Chapter IV: Part 4

_History._--In the hot, dry sands of Upper Egypt, which preserve the dead from decay, have been found the bodies of large numbers of pre-dynastic Egyptians. They were of the type known as the 'Mediterranean race'. The contents of their stomachs have yielded husks of barley and millet and fragments of mammalian and fish bones. Circumcision was practised, and some men shaved. These people used malachite as an eyelid paint. When they discovered that copper could be extracted from malachite, it was used at first like gold, as has been stated. The production of copper implements and weapons was followed by the conquest of Lower Egypt by the copper-using Upper Egyptians. After the latter moved north, they found that the bodies of their dead decayed, and the practice of mummification was introduced. Before 3000 B.C. the broad-headed, long-bearded Armenoid type began to filter into Lower Egypt. The blending of Armenoids and Arabians in Syria produced 'the hybrid race of Semites'. In Egypt the ethnic fusion was most marked at the commercial capital, Memphis, and especially during the time of the pyramid builders (_c._ 2900-2750 B.C.). The spread of 'copper culture', and the importation into Egypt of timber from Lebanon, apparently brought the ancient races into close contact. Withal, shipbuilding and the art of navigation had advanced by leaps and bounds. Before the Pyramid Age there were sea-traders on the Mediterranean, and the Egyptians imported copper from Sinai across the Red Sea. The legendary Pharaoh who united Upper and Lower Egypt was Mena or Menes. From his time (_c._ 3400 B.C.) till the close of the sixth dynasty (_c._ 2475 B.C.) the capital was Memphis. This period is known as that of the 'Old Kingdom'. Among its outstanding monarchs were Khufu, Khafra, and Menkure of the fourth dynasty, the builders of the largest pyramids. Herodotus refers to them as _Cheops_, _Chephren_, and _Mykerinos_. The 'Middle Kingdom' begins with the rise of Thebes in Upper Egypt as the centre of political power. During this period the nobility became so influential that the Pharaohs had to recognize their rights and privileges. In the period of the famous twelfth dynasty (_c._ 2000-1788 B.C.) the Theban monarchs established a uniform control of Egypt. The later kings of this dynasty were unable, however, to withstand the inroads of Asiatics, and the Middle Kingdom came to an end with the Hyksos invasion. Of the Hyksos, the so-called 'Shepherd Kings', little is known. They were civilized Asiatics, and during their overlordship of Egypt, which embraced the thirteenth till the seventeenth dynasties (_c._ 1800-1575 B.C.), the horse and chariot were introduced into Egypt. A Theban royal house rose into prominence during the latter part of their sway, and the Hyksos were finally expelled by Pharaoh Aahmes, who founded the eighteenth dynasty. The Empire period was then inaugurated. Egypt's greatest emperor, Thothmes III (1515-1461 B.C.), extended his conquests to the borders of Asia Minor, and received tribute from the Hittites, and even from Cyprus and Crete. During the reign of Akhenaton, the Hittites and their allies, the Amorites, seized the Egyptian sphere of influence in Syria and Northern Palestine.

In the nineteenth dynasty (1350-1205 B.C.) much of the lost territory was recovered. Rameses II (1325-1258 B.C.) fought his Waterloo at Kadesh, but found it necessary about 1300 B.C. to conclude a treaty of peace with the Hittites, the Assyrian Power at the time becoming very powerful and aggressive. Rameses III of the twentieth dynasty was the last great Pharaoh of the Empire period. He successfully resisted the threatened invasions of naval and military peoples from Greece and Anatolia in 1200 B.C. It is believed that the Trojan War (1194-1184 B.C.) was waged by the same confederacy which had attempted to invade the Delta region. No fewer than nine Pharaohs named Rameses ruled in Egypt after Rameses III. Most of these were priest-kings. A Libyan dynasty held sway for about two centuries (950-750 B.C.). One of its Pharaoh-Sheshhonks was the 'Shishak' who was an ally of Solomon; after the death of that monarch he invaded Palestine. The Ethiopians of Nubia (Sudan) subsequently overran Egypt. One of its Pharaohs, Shabaka, was the ally of King Hosea of Israel against Assyria; he was defeated at Raphia by Sargon in 720 B.C. The last Ethiopian Pharaoh, Taharka, was in 662 B.C. overcome by the invading army of the Assyrian Emperor, Ashur-banipal. The northern royal family of Sais then came into power, and the twenty-sixth dynasty, which lasted for about 130 years (662-525 B.C.), was inaugurated by Psamtik I. Pharaoh-Necho, referred to in the Bible, was the second ruler. It was during Necho's reign that his Phoenician mariners circumnavigated Africa. Egyptian culture was at the time spreading far and wide along sea and land routes. Trade was flourishing. The greatest world-power at the time, however, was Persia, and in 525 B.C. Egypt was conquered by Cambyses and became a Persian province, with short interruptions of weak native dynasties (the twenty-eighth to thirtieth), until in 332 B.C. Alexander the Great seized it and founded Alexandria. The Ptolemaic dynasty afterwards held sway for about three centuries. During this period learning and the arts flourished. Alexandria was not only a commercial town, but a centre of culture and the capital of Egypt. Osiris was worshipped there in the form of Serapis. During the latter part of the dynasty the native Egyptians were using Greek and Graecized names, and the whole country was more or less Hellenized. The fifteenth Ptolemy was the younger brother of the famous Cleopatra, the seventh of her name. He vanished, and was succeeded by Cleopatra's son, Caesarion--Ptolemy XVI--whose father was Julius Caesar. Both Cleopatra and her son perished when Egypt became a Roman province in 30 B.C. A daughter of Cleopatra and Antony became the wife of Juba, King of Morocco.

From a relief on the wall of the temple at Der-el-Bahari. The face is of Mediterranean type. She represents the royal line which soon afterwards fused with a foreign strain, so that the facial type changed.]

