charter granted by James VI. The number of professors and other teachers is now over 240. The university is a corporation consisting of a chancellor, rector, principal, professors, registered graduates and alumni, and matriculated students. Its government is administered by the University Court, the Senatus Academicus, and the General Council, as in the other Scottish universities, in all of which new ordinances have been introduced under the Universities (Scotland) Act of 1889. The University Court, which is the supreme governing body of the university, consists of the rector, who is president, the principal, the Lord Provost of Edinburgh, and eleven assessors. The Senatus superintends the teaching and discipline of the university, and consists of the principal and professors. The General Council consists of the chancellor, who is president, the members of the University Court and Senatus, and the graduates of the university. It takes cognizance of matters generally affecting the well-being of the university. The chancellor is the official head of the university, and it is through him or his deputy, the vice-chancellor, that degrees are conferred. He is elected for life by the General Council. The principal is the resident head of the university and president of the Senatus, and is appointed for life (at Edinburgh by a body called the 'Curators', elsewhere by the Crown). The lord rector is elected for three years by the matriculated students. There are six faculties in the university, viz. arts, science, divinity, law, medicine, and music. Some of the professors are appointed by the Crown, others by special electors, and a considerable number by the curators, who represent the university court and the town council. The number of students in 1919-20 was over 4300. Candidates for degrees in the different faculties must now pass an entrance examination before attendance upon classes. Women are admitted to all courses and degrees, equally with men, except in the faculty of divinity. Those desirous of taking the degree of Master of Arts (M.A.) must attend classes and pass examinations in at least seven subjects, selected from four departments, viz. language and literature, mental philosophy, science, history and law, the course of study extending over three academic years at least. There is a considerable restriction in choice of subjects, since four of them must be (_a_) Latin or Greek; (_b_) English or a Modern Language; (_c_) Logic or Moral Philosophy; (_d_) Mathematics or Natural Philosophy; and the whole subjects must include both of (_a_) or both of (_c_), or two out of the three--mathematics, natural philosophy, and chemistry. Four medical degrees are conferred: Bachelor of Medicine (M.B.), Bachelor of Surgery (Ch.B.), Master of Surgery (Ch.M.), and Doctor of Medicine (M.D.). Before any of these degrees can be obtained the candidate must have been engaged in medical study for at least five years. The degrees in law are Bachelor of the Law (B.L.), Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.), and Doctor of Laws (LL.D.), the last being purely honorary. In divinity the degrees are Bachelor and Doctor of Divinity (B.D. and D.D.), the latter being honorary. In science the degrees are likewise Bachelor and Doctor (B.Sc. and D.Sc.), both conferred in the three departments of pure science, engineering, and public health. There is also a B.Sc. in agriculture. The degree of Doctor of Philosophy (D.Phil.) is conferred for proficiency in mental science, and that of Doctor of Letters (D.Litt.) for proficiency in literary, philological, and linguistic studies. The degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Music (Mus.B. and Mus.D.) are also conferred. There is a joint board of examiners for the four Scottish universities, having the control and supervision of the preliminary examinations. The university has splendid laboratories and museums. The foundation stone of a new science laboratory was laid by King George on 6th July, 1920. The library contains 200,000 volumes. There are bursaries, scholarships, and fellowships, amounting annually to about L12,500. Since 1918 the University of Edinburgh unites with the other Scottish universities in returning three members to Parliament. The constituency consists of the General Council.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Kerr, _Scottish Education, School and University, from Early Times to 1908_; _University Calendar_; Sir Alex. Grant, _The Story of the University of Edinburgh from Early Times to 1908_.

ED'ISON, Thomas Alva, an American inventor, born in Ohio in 1847. He was poorly educated, became a newsboy on the Grand Trunk Railway, and afterwards, having obtained some type, issued a small sheet of his own known as the _Grand Trunk Herald_, printing it in a freight car. He then set himself to learn telegraph work, and in a short time became an expert operator. In 1863, while at Indianopolis, he invented an automatic telegraph repeater. This was the first of a long series of improvements and inventions. He opened an extensive establishment at Newark for the manufacture of electrical, printing, automatic, and other apparatus. In 1876, his health breaking down, he gave up manufacturing and devoted himself to investigation and invention. Amongst his numerous inventions are the quadruplex and sextuplex telegraph, the carbon telephone transmitter, the 'Edison system' of lighting, the electric fire-alarm, the 'Edison electric railway', the phonograph, and the megaphone. His improvements in the cinematograph made it practicable, though he did not originate the idea of it.

