Chapter IV: Animal-Worship (2)

The evidence that cows were freely slaughtered in ancient times could be largely extended. It is laid down in the early laws that the meat of milch cows and oxen may be eaten, and a guest is called a Goghna or "cow-killer," because a cow was killed for his entertainment. [615] In the Grihya Sûtra we have a description of the sacrifice of an ox to Kshetrapati, "the lord of the fields." In another ancient ritual the sacrifice of a cow is stated to be very similar to that of the Satî, and, according to an early legend, kine were created from Parusha, the primal male, and are to be eaten as they were formed from the receptacle of food. [616]

It need hardly be said that the worship of the cow is not peculiar to India, but prevails widely in various parts of the world. [617]

Origin of Cow-worship.

The explanation of the origin of cow-worship has been a subject of much controversy. The modern Hindu, if he has formed any distinct ideas at all on the subject, bases his respect for the cow on her value for supplying milk, and for general agricultural purposes. The Panchagâvya, or five products of the cow--milk, curds, butter, urine, and dung--are efficacious as scarers of demons, are used as remedies in disease, and play a very important part in domestic ritual Gaurochana, a bright yellow pigment prepared from the urine or bile of the cow, or, as is said by some, vomited by her or found in her head, is used for making the sectarial mark, and as a sedative, tonic, and anthelmintic. In Bombay it is specially used as a remedy for measles, which is considered to be a spirit disease. [618]

There is, again, something to be said for the theory which finds in these animals tribal totems and fetishes. [619] We have a parallel case among the Jews, where the bull was probably the ancient symbol of the Hyksos, which the Israelites having succeeded them could adopt, especially as it may have been retained in use by their confederates the Midianites; and it appears in the earliest annals of Israel as a token of the former supremacy of Joseph and his tribe, and was subsequently adopted as an image of Iahveh himself.

So, speaking of Egypt, Mr. Frazer writes: "Osiris was regularly identified with the bull Apis of Memphis and the bull Mnevis of Heliopolis. But it is hard to say whether these bulls were embodiments of him as the corn spirit, as the red oxen appear to have been, or whether they were not entirely distinct deities which got fused with Osiris by syncretism. The fact that these two bulls were worshipped by all the Egyptians, seems to put them on a different footing from the ordinary sacred animals, whose cults were purely local. Hence, if the latter were evolved from totems, as they probably were, some other origin would have to be found for the worship of Apis and Mnevis. If these bulls were not originally embodiments of the corn god Osiris, they may possibly be descendants of the sacred cattle worshipped by a pastoral people. If this were so, ancient Egypt would exhibit a stratification of the three great types of religion corresponding to the three great stages of society. Totemism or (roughly speaking) the worship of wild animals--the religion of society in the hunting stage--would be represented by the worship of the local sacred animals; the worship of cattle--the religion of society in the pastoral stage--would be represented by the cults of Apis and Mnevis; and the worship of cultivated plants, especially of corn--the religion of society in the agricultural stage--would be represented by the worship of Osiris and Isis. The Egyptian reverence for cows, which were never killed, might belong either to the second or third of these stages." [620]

There is some evidence that the same process of religious development may have taken place in India. It is at least significant that the earlier legends represent Indra as created from a cow; and we know that Indra was the Kuladevatâ or family godling of the race of the Kusikas, as Krishna was probably the clan deity of some powerful confederation of Râjput tribes. Cow-worship is thus closely connected with Indra and with Krishna in his forms as the "herdman god," Govinda or Gopâla; and it is at least plausible to conjecture that the worship of the cow may have been due to the absorption of the animal as a tribal totem of the two races, who venerated these two divinities.