From the mummy]

The Romans drew vast quantities of gold from the mines of Nubia (_nub_ means 'gold') and made Egypt their 'granary'. Egyptian religious beliefs and customs were perpetuated by the Roman emperors. Tiberius and Vespasian restored ancient Nilotic temples. The worship of Isis spread to Rome. Hadrian had to give a decision in a dispute between Memphis and Heliopolis regarding the sacred bull. But Egyptian native learning was decaying, and the knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was dying out. Christianity was introduced during the Roman period, and the Coptic Church established. In A.D. 642 the Romans finally abandoned Egypt, which, till 868, became a province of the successive Mohammedan caliphates of Medina, of Damascus, and Baghdad. The Turkish soldiery dominated Egypt for a period. The Shia heretics afterwards became powerful, and the Christians were well treated. In 1250 the Mamelukes (descendants of slaves) came into power. Their pomp-loving sultans and emirs lived in great splendour. They came under Turkish sway early in the sixteenth century, but when Napoleon conquered Egypt in the eighteenth century they were again semi-independent. The British drove the French out of Egypt. Mehemet Ali, an Albanian officer in a Turko-Albanian force, had himself declared Sultan of Egypt, but when he overran Syria and threatened to march to Constantinople, Russia intervened. Britain and France afterwards prevailed on Mehemet Ali to rule Egypt as the viceroy of the Sultan of Turkey. His successor and grandson, Abbas I, built the first railway in Egypt. The next viceroy, Said Pasha, son of Mehemet Ali, granted to a French company the right to construct the Suez Canal. Egypt became bankrupt under his successor, Ismail Pasha, the first Khedive (Prince), during whose reign the Suez Canal was opened. He was deposed when the British and French took over the control of Egyptian finance. During the term of his successor, Tewfik Pasha, the Arabi Pasha rebellion took place. The military occupation of Egypt by British troops was followed by peace and good government. But trouble broke out in the Sudan. Mohammed Ahmed declared himself the Mahdi (Messiah) of the Mohammedans, and conquered a great part of the Sudan. In Nov., 1883, General Hicks ('Hicks Pasha') led an army of 10,000 Egyptians against the false prophet, but while marching across the driest part of the Sudan, misled by spies who acted as guides, his thirst-stricken army was entirely destroyed by the Mahdi's force. This victory gave the false prophet great prestige. In Jan., 1884, General Gordon was sent to Khartoum as Governor-General of the Sudan, but was completely isolated there. Khartoum was captured and the gallant general slain on 26th Jan., 1885, before a relieving force could reach him. The Mahdi died in June, 1885, and was succeeded by Abdullah the Khalifa. After a period of reorganization and preparation in Egypt, the reconquest of the Sudan was begun. Lord (then Sir Herbert) Kitchener was Sirdar, or Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian army, and his expeditionary force was strengthened by British regiments. In April, 1898, the Khalifa's army was defeated on the banks of the Atbara, and on 2nd Sept. Kitchener won a great victory near Omdurman. The Khalifa escaped, but was rounded up by Sir Reginald Wingate's force, and slain with his emirs at Umme Dubraykat on 24th Nov., 1899. Thereafter the Sudan came under the control of a British-Egyptian _condominium_, which appointed a Governor-General.

Built by Cheops (Khufu) and Cephron (Khafra) as their future tombs, in order to secure immortality by the preservation of the mummy.]

At the time of the outbreak of the Great War, in the autumn of 1914, the Khedive of Egypt was in Constantinople. He sided with the Central Powers. He was consequently deposed by Britain, and Prince Hussein Kamil was declared Sultan of Egypt; the suzerainty of Turkey terminated at the same time. The new ruler of Egypt was the uncle of the deposed Khedive, Abbas Pasha Hilmi (second son of the first Khedive, Ismail Pasha, and brother of Tewfik Pasha, the second Khedive). Hussein Kamil died in 1917 and was succeeded by Ahmed Fuad Pasha. Under the Peace Treaty, Egypt is recognized as an independent kingdom protected by Great Britain. The capital of modern Egypt is Cairo, situated near the site of ancient Memphis. Thebes is represented by Luxor and Karnak.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: (Religion) Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_; Renouf, _Book of the Dead_; Budge, _Gods of the Egyptians_; Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_; Sayce, _Religion of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia_; G. Elliot Smith, _The Migrations of Early Culture_; (History)--G. Elliot Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_; Breasted, _A History of Egypt_; Flinders Petrie, _A History of Egypt_; King and Hall, _Egypt and Western Asia in the Light of Recent Discoveries_; H. R. Hall, _The Ancient History of the Near East_; Sir A. Colvin, _The Making of Modern Egypt_; Lord Cromer, _Modern Egypt_.

EGYPTIAN BLUE, a brilliant and very permanent pigment used by the Romans in the early centuries of the Christian era. It has been found in ancient frescoes in the Vatican, and also at Pompeii. The chemist Fouqu['e] proved by analysis that it is a double silicate of calcium and copper.

EGYPTIAN VULTURE (_Neophron perenopt[)e]rus_), a bird that frequents both shores of the Mediterranean, but rarely passes farther north, though it has been found in the British islands. It is one of the smaller vultures, about the size of a raven. The general colour is white, the quill feathers of the wing being dark brown. It frequents the streets of Eastern towns, where it is protected on account of its services as a scavenger. This vulture is sometimes known as Pharaoh's Hen, on account of its frequent representation in Egyptian hieroglyphics. In Spain it is called the _quebranta-huesos_ (bone-smasher) in reference to its supposed habit of breaking up bones left by other vultures.

EHRENBERG ([=a]'r[.e]n-ber_h_), Christian Gottfried, a German scientist, born in 1795, died in 1876. After studying theology, medicine, and natural history, he joined in 1820 an expedition to Palestine, Egypt, and Abyssinia, returning to Berlin in 1825. In 1829 he accompanied Humboldt to the Ural and Altai ranges and to Central Siberia. His great work on Infusoria appeared in 1838, and was at once recognized as the highest authority on the subject. It was followed in 1854 by his _Microgeology_.

EHRENBREITSTEIN ([=a]'ren-br[=i]t-st[=i]n), a dismantled Prussian fortress formerly of great strength and situated opposite the confluence of the Moselle with the Rhine, on a precipitous rock 387 feet above the river, and inaccessible on three sides. It is connected with Coblentz on the opposite shore by a bridge of boats. The fortifications, which were erected between 1816 and 1820 at a cost of L1,200,000, could accommodate a garrison of 14,000 men, and possessed room for stores to last an army of 60,000 for a year.