ED'MONTON, an urban district and parliamentary borough in England, county of Middlesex, 7-1/2 miles north of London, with an extensive trade in timber, carried on by the Lea River navigation. The 'Bell at Edmonton' has become famous by association with the adventures of Cowper's _John Gilpin_. The borough returns one member to Parliament. Pop. 64,820.

EDMONTON, a town of North-Western Canada, on the North Saskatchewan (here navigable). Since 1905 it is the capital of the province of Alberta, and has grown considerably in recent years. It is an important station on the Canadian Pacific, Grand Trunk Pacific, and Canadian Northern railway systems, and is the distributing centre of an immense area, being also the centre of an excellent farming district. Easily-mined coal is worked here. Pop, 61,000.

ED'MUND, ST., King of the East Angles, began to reign in 855, died in 870. He was revered by his subjects for his justice and piety. In 870 his kingdom was invaded, and he himself slain, by the Danes. The Church made him a martyr, and a town (Bury St. Edmunds) grew up round the place where he was buried.

EDMUND I, King of England, an able and spirited prince, succeeded his brother Athelstan in 940. He conquered Cumbria, which he bestowed on Malcolm, King of Scotland, on condition of doing homage for it to himself. He was slain at a banquet 26th May, 946.

EDMUND II, surnamed _Ironside_, King of England, the eldest son of Ethelred II, was born in 989. He was chosen king in 1016, Canute having been already elected king by another party. He won several victories over Canute, but was defeated at Assandun in Essex, and forced to surrender the midland and northern counties to Canute. He died after a reign of only seven months.

EDOM, in the New Testament _Idumaea_, in ancient times a country lying to the south of Palestine. The Edomites are said in _Genesis_ to be the descendants of Esau, who was also called Edom (a word signifying 'red'), and who dwelt in Mount Seir, the mountain range now called _Jebel Shera_, stretching between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Akabah. Edom is frequently mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions. The Edomites were subdued by King David, and after the separation of the ten tribes remained subject to the Kingdom of Judah until the reign of Jehoram, when they revolted and secured their independence for a time. They were again subdued about half a century later by Amaziah, and again, in the reign of Ahaz, recovered their independence, which they maintained till the time of the invasion of Judea by Nebuchadnezzar. They fell under the rule of the Persians, and afterwards their fortunes were merged in those of Arabia. The chief city in this region was Petra, which now presents remarkable ruins, as well as several rock-cut temples.

EDRED, King of England, son of Edward the Elder, succeeded to the throne on the murder of his brother, Edmund I, in May, 946. He quelled a rebellion of the Northumbrian Danes, and died in 955.

1, Fresh-water shrimp (_Gammarus pulex_). _a_, Single eye. 2, Head of Cymothoa. _b_, Clusters of simple eyes.]

EDRIOPHTHAL'MATA, one of the great divisions of the Crustacea, including all those genera which have their eyes sessile, or embedded in the head, and not fixed on a peduncle or stalk as in the crabs, lobsters, &c. It is divided into two orders. (1) Amphipoda, laterally flattened, as in the marine sandhopper (Talitrus), and the fresh-water shrimp (Gammarus). (2) Isopoda, flattened from above downwards. Sea-slaters or wood-lice (Ligia and Idothea); fish parasites (Cymothoa); fresh-water wood-lice (Asellus); land wood-lice (Oniscus, Porcellio, Armadillidium, which can roll up).

EDRI'SI, Abu-Abdallah Mohammed, a famous Arabian geographer, a descendant of the ancient princely family of the Edrisites, born about A.D. 1100, died about 1180. He studied at the Moorish university of Cordova, after which he travelled through various countries. At the request of King Roger II of Sicily he constructed a globe with a map of the earth, which represented all the geographical knowledge of the age. He accompanied this with a descriptive treatise completed about 1154, and still extant. The work was published at Rome in Arabic (1592), and in 1619 a Latin translation of it, under the title of _Geographia Nubiensis_, appeared in Paris.