Further, the phallic significance of the worship, in its modern form at least, and its connection with fertility cannot be altogether ignored. [621] This is particularly shown in the close connection between Siva's bull Nandi and the Lingam worship; and there seems reason to suspect that the bull is intended to intercept the evil influences which in the popular belief are continually emitted from the female principle through the Yonî. As we have already seen, the dread of this form of pollution is universal. Hence when the Lingam is set up in a new village the people are careful in turning the spout of the Yonî towards the jungle, and not in the direction of the roads and houses, lest its evil influence should be communicated to them; and in order still further to secure this object, the bull Nandi is placed sitting as a guardian between the Yonî and the inhabited site. [622]

Cow-worship assumes another form in connection with the theory of transmigration. It has become part of the theory that the soul migrates into the cow immediately preceding its assumption of the human form, and she escorts the soul across the dreaded river Vaitaranî, which bounds the lower world.

Cow-worship: Its Later Development.

Though cow-worship was little known in the Vedic period, by the time of the compilation of the Institutes of Manu it had become part of the popular belief. He classes the slaughter of a cow or bull among the deadly sins; "the preserver of a cow or a Brâhman atones for the crime of killing a priest;" [623] and we find constant references in the mediæval folk-lore to the impiety of the Savaras and other Drâvidian races who killed and ate the sacred animal. Saktideva one day, "as he was standing on the roof of his palace, saw a Chandâla coming along with a load of cow's flesh, and said to his beloved Vindumatî: 'Look, slender one! How can the evil-doer eat the flesh of cows, that are the object of veneration to the three worlds?' Then Vindumatî, hearing that, said to her husband: 'The wickedness of this act is inconceivable; what can we say in palliation of it? I have been born in this race of fishermen for a very small offence owing to the might of cows. But what can atone for this man's sin?'" [624]

Re-birth through the Cow.

When the horoscope forebodes some crime or special calamity, the child is clothed in scarlet, a colour which repels evil influences, and tied on the back of a new sieve, which, as we have seen, is a powerful fetish. This is passed through the hindlegs of a cow, forward through the forelegs towards the mouth, and again in the reverse direction, signifying the new birth from the sacred animal. The usual worship and aspersion take place, and the father smells his child, as the cow smells her calf. This rite is known as the Hiranyagarbha, and not long since the Mahârâja of Travancore was passed in this way through a cow of gold. [625]

The same idea is illustrated in the legend of the Pushkar Lake, which probably represents a case of that fusion of races which undoubtedly occurred in ancient times. The story runs that Brahma proposed to do worship there, but was perplexed where he should perform the sacrifice, as he had no temple on earth like the other gods. So he collected all the other gods, but the sacrifice could not proceed as Savitrî alone was absent; and she refused to come without Lakshmî, Pârvatî, and Indrânî. On hearing of her refusal, Brahma was wroth, and said to Indra: "Search me out a girl that I may marry her and commence the sacrifice, for the jar of ambrosia weighs heavy on my head." Accordingly Indra went and found none but a Gûjar's daughter, whom he purified, and passing her through the body of a cow, brought her to Brahma, telling him what he had done. Vishnu said: "Brâhmans and cows are really identical; you have taken her from the womb of a cow, and this may be considered a second birth." Siva said: "As she has passed through a cow, she shall be called Gâyatrî." The Brâhmans agreed that the sacrifice might now proceed; and Brahma having married Gâyatrî, and having enjoined silence upon her, placed on her head the jar of ambrosia and the sacrifice was performed. [626]

Respect Paid to the Cow.

The respect paid to the cow appears everywhere in folk-lore. We have the cow Kâmadhenû, known also as Kâmadughâ or Kâmaduh, the cow of plenty, Savalâ, "the spotted one," and Surabhî, "the fragrant one," which grants all desires. Among many of the lower castes the cow-shed becomes the family temple. [627] In the old ritual, the bride, on entering her husband's house, was placed on a red bull's hide as a sign that she was received into the tribe, and in the Soma sacrifice the stones whence the liquor was produced were laid on the hide of a bull. When a disputed boundary is under settlement, a cow skin is placed over the head and shoulders of the arbitrator, who is thus imbued with the divine influence, and gives a just decision. It is curious that until quite recently there was a custom in the Hebrides of sewing up a man in the hide of a bull, and leaving him for the night on a hill-top, that he might become a spirit medium. [628] The pious Hindu touches the cow's tail at the moment of dissolution, and by her aid he is carried across the dread river of death. I have more than once seen a criminal ascend the scaffold with the utmost composure when he was allowed to grasp a cow's tail before the hangman did his office. The tail of the cow is also used in the marriage ritual, and the tail of the wild cow, though nowadays only used by grooms, was once the symbol of power, and waved over the ruler to protect him from evil spirits. Quite recently I found that one of the chief Brâhman priests at the sacred pool of Hardwâr keeps a wild cow's tail to wave over his clients, and scare demons from them when they are bathing in the Brahma Kund or sacred pool.