EHRLICH, Paul, German physician, born in Silesia in 1854, died in 1915. Educated at Breslau, Strasburg, and Leipzig, he became _privat-dozent_ at the University of Berlin in 1889, and in 1896 was appointed director of the Royal Institute for Serum Research at Steglitz, which was transferred to Frankfurt in 1899, and became the Royal Institute for Experimental Therapeutics. His studies in the histology of blood are very important, but his claim to fame is based upon his discovery of _salvarsan_ (606) and of _neosalvarsan_ (614), arsenic compounds which are very efficacious in the treatment of syphilis. He delivered the Croonian lectures in 1900 and the Harben lectures in 1907, received honorary degrees from the universities of Oxford and Chicago, and in 1908 shared the Nobel prize for medicine with Metchnikoff of the Institut Pasteur in Paris. His works include: _Beitr[:a]ge zu Histologie und Klinik des Blutes_, _Anaemie_, _Abhandlungen [:u]ber Salvarsan_, &c.

EIBENSTOCK ([=i]'ben-stok), a town in the south-east of Saxony, with important manufactures of lace. Pop. 9528.

EICHHORN ([=i]_h_'horn), Johann Gottfried, German Orientalist, historian, &c., born in 1752, died in 1827. He became professor of Oriental languages at Jena, and then at G[:o]ttingen. Amongst his works are: _The Hebrew Prophets_, _History of Literature_, _History of the Last Three Centuries_, _Introductions to the Old and New Testaments and to the Apocrypha_.

EICHST[:A]TT ([=i]_h_'stet), an old town, Bavaria, in a deep valley of the Altm[:u]hl, 67 miles N.N.W. of Munich. Its principal edifice is a fine Gothic cathedral, founded in 1259. Pop. 8029.

EIDER ([=i]'d[.e]r), a river of Schleswig-Holstein, rises 8 miles S. of Kiel, and after a winding course falls into the North Sea at T[:o]nning; length, 112 miles. By means of a canal it long gave communication between the North Sea and Baltic, but the new ship canal here has superseded this route.

ma_), female]

EIDER DUCK (_Somateria molliss[)i]ma_), a species of duck found from 45deg north to the highest latitudes yet visited, both in Europe and America. Its favourite haunts are solitary rocky shores and islands. In Greenland and Iceland they occur in great numbers, and also breed on the western islands of Scotland. The eider duck is about twice the size of the common duck, being about 2 feet 3 inches in length, 3 feet in breadth of wing, and from 6 to 7 lb. in weight. The male is black, head and back white, with a black crown. The female is reddish drab spotted with black, and with two white bands on the wings. They feed largely on shell-fish and crustaceans. Their nests are usually formed of drift grass or dry seaweed, lined with a large quantity of down, which the female plucks from her own breast. In this soft bed she lays five eggs, which she covers over with a layer of down. If this, with the eggs, is removed, the bird repeats the process. One female generally furnishes about 1/2 lb. of down, but the quantity is reduced by cleaning. This down, from its superior warmth, lightness, and elasticity, is in great demand for beds and coverlets; and the districts in Norway and Iceland where these birds abound are guarded with the greatest vigilance as a most valuable property. As found in commerce this down is in balls of the size of a man's fist, and weighing from 3 to 4 lb. It is so fine and elastic that 5 lb. of the best quality is sufficient for a whole bed. The down from dead birds is little esteemed, having lost its elasticity. The king eider duck (_Somateria spectab['i]lis_) is another species resembling the preceding and inhabiting the same coasts.--Cf. J. G. Millais, _British Diving Ducks_.

EIFFEL ([=a]-fel), Alexandre Gustave, French engineer, born in 1832; attended, from 1852 to 1855, the ['E]cole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures at Paris, and devoted himself chiefly to the designing of large structures in iron, especially bridges and viaducts, the great bridge over the Douro being one of his works. His name is best known, however, from the lofty iron tower erected by him in connection with the Paris Exhibition of 1889, rising to the height of 985 feet on the Champ de Mars. He was condemned in 1893 to two years' imprisonment and a fine of 20,000 francs for misappropriation of funds belonging to the Panama Canal Company, but the judgment was set aside on technical grounds. In 1913 he published a work entitled _Resistance of the Air_. See next article.

EIFFEL TOWER, a structure named after the originator, one of the sights of Paris, is by far the loftiest structure in existence, surpassing the Washington Obelisk, the next highest (555 feet), by 430 feet. It cost about L260,000, and was erected partly at the cost of the State, partly by funds provided by Eiffel himself, who formed a company for the purpose. The company derived its profits from the fees which visitors had to pay, but the tower became the property of the State in 1909. The top may be reached by stairs and lifts. The first stage or platform is at the height of 189 feet, and forms a quadrilateral 213 feet square, fitted up as a restaurant. The next platform is at the height of about 380 feet, and is 98 feet square. The third platform is at the height of 906 feet, and is large enough to accommodate a good number of persons, affording a magnificent view. The lantern higher up is supplied with powerful electric searchlights, and on the very summit is a small area utilized chiefly for scientific observations. The tower has been utilized in experiments connected with the fall of bodies, vibration of the pendulum, and pressure of the air. In recent years the tower has become an important wireless telegraphy station.

EIGG (eg), an island on the west coast of Scotland, county of Inverness, about 10 miles from the mainland, and 5 miles long by about 3 broad. It has bold, rocky shores, and terminates to the south in a lofty promontory called the Scuir of Eigg, with a peak of columnar pitchstone porphyry 1339 feet above the sea, and on one side perpendicular as a wall. It is the scene of the massacre, towards the end of the sixteenth century, of 200 Macdonalds by the Macleods of Skye, who suffocated them in a cave where they had taken refuge. Pop. 211.