EDUCATION is the name applied to the systematic instruction given by each succeeding generation to the young of the race to fit them for the work of life. The word itself is derived from the Latin verb _educare_, which means to rear, to nourish, to bring up, and also to educate. Long before the dawn of civilization men saw that the young had to be prepared for the battle of life; had to learn how to make and how to use the offensive and defensive weapons employed against their enemies; how to form or build shelters to protect themselves against the weather and against their foes; how to make traps or snares for the wild things on which they fed; how, in fact, to use their powers of mind and body in such a way as to secure for themselves the fullest and most satisfactory life possible under the circumstances in which they found themselves.

While education thus understood would be the story of man on the earth, an account of his more or less satisfactory, but always continuous, efforts to perfect the relations between his desires and his environment, it would have to embrace also an account of the conflict between the demands of communities and the rights of individuals. Education, however, as we understand it, is more limited in its scope. It is the instrument employed by the State for the training of its citizens.

The Greeks were the first Europeans to treat education as a science. The results they obtained were good, and have to a certain extent determined the course taken by European education ever since. Plato defined the aim of the education of which he gives us an account in the _Republic_, to be the "development in the body and in the soul of all the perfection which it is possible for them to attain". This was the Greek ideal of what education should aim at; a high ideal indeed; but one that omits an element of immense importance which we find introduced in Milton's definition of the 'end of learning', that is, the aim of education. Milton boldly declares this to be: "To repair the ruin of our first parents by regaining to know God aright, and out of that knowledge to love Him, as we may the nearest by possessing our souls of true virtue, which being united to the heavenly grace of faith makes up the highest perfection". Perfection is the end sought in both cases, and which seems the nobler it is unnecessary to say. This impression is deepened when he proceeds to declare that as "Our understanding cannot ... arrive so clearly to the knowledge of God and things invisible, as by orderly conning over the visible and inferior creatures, the same method is necessarily to be followed in all discreet teaching".

By Aristotle the order of education was: first, education of the body, the just and proportionate development of its powers. The instrument employed for this purpose was gymnastics; not the gymnastics employed in training professional athletes, but more moderate exercises; for, as the philosopher insists, too strenuous bodily exertion is apt to spoil the child, because body and mind must not be hard worked at the same time. Music, according to him, had various aims: education proper, the training of the affections, and the occupation of leisure. Drawing was taught as a branch of music for the purpose of developing the child's sense of beauty, mathematics were taught to cultivate his intellect, and dialectic (logic and philosophy) to prepare the pupil for a scientific training.

To the idealistic philosopher Plato, the whole life of man, at least the whole of what we may call the active life, was educative. Education was State-controlled, and at the end of the first six years, spent by the child in the seclusion of family life, the State took charge. The aim of the education proposed by Plato was to develop in the child the cardinal virtues--honour to parents, love of fellow-citizens, courage, truthfulness, and self-control. From the seventh to the tenth year the training was mainly in gymnastics; from the tenth to the thirteenth the child learned to read and to write; from the thirteenth to the sixteenth his affections and his sense of the beautiful were cultivated through learning poetry and studying music; from the seventeenth to the twentieth year he applied himself mainly to athletics, so that he might be qualified to take his share in the defence of the State. At twenty men were called upon to choose their occupation; to turn their minds to the study of the sciences; and to shape by practical military and other services to the State that character which it was the aim of education to form. From thirty to thirty-five Plato supposes the citizens of his ideal republic to devote themselves to the study of _Dialectics_, the method of purely intellectual knowledge, by which reason, using hypothesis, arrives at the first principles of things. From thirty-five to fifty the life of the citizen was to be given up to public service, that is, to the promotion in the position for which he was best fitted of the general well-being.

The training set forth by the Greek philosophers was the training thought necessary to fit a man to be a ruler. As the Greek city states were slave states, and most of the manual work was performed by slaves, that necessary part of the training of the youth of the community is ignored. This fact has had, undoubtedly, an enormous influence on the ideas of education put forward since. The preliminary training demanded by the Greeks included, besides gymnastics, grammar and music. At a later time these were understood to include the seven arts: Grammar, Rhetoric, Dialectic (_Trivium_), and Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, and Astronomy (_Quadrivium_). To the Greeks, myths were the instruments of the earliest education, the aim of which was the development of a character in the citizen which would lead him to give his best and most loyal services to the State.

The aim of Greek education was the formation of the philosophic thinker, the man fitted by nature and training to guide and direct the energies of the man of action. Roman education, on the other hand, directed its efforts mainly to the moulding of the man of action himself. The Romans adopted the form rather than the spirit of Greek education. The aim of Roman education was to make a man who could do things; a practical man, a man full of energy, who was ever ready to sacrifice himself in the interests of the State; a man who knew the laws and who regulated his conduct by them; who reverenced his father and his country's gods; and found his chief pleasure in the complete overthrow and utter destruction of his country's foes. He could discourse eloquently and not unphilosophically; and he spared neither himself nor others in his effort to maintain the freedom of his country, and to bring destruction on the enemies of Rome. Roman education began in the home, and during the earlier years was largely directed by the mother. Later the preparation of the boy for life was taken over by the father; but it is probable that, from very early times many, if not most, Romans boys were sent to school, where, under the _magister literarius_ (elementary teacher), the _grammaticus_ (advanced teacher), and the _rhetor_ (professor), they acquired the knowledge and accomplishments it was needful for them to obtain.

The Roman schools, elementary and secondary, seem to have been conducted in a verandah, and boys and girls seem to have been taught in the same school. The chief Roman writers on education are Cicero, Seneca, and Quintilian. Quintilian tells us that Cato also wrote a treatise on the subject, but that that work had been lost. The oratorical training of which Quintilian was the expositor seems to have been largely out of connection with real life; and, though he claims that the orator must be a widely cultured, wise, and honourable man, seems to have developed a tendency to the bombastic abuse of ornate and stilted speech. The practical effects, too, of the corruption of family education were far from satisfactory. Moral degradation followed, and humanity seems to have been rescued only by the introduction of a new ideal of life, which substituted for the pagan self-reliance, self-control, moderation, and proportion, self-denial, self-forgetfulness, and humility; which made the last, indeed, the chief virtue, and looked on pride and self-confidence as spiritual sins.

The introduction of Christianity was followed by the inroads into the Roman Empire of barbarous tribes from the north and east. Before these attacks the Western Roman Empire collapsed, and with it to a greater or less extent the educational system of the time.

It must be remembered that between three and four hundred years elapsed between the downfall of the Western Roman Empire and the beginnings of the Holy Roman Empire under Charlemagne. Classical or pagan culture, as profane learning, was at a discount, and the aim of the monasticism which grew out of the introduction of Christianity was mystic absorption in the contemplation of God.

This interval was followed by the efforts of Charlemagne to revive Roman culture, and to establish schools throughout Western Europe. In this he was aided by Alcuin and other scholars from England, where in the comparative quiet that followed the conquest of Britain there had grown up a system of education. Throughout his dominions three classes of schools were established by Charlemagne, the Palace School, the Bishop's School, and the Monastery School. These were intended to take the place of the splendid system of public schools that had grown up under the Roman Empire. The course of studies established in these mediaeval schools, following the practice of Greece and Rome, was divided into two parts: the _Trivium_, including Grammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric; and the _Quadrivium_, which embraced Geometry, Arithmetic, Music, and Astronomy. Education in the palace or castle schools had a different aim. It sought to develop the bodily powers, and to awake in the pupils that respect for the weak which was shown in the worship of women, and that love of justice, and belief in its supremacy, which characterized the _chivalry_ of the Middle Ages.

The scholastic education of this time laid special stress on formal logic and metaphysics. Latin was taught, was, indeed, the universal language of the period. Questions about the nature of the unseen and the spiritual occupied much of men's minds; while their time was taken up in discussing the character of universals, the true realities which lay behind the individual manifestations of experience. As a rule, the physical world was ignored, and human intelligence disregarded; but there were notable exceptions, among which the teachings of Bishop Grosseteste (died 1253) and of Roger Bacon (1214 to 1294) take a prominent place.

It was during the period of scholasticism that universities, in imitation of the trade guilds of the time, sprung up in different parts of Europe, particularly in Spain, Italy, France, and England. To the famous schools both in England and on the Continent scholars flocked from all parts, and their instruction presented little difficulty, as Latin, the language in which the instruction was given, was the common language of scholars in Western Europe. The establishment of universities in different countries was a sign rather than a cause or result of that intellectual and spiritual awakening which, after nearly a thousand years of almost complete stagnation, manifested itself among the peoples of Europe.