EIGHT-HOUR DAY. The eight-hour day was proposed in England as early as 1833, and in 1869 the Trade Union Congress of Birmingham formulated the demand that this ideal working day should be adopted throughout the United Kingdom. The Trade Unions and the Socialists sought to secure the establishment of the eight-hour day through legislation, and it gradually came into force not only in coal-mining, but in various trades and industries. The agitation in favour of an eight-hour day became very strong in Europe towards the end of the nineteenth and at the beginning of the twentieth centuries, and in England it was granted to miners in 1908, and to railway employees in 1919. Since the European War the movement has made great headway, and it now forms part of the programme of the Labour parties in almost all European countries.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hedfield and Gibbins, _A Shorter Working Day_; Robertson, _The Eight Hour Question_.

EIGHTY CLUB, THE, a club formed in 1879 by a number of prominent English Liberals with a view to the promotion of the success of Liberalism at the general election of 1880, whence its name. The members lecture on political subjects and address Liberal associations throughout the country. Women were first admitted to membership in 1920.

EIKON BASILIK[=E] ([=i]'kon ba-sil'i-k[=e]; Gr., 'the royal image'), the name of a book published shortly after the execution of Charles I in Jan., 1649, and supposed by some to have been written by the king himself. At the Restoration Gauden, afterwards Bishop of Worcester, laid claim to the authorship, and a memorandum in the copy of the Earl of Anglesea, Lord Privy Seal under Charles II, affirms his claim with the authority of Charles II and the Duke of York. The Royalist Clarendon, author of the _History of the Rebellion_, accepted this statement, but others refused to credit Gauden with the authorship. Within a year of its publication, 48,000 copies of the book were sold, and the republicans put forward Milton to answer it, his _Eikonoklastes_ (that is 'image-breaker') appearing the same year, by order of Parliament. The _Eikon Basilik[=e]_ professes to be a sort of private journal of the king, written in an affectedly dignified strain, and containing numerous assertions of love for his misguided and ungrateful people.--Cf. Almack, _Bibliography of the King's Book, or Eikon Basilik[=e]_.

EILDON HILLS ([=e]l'don), a picturesque hill-mass with three summits, south of Melrose, Roxburghshire, Scotland, reaching a height of nearly 1400 feet, fabled to have been cleft in three by Michael Scott.

EILEITHYIA ([=i]-l[=i]-th[=i]'ya), the Greek name of the ancient Egyptian city Nekheb (the modern El-Kab), on the Nile, some distance above Esneh. Important remains have been obtained from rock-tombs in the neighbourhood, and there are several ruined temples.

EILENBURG ([=i]'l[.e]n-b[u:]r_h_), a town, Prussian Saxony, 26 miles N.N.E. of Merseburg, on an island of the Mulde. It has manufactures of calico. Pop. 17,400.

EIMBECK ([=i]m'bek), or EINBECK, a town of Prussia, province of Hanover, 40 miles south of Hanover, once famous for its beer (_Eimbecker Bier_, whence _Bock_). Pop. 9430.

EINSIEDELN ([=i]n'z[=e]-d[.e]ln), a village and district, Switzerland, in the canton and 9 miles north by east of Schwyz, 3000 feet above the sea, celebrated for its Benedictine abbey. An image of the Virgin, alleged to possess miraculous powers, annually attracts immense numbers of pilgrims. Pop. 8438.

EINSTEIN, Albert (1879- ), physicist, was born at Ulm, W[:u]rtemberg, Germany, of German-Jewish parents. He was educated at the Gymnasium in Munich, and, on leaving school in his sixteenth year, accompanied his parents to Milan. Six months later, he enrolled at the Technical High School in Zurich, where he studied from 1896 to 1900. He held a post in the Swiss Patent Office from 1902 to 1909, then various professorships in Zurich till 1914, when he received a call to the Prussian Academy of Science, Berlin, as successor to van't Hoff. Einstein has been twice married. He has become famous as the author of the Theory of Relativity (q.v.). The 'special theory', which deals chiefly with electrodynamics and optics, was published in 1905, and the 'general theory' or theory of gravitation, about ten years later. His name became popularly known in 1919, after observations made during the solar eclipse of that year had verified his prediction of the bending of rays of light coming from a star and passing close to the sun. He has made other valuable contributions to Theoretical Physics, among these being a theory of the Brownian movements and various important applications of the modern quantum theory of energy. In 1921 he visited the United States and Britain, and delivered many lectures on Relativity.

EISENACH ([=i]'z[.e]n-[=a]_h_), a town of Germany, in the former grand-duchy of Saxe-Weimar, near the mountains of Thuringia, at the junction of the Nesse and H[:o]rsel. It is an attractive town, and contains a palace erected in 1742. It has manufactures of pottery, leather, woollen yarn, &c. Sebastian Bach was born there in 1685. Near it lies the Wartburg, where Luther was kept for safety during 1521 and 1522. Pop. 38,362.

EISENBERG ([=i]'z[.e]n-ber_h_), a town of Germany, former duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, with a palace and various manufactures. Pop. 10,750.

EISLEBEN ([=i]s'l[=a]-b[.e]n), a town, Prussian Saxony, 25 miles north-west of Merseburg, celebrated as the place where Luther was born and where he died. There are many memorials of Luther, and also a bronze statue of the reformer erected in 1883. Copper is extensively worked in the neighbourhood. Pop. 24,630.

EISNER, Kurt, Bavarian revolutionary leader, born in 1867 at Berlin, of a Jewish family. He studied at the University of Marburg, and early acquired a vast erudition. Entering journalism, he contributed to the _Frankfurter Zeitung_, where he published an article attacking the Kaiser. For this he was condemned to nine months' imprisonment. He then wrote for the Socialist press and eventually became editor-in-chief of the _Vorw[:a]rts_. In 1907 he published a work entitled _The Fall of the Empire_ which attracted much attention, and in 1910 he attacked Prussian ascendancy in the _Munich Post_. Eisner took an active part in the Revolution of 1918, and was appointed Prime Minister of Bavaria. A revolutionary and a Socialist, he was, however, opposed to Bolshevism, which he did not hesitate to criticize violently. But his policy of separation, his aim of liberating the South German States, and his constant attacks upon the Kaiser and the whole military caste of Germany, brought him many enemies. Whilst on his way from his house to the Foreign Office he was shot at and killed by Count Arco Valley on 21st Feb., 1919.

EISTEDDFOD ([=i]-steth'v[=o]d; W. _eistedd_, to sit, and _bod_, to be; pl. _eisteddfodau_), an ancient assembly of Welsh bards for the purpose of musical and poetical contests, the judges being originally appointed by commissions from the native princes, and after the conquest from the English kings. There are two kinds of eisteddfodau, the national or general, and the provincial gatherings which take place in many parts of Wales. The last commission was issued by Queen Elizabeth in 1568, but the eisteddfod fell into abeyance during the seventeenth century. In 1798 the ancient custom was revived by the Gwynnedigion Society, and on a more elaborate scale by the Cambrian Society, which grew out of the Gwynnedigion. Eisteddfodau are now held annually in North and South Wales alternately, and are attended by many thousands of people. The festivals of 1919 and 1920 were held at Corwen and at Barry, Glamorgan, respectively.--Cf. Rhys and Brynmor Jones, _The Welsh People_.

EJECT'MENT, in law, an action wherein the title to lands and tenements may be tried and the possession recovered. It is commenced by a writ addressed to the tenant in possession and all entitled to defend the possession, bearing that the plaintiff lays claim to the property in question, and calling upon all interested to appear within a certain time to defend their rights. In its older form the action was remarkable for the curious fictions on which procedure was based. The names of John Doe, an imaginary plaintiff, and of Richard Roe, an imaginary defendant, were familiar in cases of this kind in the English courts until 1852, when the Common Law Procedure Act abolished these fictitious suitors.

EJECTOR, in mechanical engineering, an appliance for ejecting gases, vapours, or liquids from closed spaces by the use of another gas, vapour, or liquid at a higher pressure. For instance, the air may be extracted from a condenser by an ejector. A jet of steam is directed along a short specially-shaped pipe leading from the condenser to the outside atmosphere. The velocity of the steam when it leaves the jet in the pipe is very high, and it blows out into the atmosphere in spite of the atmospheric pressure against it. In blowing out into the atmosphere it sucks the air in the condenser along with it, and after it has been in operation some time practically the whole of the air is sucked out of the condenser. The appliance works on the principle of momentum. The active jet mixes with the material to be ejected and imparts a common momentum to the mixture, which is sufficient to enable it to pass outside the vessel from which the ejection is taking place. The same principle is used in the mercury air-pump (see _Air-pump_).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. E. Dalby, _Steam Power_; _Modern Mechanical Engineering_ (The Gresham Publishing Company).

EKAT'ERINBURG, a town, Russia, in the government and 170 miles S.E. of Perm, founded in 1723 by Peter the Great. It is the mining and metallurgy centre of the Ural regions; and gem-cutting, the making of machinery, cloth, and candles are industries. Pop. 70,000.

EKAT'ERINODAR, a town of Russia in the Caucasus, chief town of the Kuban territory, on the River Kuban, a poorly-built place with a considerable trade. Pop. 107,360.

EKAT'ERINOSLAV, a town of the Ukraine, capital of a government of the same name, on the right bank of the Dnieper, 250 miles N.E. of Odessa. Founded in 1787, it is a manufacturing centre, producing iron, machinery, tobacco, and beer. Pop. 220,100.--The government, which is intersected by the Dnieper and reaches the Sea of Azov, has great mineral wealth, especially in coal (Donetz basin), iron, manganese, and rock-salt; and its fertile black-earth soil produces abundant crops of wheat and other grains. Area, 24,478 sq. miles; pop. 3,537,300.

ELAEAGNA'CEAE, the oleaster family of plants, a small nat. ord. of apetalous dicotyledons scattered over the northern regions. The only British member is the sea-buckthorn (_Hippophae rhamnoides_).

ELA'IN, the oily principle of fat obtained by submitting fat to the action of boiling alcohol, allowing the stearin to crystallize, and then evaporating the alcoholic solution. It is not unlike vegetable oil in its appearance and its properties, and forms soaps with alkalies.

E'LAM, the ancient name of a country on the eastern border of Babylonia. Its civilization dates back beyond 3000 B.C. Before 2000 B.C. it was strong enough to subdue part of Babylonia. Its power was finally broken by the last Assyrian monarchs. The capital was Susa, which became prominent again after the rise of Cyrus. Its splendour during the Persian period is reflected in the _Book of Esther_, in which it is referred to as 'Shushan'.

E'LAND, _Oreas_ (_Orias_) _canna_, a species of antelope inhabiting Africa, the largest of all its kind, being about the size of an ox. Its flesh, especially that of the thighs, which are dried and used in this state, is highly prized. It is now almost extinct south of the Limpopo, but it is plentiful in the Kalahari. The colour is a light or greyish brown, and it possesses a short mane. The horns, which are about 18 inches long and nearly straight, are spirally keeled.

EL'ANUS, the name of certain species of raptorial birds of the genus El[=a]nus, belonging to the kites. The type species is the black-winged kite (_E. caeruleus_) of Africa and South Asia, which strays to South-West Europe. A very similar form (_E. leucurus_) is native to tropical and subtropical America, and other species (_E. scriptus_ and _E. axillaris_) are Australian.

ELAPHOMYCES, a genus of Ascomycetous fungi, section Plectascineae, with closed, subterranean ascus-fruits resembling those of the genuine truffles (Tuberineae), but not closely allied to that family. _E. cervinus_ (Hart's truffle) is not infrequent in Britain; it forms 'mycorhiza' with roots of oak, beech, and various conifers.

E'LAPS, a genus of poisonous American snakes, the type of the family Elapidae, to which belongs the cobra de capello.

EL-ARISH, Egyptian city on the Mediterranean, on the Wadi el-Arish, and chief city of the territory bearing the same name. It was taken by the French under Kl['e]ber in 1799, but abandoned the same year. Pop. about 5000.