It is usual to date the Renaissance from 1453, the fall of Constantinople; but it must not be forgotten that owing to the clash between East and West, the struggle between Christianity and Mohammedanism (the Crusades, as these religious wars were called), there had from the end of the eleventh century been a considerable change of outlook among the nations of Western Europe. This was specially the case in Italy, where city states, not unlike those of Greece in their character, had sprung up, and where, as in Greece in the time of Pericles, there had been the great outburst of literary activity which is associated with the names of Boccaccio, Dante, and Petrarch. In Northern and Western Europe the intelligence stimulated by the new learning was directed towards the improvement of the method of study. All study was linguistic. Latin was the instrument of common intercourse; Greek and Hebrew were sacred as the tongues in which the Scriptures had been conveyed; it was no wonder, therefore, that the humanistic education was almost entirely confined to the study of languages. Sturm (1507 to 1589) drew up a scheme of studies which had long a great influence on the school courses of instruction throughout Europe.

The reaction against authority which marked the Reformation period was specially noted for the reaction against the purely verbal education given to the young, whose education, as we learn from Locke, was calculated to teach them "not to believe, but to dispute", and to fit them "for the university, not for the world". On the Continent Rabelais (1483 to 1533) led this realistic movement, which was continued by Montaigne (1533 to 1592) in France, and under the influence of Bacon by Brinsley and Hoole in England, and Ratke and Comenius on the Continent. Up to this time the chief English writers on the subject of education had been Sir Thomas Elyot in his _Governour_, Roger Ascham in his _Scholemaster_, and Richard Mulcaster in his _Positions_.

The intellectual activity which marked in England the closing decades of the sixteenth and the first part of the seventeenth century saw the issue of Milton's _Tractate_, one of the most famous books on education ever produced. The _Tractate_ discusses only the kind of education that should be given to gentlemen's sons between the ages of twelve and twenty-one, so that it is strictly limited in its application, as it does not deal with the education of the people, nor with the education of women. The ideal which Milton put before him as the aim of "a complete and generous education" was "to fit a man to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices both private and public of peace and war". Milton in his _Tractate_ discusses studies, exercise, and diet, showing that he clearly understood that education was concerned with the body as well as the mind and spirit.

Towards the close of the seventeenth century Locke, an English physician and philosopher, published (1693) his _Thoughts concerning Education_, a book which influenced immensely the character and direction of future educational studies. As he informs his readers in his letter to Edward Clarke, he counsels everyone "after having well examined and distinguished what fancy, custom, or reason advises in the case ... to promote everywhere that way of training up youth ... which is the easiest, shortest, and likeliest to produce virtuous, useful, and able men in their distinct callings". He begins his essay with the statement, "A sound mind in a sound body is a short but full description of a happy state in this world", and the suggestions he makes as to the physical, moral, and intellectual training of the young are for the most part sound. He decried a too severe discipline, maintaining that "If the mind be curbed and humbled too much in children, ... they lose all their vigour and industry". On the other hand, he held that if you "Remove hope and fear, there is an end of all discipline"; and he held that, as far as possible, "Childish actions are to be left perfectly free and unrestrained". He applied the science of psychology to the study of child nature, and of the methods to be employed in training it; and so prepared the way for the modern methods of education. "Interest is the secret of Herbart", according to one of his devoted admirers. Locke seems to have anticipated this when he declares that "None of the things they are to learn should ever be made a burden to them, or imposed on them as a task".