ELASMOBRANCHII (-brang'ki-i), a sub-class of fishes, including sharks, dog-fishes, rays (skates); and also Chimaera (q.v.) and its allies. They are predaceous forms, in which the mouth is a transverse slit on the under side of the head, the numerous simple teeth are in several rows (except in chimaeroids), the short intestine possesses a spiral valve and opens into a cloaca. The tail is asymmetrical (heterocercal), and numerous placoid scales (dermal denticles) are embedded in the skin. The skeleton is cartilaginous; the heart possesses a muscular conus arteriosus with numerous rows of pocket-valves; and there are five (sometimes six or seven) pairs of gill-pouches opening by slits to the exterior, these not being covered by an external flap (operculum) except in chimaeroids. Fertilization is internal, and the male is provided with a pair of copulatory organs (claspers) projecting backwards from the pelvic fins. The eggs sometimes develop within the body of the mother, but are usually laid in horny pouches (mermaids' purses). The group is of great antiquity, and many extinct fossil types are known.

ELASMOTHE'RIUM, an extinct genus of Mammalia, found in the post-Pliocene strata of Europe, comprising animals of great size allied to the rhinoceros, and having probably one large horn and a smaller nasal horn.

ELASTIC BITUMEN, ELATERITE, or MINERAL CAOUTCHOUC, an elastic mineral bitumen of a blackish-brown colour, and subtranslucent. It has been found at Castleton, in Derbyshire.

ELASTICITY, the property in virtue of which bodies resist change of volume or of shape, and tend to regain their original bulk or shape when the deforming forces are removed. Solids possess elasticity of volume and of shape. Liquids and gases have elasticity of volume; they resist compression, but offer only a transient resistance to change of shape (see _Viscosity_). The elasticity of a gas is measured by the pressure to which the gas is subjected, if there is no change of temperature. When a gas is compressed suddenly, it has a greater elasticity on account of the rise of temperature which takes place. Liquids are less compressible than gases; water is compressed by about 1 part in 20,000 when the pressure on it is increased by one atmosphere. A knowledge of the elastic properties of solids is of importance in all branches of applied mechanics. Homogeneous solids offer definite resistance to compression, twisting, stretching, and bending, and this resistance is expressed by a number called a modulus. Let the deforming force be reckoned per unit of area, e.g. a pressure in tons per square inch; this is called the stress. The unital deformation produced by the stress is called the strain, for example, compression per unit of volume. The modulus is obtained by dividing the stress by the strain; if this is done with the above example, the ratio will give the bulk modulus. When the applied forces cause change of shape without change of volume, the ratio of stress to strain is called the shape modulus or the rigidity of the material. This property is brought into play when mechanical power is transmitted by means of shafting. Young's modulus is employed in the cases of stretching and bending. It is given by the ratio stretching force per unit area to stretch per unit length. In 1678 Hooke stated the law that stress is proportional to the strain which it causes. This law is found in practice to be true for metals within a certain range of stress which lies below the elastic limit. If the stress is increased beyond this limit, the material begins to give way, and permanent change of shape or volume takes place. In the processes of riveting and wire-drawing, the material is purposely strained beyond the elastic limit, whilst the correct working of a spring balance requires that the spring should never be overstrained. When metals are subjected to frequently repeated stresses, they undergo a weakening and are said to become fatigued, and are liable to give way under a smaller stress than would otherwise cause fracture. The speed with which sound waves are transmitted through a material depends on the elasticity of the material; such compressional waves in water have been employed by the Roumanian engineer, Constantinescu, to transmit power by means of water-pipes.

_Mathematical Theory._--Consider an elastic body at rest and free from strain. Let the body be subjected to forces, fulfilling the ordinary statical conditions of equilibrium, and therefore not tending to give the body any motion of translation or rotation as a whole. The particles of the body will move very slightly relative to each other; in other words, a system of strain will be set up in the body. To maintain this strain a definite system of stress is necessary. The problem for the mathematical theory is to determine the state of strain and stress at every point of the body when the applied forces are given. These applied forces may either be body forces (of which practically the only example is weight), or surface forces; the latter are pressures or tractions, and are defined by their directions and amounts per unit area. It is first of all necessary to show how strain and stress can be specified mathematically.

_Strains._--If x, y, z are the co-ordinates of a point in the unstrained body, and if this point is displaced to (x + u, y + v, z + w) when the straining forces are applied, then u, v, w, which are supposed to be very small, are called the component displacements at (x, y, z). It is clear that if u, v, w were constant, the body would simply be displaced without strain. The state of strain can in fact be shown to depend on the first derivatives of u, v, w with respect to x, y, z. The strain round any given point consists simply of three stretches parallel to a certain set of three mutually perpendicular directions. These directions vary from point to point, so that this specification of the strain is inconvenient for calculations. A suitable method depends on the fact that the strain is known round a point when we know the values of the six quantities

du/dx, dv/dy, dw/dz, dw/dy + dv/dz, du/dz + dw/dx, dv/dx + du/dy,

at the point. These are called the components of strain at (x, y, z). The first three are _stretches_ parallel to the axes, the other three are _shearing_ strains. We may get an idea of the nature of these strains from two simple typical cases. 1. Let u = ex, v = 0, w = 0. This makes du/dx = e, and the other five strains zero. But we see that the displacement of every particle is perpendicular to the yz plane, and proportional to its distance from that plane. Every line parallel to the axis of x is therefore elongated by a definite fraction of its original length, the value of this fraction being e, which is du/dx. The strains du/dx, dv/dy, dw/dz are therefore _stretches_ parallel to the axes. 2. Let u = 0, v = cz, w = 0. This gives dv/dz + du/dy = c, and the other five strains zero. The displacement of every particle is parallel to the axis of y, and proportional to its distance from the plane xy. The strain is therefore a slide, or _shear_ of planes parallel to xy in the direction of the axis of y.

_Stresses._--To specify the stress round a point (x, y, z), consider a small plane area through the point. The material on one side of this acts on the material on the other side with a certain force whose components parallel to the axes are F, G, H, say, per unit area. If we know F, G, H for every orientation of the small plane area, the state of stress round (x, y, z) is defined. But it is easy to show, as below, that we can find F, G, H for every area if we know them for areas parallel to the co-ordinate planes. We are thus led to the specification of the stress round (x, y, z) by the six _components of stress_, [=xx], [=yy], [=zz], [=xy], [=xz], [=yz]; where [=xy], for example, means the force per unit area _parallel_ to Ox exerted on a plane _perpendicular_ to Oy by the material on the positive side of that plane on the material on its negative side. Thus e.g. the components of the force per unit area exerted across the yz plane through (x, y, z) by the material on the positive side of that plane are [=xx], [=xy], [=xz]. It is important to note that [=xy] = [=yx]. This is easily proved by considering the equilibrium of a small rectangular volume of the material round (x, y, z) as centre, with its edges parallel to the axes; if [=xy] were not equal to [=yx], there would be a residual couple in the plane xy.

_Relations between the Strains and the Stresses._--When the strains are known, the stresses can be found from a generalized Hooke's law, which can be deduced from the principle of energy, combined with consideration of symmetry. If the solid is isotropic, i.e. is symmetrical in its elastic properties in all directions round a point, the relations between stress and strain are of the form

[=xx] = [lambda](du/dx + dv/dy + dw/dz) + 2[mu]du/dx,

[=yz] = [mu](dw/dy + dv/dz);

the values of the other four components of strain can be written down from symmetry. Here [lambda] and [mu] are constants, each being a _modulus_ of elasticity. In particular [mu] is the _shape modulus_ or the _rigidity_, already referred to. The Young's modulus and the bulk modulus can easily be found in terms of [lambda] and [mu].

_Equations of Equilibrium in Terms of the Stresses._--A rectangular element dx, dy, dz, of the body is held in equilibrium by the body force, and the tractions on its faces arising from the stress. The tractions per unit area, parallel to the axis of x, on the six faces, are: on the plane x, -[=xx]; on the plane x + dx, [=xx] + (d/dx [=xx])dx; on the plane y, -[=xy]; on the plane y + dy, [=xy] + (d/dy [=xy])dy; and similarly for the plane z. Let the force acting on the mass of the body, such as its weight, be (X, Y, Z) per unit mass, and let [rho] be the density. By equating the sum of the x components of all the forces to zero, we get

d[=xx]/dx + d[=xy]/dy + d[=xz]/dz + [rho]X = 0;

Similarly d[=xy]/dx + d[=yy]/dy + d[=yz]/dz + [rho]Y = 0,

and d[=xz]/dx + d[=yz]/dy + d[=zz]/dz + [rho]Z = 0.

_The Surface Tractions in Terms of the Stresses._--Draw a small tetrahedron round (x, y, z) with its faces perpendicular to the axes and to the direction (l, m, n), and consider the equilibrium of this small body. Let F, G, H be the components per unit area of the force on the plane whose direction cosines, _drawn outwards_, are l, m, n. If A be the area of the face perpendicular to (l, m, n), we get, by resolving parallel to Ox,

F.A = [=xx].lA + [=xy].mA + [=xz].nA.

Hence F = l[=xx] + m[=xy] + n[=xz],

and similarly G = l[=xy] + m[=yy] + n[=yz],

H = l[=xz] + m[=yz] + n[=zz].

If (x, y, z) is a point at the surface of the body, and l, m, n are the direction cosines of the outward normal at that point, these values of F, G, H are the component of the force that must be applied from outside to the surface at (x, y, z) to maintain the state of stress.

_The Equations connecting the Displacements and the Applied Forces._--By using, in the equations of equilibrium, the values of the stresses in terms of the strains, we find the body equations of equilibrium in terms of displacements,

[mu](d^2u/dx^2 + d^2u/dy^2 + d^2u/dz^2) + ([lambda] + [mu])d/dx(du/dx +
dv/dy + dw/dz)
+ X[rho] = 0,

with two similar equations.

The surface equations of equilibrium can also be written down at once by substituting the values of stresses in terms of strains in the expressions for F, G, H given above.

_The Problem of Equilibrium._--To find the strain under given forces we have to solve the body and surface equations of equilibrium, when X, Y, Z and F, G, H are given. This problem has not been completely solved except in a few cases. It was solved by Lam['e] and Lord Kelvin for a solid or hollow sphere; it has also been solved for an infinite solid bounded by two parallel planes, or by a circular cylinder. Many particular solutions, however, are known for bodies of other shapes. Some of these solutions are of great practical value, e.g. St. Venant's solutions for the torsion and flexure of prisms. For bodies in which one or two dimensions are small, i.e. for thin plates and shells, and for thin rods, approximate theories have been given, which are partly deduced from the above exact equations, and partly from plausible hypotheses, a complete treatment based on the exact equations being in most cases impracticable.

_The Problem of Vibrations._--When a body is vibrating, the mass acceleration parallel to Ox of the particle at (x, y, z) is [rho] dx dy dz d^2u/dt^2. The equations of vibration are therefore found by writing - d^2u/dt^2 instead of X, in the first body equation of equilibrium, and similarly with the others. The surface conditions will usually be that F, G, H are zero. The problem has been completely solved by H. Lamb for a solid or hollow sphere. For the elastic solid theory of the luminiferous ether, see _Ether_; for some practical solutions of the general equations of equilibrium, see _Strength of Materials_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. E. H. Love, _Mathematical Theory of Elasticity_; Lord Kelvin and Tait, _Natural Philosophy_; Todhunter and Pearson, _History of Elasticity and Strength of Materials_.

EL'ATERIDAE, the name of a family of beetles, remarkable for their ability to throw themselves to a considerable height in the air, when placed on their back, by a vigorous muscular movement. Hence their names of springing-beetles, click-beetles, skip-jacks, &c. When alarmed, the elater counterfeits death. Flowers, grass, and decaying wood are the habitations of these animals, which are almost always found singly. The larvae are often very injurious to vegetation, especially those which devour the roots of herbaceous plants (as in the genus Agri[=o]tes), and are known from then slenderness and hardness as wire-worms. The fireflies of America belong to the family. In these a pair of luminous organs is found on the thorax, while there is a third on the under side of the base of the abdomen. The _Pyroph[)o]rus noctil[=u]cus_, called _cucujos_ in Brazil, is used as a personal ornament by ladies. The largest species of the genus Elater, the _Elater flabellicornis_, is 2-1/2 inches in length.