Though his attitude towards the universe was utterly opposed to the attitude of Locke, Rousseau drew almost all that was practical in his scheme for the education of the young from the English writer. Rousseau's work, though largely inspired by Locke, was essentially of a revolutionary kind. It held that man is the great corrupter; that "Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Creator; and that man's handling makes everything worse". In effect he said, leave the child as much as possible alone. An attempt constantly to direct him can only result in stupefying him. It is true we receive our education from nature, from men, and from things; but nature must be our guide in determining the use of the other two. As few restraints as possible must be imposed on the child, and the use of books should be prohibited. For the child there should be "no other book but the world", and "no other instruction but facts". The child's education he divides into four stages, infancy, childhood, boyhood, and youth. The first two stages last till the beginning of the thirteenth year, when the boy is supposed to be fit for instruction. From such instruction the teaching of words must disappear, and the teaching of things must take its place. The subjects most suitable for instruction were, Rousseau declared, measuring, drawing, geometry, speaking, and singing. Books, he declares, are useless, are, indeed, altogether harmful. The method he advocates is the method of self-teaching and the use of the senses, which Rousseau held would work to the profit of the intelligence. The child's knowledge should rest on his own observation, and not on belief in authority, and each child should be taught a manual trade.

At fifteen, according to Rousseau, real education begins; and it is the duty of the teacher to study the subject he has to act upon, in other words, to discover the nature of the pupil, which must in all cases determine the means and the method employed in his education. Two things must be taught. These are the true relations, racial and individual, that exist among men; and how to direct and control the emotions aroused by the environment so that the best results may arise. Here he finds occasion for the use of moral teaching and for instruction in religion. The facts of history must be placed before him; but he must be left to form his own judgment. He is now to be taught religion as a help to the regulation of the passions; but not the religion of any particular sect. His time is to be given up largely to reading and to the acquirement of taste; to the study of history and eloquence; and to attendance at the theatre.

The revolutionary doctrines preached by Rousseau in his _['E]mile_ and in his other educational works had an immense effect on the Continent, and particularly on the work of one of his most ardent admirers, the Swiss farmer and schoolmaster Pestalozzi, an eccentric, dubbed by his schoolfellows "Harry Oddity of Fools-town". Thinking the education demanded for ['E]mile by Rousseau vastly superior to that which he himself received, he very early became an ardent admirer of the system advocated by the French philosopher, and an eager reformer. _['E]mile_ and the _Contrat Social_ were condemned by the magistrates of Zurich, and Pestalozzi and some of his fellow-students were imprisoned for the _Memorial_ in which they defended these works. Later Pestalozzi determined to be a farmer. He was married at the age of twenty-three, and started growing madder and vegetables on some poor land near Zurich. On the land he built for himself a house, the _Neuhof_.

In the winter of 1774 he hit upon the expedient of taking into his house some twenty poor children of the neighbourhood, whom he treated as his own. They worked with him in summer in the fields, and in winter in the house. Improved health for the children, increased intelligence, and a manifest devotion to their benefactor were some of the results speedily displayed, and the experiment drew much attention to itself. Urged on by his love for the children, Pestalozzi took in a larger number, and in a very short time found himself bankrupt. In this period of seeming disaster Pestalozzi turned author. The books which he produced were greedily read on the Continent, and aroused the greatest interest. After some work at Stanz and at Burgdorf, Pestalozzi settled to work in the castle of Yverdun on Lake Neuch[^a]tel, which became in the early years of the nineteenth century a place of pilgrimage for European students and lovers of education. Forced to leave Yverdun in 1815, he continued his work at Clindy till 1824.

Friedrich Froebel spent the years 1807 to 1809 at Yverdun, and so fitted himself to carry on the work Pestalozzi had to some extent made popular. His name, however, is specially associated with the schools for very young children to which he gave the name of _Kindergarten_, that is, 'gardens of children', places where young children, like young plants, were properly watched and tended. For the children in these schools their employment was to be play, play from which and by which they acquired clear notions regarding themselves and their environment. "Education", he asserted, "should lead and guide man to clearness concerning himself and in himself, to peace with nature, and to unity with God." He held that powers were developed by exercise; that failure to use any part of the body or mind led to the shrinkage of the part, and sometimes even to its complete loss. He held that if we wish to develop the body we must exercise the body, and that, similarly, if we wish to develop the intellect or the emotions they must be exercised. He insists that teachers must be careful to interfere as little as possible; must remember at all times that the aim of teaching is "to bring ever more and more out of man rather than to put more and more into him". He based his system on action; agreed with Montaigne that "children's games were their most serious occupations"; and with Locke that "All the plays and diversions of children should be directed towards good and useful habits". Froebel was not the founder of infant schools. These were first established on the Continent and in Britain with the object of helping mothers. In Britain their establishment is associated with the names of the educational enthusiasts James Buchanan and Samuel Wilderspin.