ELATE'RIUM, a substance obtained from the fruit of the squirting or wild cucumber (_Ecballium agreste_). The juice of the unripe fruit, when expressed and allowed to stand, deposits elaterium as a green sediment with an acrid taste, a faint odour, and powerful cathartic properties. It is a violent purgative, and is poisonous, but its action is not constant. The active principle in it is called _elaterin_.

ELBA (Lat. _Ilva_), a small island in the Mediterranean, in the province of Livorno (Leghorn), Italy, separated from the mainland by the Strait of Piombino, about 6 miles wide. The island is 18 miles long and from 2-1/2 to 10-1/2 miles broad, and is traversed by mountains rising to a height of over 3000 feet. It is rich in iron, marble, granite, salt, &c.; and iron ore is exported. Excellent wine and fruits are produced. It has two seaports--Porto-Ferrajo (the capital) and Porto-Longone. The Treaty of Paris in 1814 erected Elba into a sovereignty for Napoleon, who resided in it from 4th May, 1814, to 26th Feb., 1815, when he escaped and landed at Cannes on 1st March. After Napoleon's departure the island was restored to Tuscany, which became part of Italy in 1860. Pop. 30,450.

ELBE (elb; Ger., pronounced el'be; Lat. _Albis_; Bohem. _Labe_), an important river in Central Europe. It rises on the south-west slopes of the Schneekoppe or Snowcap, one of the Riesengebirge, between Bohemia and Silesia. From this point it flows nearly due south into Bohemia for about 50 miles, when it turns to the west, and after about 40 miles takes a general north-north-west direction till it falls into the North Sea, intersecting Saxony and a considerable portion of Prussia. The finest scenery of its valley is in the Saxon Switzerland. Its length is 725 miles; drainage area, 56,865 sq. miles. The principal affluents are: on the right, the Iser, Schwarz-Elster, and Havel; on the left, the Alder, Moldau, Eger, Mulde, and Saale. In the lower part of its course the river divides into several arms, which unite again about 5 miles below Hamburg. It is more or less navigable for about 525 miles, but its estuary is much encumbered with sand-banks. In 1870 its navigation was declared free from Hamburg to Melnik in Bohemia. The North Sea and Baltic ship canal connects its estuary with Kiel Bay, and there are other important connected canals. It is well stocked with fish.

ELBERFELD (el'b[.e]r-felt), a town of Rhenish Prussia, in the government of and 15 miles east of D[:u]sseldorf, on both sides of the Wupper, enclosed by lofty hills. Taken with Barmen it stretches along the Wupper valley for about 7 miles. The old streets are narrow and irregular, but the newer quarters are well built. It is a great seat of manufacturing industry, among its leading products being cottons, woollens, silks, velvet, mixed textile goods, buttons, ribbons, lace, yarns, thread, carpets, aniline dyes, iron and steel, machinery, pianofortes, and paper. Calico-printing, dyeing, and bleaching are very extensively carried on. It has given its name to a system of poor relief, combining organized voluntary effort and individual treatment. Pop. 170,195.

ELBEUF (el-beuf), a town of France, department of Seine-Inf['e]rieure, 11 miles S.S.W. of Rouen, in a valley on the left bank of the Seine, connected by two bridges with St. Aubin on the opposite side of the river. It is an important centre for the production of woollen manufactures, chiefly of lighter cloths and fancy goods, and is also an entrep[^o]t for the finer and heavier cloths of Louviers and Sedan. It communicates by steamers with Paris, Rouen, and Havre. Pop. 19,240.

ELBING, a seaport town of West Prussia, on the Elbing, near its entrance into the Frische-Haff. It was once a flourishing Hanse town, and is still a place of considerable industry and trade, the manufactures including iron goods, machinery, brass and tinplate goods. It has also shipbuilding yards. Pop. 58,636.

ELBURZ, a lofty mountain range extending over Northern Persia, parallel with and overlooking the Caspian. Highest peak, Mt. Demavend, 19,400 feet; average height, 6000 to 8000 feet.

ELCESAITES (el-ses'a-[=i]ts), a sect of Gnostics which arose in the reign of Trajan about the beginning of the second century. They were a branch of the Essenes, and resembled the Ebionites. A Jew, named Elxai, or Elkesai, is their reputed founder.

ELCHE (el'ch[=a]), a town of Spain, in the province and 14 miles W.S.W. of Alicante, on the left bank of the Vinalopo, surrounded by palm trees. It contains various Roman remains, a fine church, and a town house of the fifteenth century. Chief industry, the culture of dates. Each summer, from the 13th to the 15th of August, an interesting f[^e]te is held at Elche, and a fourteenth century liturgical drama (_The Representation of the Assumption of Our Lady St. Mary_) is performed. Pop. 27,620.

ELCHINGEN (el'_h_ing-en), OBER and UNTER, two villages of Bavaria, on the left bank of the Danube, about 3 miles apart and 8 miles north-east of Ulm. In 1805 Marshal Ney defeated the Austrians at Ober Elchingen, and won for himself the title of Duke of Elchingen.

ELDER, a name given to different species of the genus Samb[=u]cus, nat. ord. Caprifoliaceae. These are small trees or shrubs, with opposite and pinnated leaves, bearing small white flowers in large and conspicuous corymbs, small berries of a black or red colour, and bitter and nauseous leaves possessing purgative and emetic properties. The wood of the young shoots contains a very large proportion of pith. The common elder of Britain (_S. nigra_) is a wild shrub or small tree, distinguishable by its winged leaves, its clusters of small, cream-white flowers, and the small black berries by which these are succeeded, and from which a kind of wine is sometimes made. The dwarf elder or danewort (_S. Ebulus_) is also found in many parts of Britain, and was popularly supposed to have sprung from the blood of the Danes. Two species inhabit North America: _S. canadensis_, a common plant from the 49th to the 30th parallel of latitude, the berries of which are black and have a sweet taste; and _S. pubescens_, which bears red berries, and inhabits Canada, the northern parts of New England, and the Alleghany Mountains. Elder wood is yellow, and in old trees becomes so hard that it is often substituted for box-wood. Its toughness, also, is such that it is made into skewers and tops for fishing-rods. The light pith is utilized for balls for electric experiments, and various ointments, drinks, and medicinal decoctions are made from the bark, leaves, flowers, and berries.