Nearly ten years before Froebel's stay with Pestalozzi at Yverdun, Herbart, next to Kant and Hegel the most influential of German philosophers, visited the inspired educationist at Burgdorf, and found him employing methods based on the principles which he himself had worked out in his psychology. To both it was clear that there is a definite order in which subjects should be taught to the children, and that this order is determined, not merely by the relation of the subjects to each other, but by their power of satisfying the growing wants and capacities of the child. Pestalozzi had arrived intuitively at a method, and had practically applied it, which Herbart had scientifically worked out as applicable to the whole educational field. Three years later Herbart published pamphlets on Pestalozzi's best-known book, _How Gertrude teaches her Children_, and on _The A.B.C. of Sense-perception_, and in these showed what weight he attached to observation as an instrument of education. Two years later he published one of his most notable works on education, _The Aesthetic Revelation of the World_, and in 1806 _General Pedagogy_. In 1809 he was appointed professor of philosophy at K[:o]nigsberg, where he remained till 1833, and where his services to the cause of education, both by his writings and by his establishment of normal schools and experimental schools, cannot be exaggerated. He warns teachers not to educate too much; to be careful not to destroy the individuality of the child, such individuality being that which characterizes individuals of the same class. He lays the greatest stress on the importance to the teacher of child study, maintaining that he will be unable to teach unless he knows the child as he is. For Herbart the aim of education is summed up in morality, "the highest aim of humanity and consequently of education", itself. "I have no conception", he writes, "of education without instruction, just as I do not acknowledge any instruction that does not educate." "Instruction", he says elsewhere, "will form the circle of thought, and education the character; the last is nothing without the first." A great deal, according to Herbart, depends upon the pupil himself, who "grasps rightly what is natural to him", and who must be saved from the tendency to one-sidedness in which following his bent would result, by the cultivation in him of many-sidedness. This cultivation involves the control of the pupil's mental activity, and the instrument for this control is interest, which causes the pupil's complete absorption in its object. For the attainment of this Herbart proposes certain formal steps of instruction. These steps are usually set forth as (1) Preparation, (2) Presentation, (3) Comparison, (4) Generalization, (5) Application.

The nineteenth century was a period of continuously increasing interest in education, and of a generally growing belief in its utility. It was taken up by the Governments of the different countries, and ordered and regulated almost out of existence. Seven years before the death of Pestalozzi the first public grant for education was made by the British Parliament, and from that time up to the present the Government has continued to extend its power over the education of the country. For a long time the Government in Britain was satisfied to subsidize elementary education; but later it insisted on hard-and-fast lines of instruction. So thoroughly were these regulated in most countries that a French Minister of Education could boast he was able to say what work every child in France was engaged in at that particular moment.

In Britain it was only bit by bit, and with very considerable reluctance, that the Government took upon itself the responsibility for the education of the country. In Scotland a national system of general education, constituted in 1560, remained in force until reconstructed by the _Education Act_ of 1872. (See _Scotland_.) Compulsory education was introduced into England in 1870, together with what was described as payment by results; and, for some time, the aim which the teacher had to keep before him was the production at the annual examination of the largest number of pupils who could satisfy the tests in Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic, or, as they were called, the 'three R's', and so earn the Government grant. For between thirty and forty years this unnatural and mechanical system remained in force. From 1864 onwards Commission after Commission sought to reduce English secondary education to order. The most notable of these was The Bryce Commission of Enquiry into Secondary Education, 1894-5, whose recommendations have since been put into force by legislation. One of the results of the increasing interest in education throughout England was the founding, early in the latter half of last century, of great day schools, like the City of London, St. Paul's, and Merchant Taylors, in London and other large cities; and, after the passing of the Education Act of 1902, the establishment everywhere of Council Secondary Schools.

Of the immense number of works on education issued during the last half of the nineteenth century, perhaps the best known are those of Herbert Spencer and of Professor Bain. The former seeks to explain education from the Darwinian standpoint, and the latter to determine from psychology the intellectual value of the various subjects taught in school, and the average age at which they should be taught to children. Of practical English educators during the nineteenth century, the most outstanding names are undoubtedly those of Arnold of Rugby, Thring of Uppingham, and Abbott of the City of London School.