The Hill legend tells how Siva once manifested himself in his fiery form, and Vishnu and Brahma went in various directions to see how far the light extended. On their return Vishnu declared that he had been unable to find out how far the light prevailed; but Brahma said that he had gone beyond its limits. Vishnu then called on Kâmadhenû, the celestial cow, to bear testimony, and she corroborated Brahma with her tongue, but she shook her tail by way of denying the statement. So Vishnu cursed her that her mouth should be impure, but that her tail should be held holy for ever. [629]

Modern Cow-worship.

There are numerous instances of modern cow-worship. The Jâts and Gûjars adore her under the title of Gâû Mâtâ, "Mother cow." The cattle are decorated and supplied with special food on the Gopashtamî or Gokulashtamî festival, which is held in connection with the Krishna cultus. In Nepâl there is a Newâri festival, known as the Gâê Jâtra, or cow feast, when all persons who have lost relations during the year ought to disguise themselves as cows and dance round the palace of the king. [630] In many of the Central Indian States, about the time of the Diwâlî, the Maun Charâûn, or silent tending of cattle, is performed. The celebrants rise at daybreak, wash and bathe, anoint their bodies with oil, and hang garlands of flowers round their necks. All this time they remain silent and communicate their wants by signs. When all is ready they go to the pasture in procession in perfect silence. Each of them holds a peacock's feather over his shoulder to scare demons. They remain in silence with the cattle for an hour or two, and then return home. This is followed by an entertainment of wrestling among the Ahîrs or cowherds. When night has come, a gun is fired, and the Mahârâja breaks his fast and speaks. The rite is said to be in commemoration of Krishna feeding the cows in the pastures of the land of Braj. [631]

During an eclipse, the cow, if in calf, is rubbed on the horns and belly with red ochre to repel the evil influence, and prevent the calf being born blemished. Cattle are not worked on the Amâvas or Ides of the month. There are many devices, such as burning tiger's flesh, and similar prophylactics, in the cow-house to drive away the demon of disease. So, on New Year's Day the Highlander used to fumigate his cattle shed with the smoke of juniper. [632] Cow hair is regarded as an amulet against disease and danger, in the same way as the hair of the yak was valued by the people of Central Asia in the time of Marco Polo. [633] An ox with a fleshy excrescence on his eye is regarded as sacred, and is known as Nadiya or Nandi, "the happy one," the title of the bull of Siva. He is not used for agriculture, but given to a Jogi, who covers him with cowry shells, and carries him about on begging excursions. One of the most unpleasant sights at the great bathing fairs, such as those of Prayâg or Hardwâr, is the malformed cows and oxen which beggars of this class carry about and exhibit. The Gonds kill a cow at a funeral, and hang the tail on the grave as a sign that the ceremonies have been duly performed. [634] The Kurkus sprinkle the blood of a cow on the grave, and believe that if this be not done the spirit of the departed refuses to rest, and returns upon earth to haunt the survivors. [635] The Vrishotsarga practised by Hindus on the eleventh day after death, when a bull calf is branded and let loose in the name of deceased, is apparently an attempt to shift on the animal the burden of the sins of the dead man, if it be not a survival of an actual sacrifice.

Feeling against Cow-killing.

Of the unhappy agitation against cow-killing, which has been in recent years such a serious problem to the British Government in Northern India, nothing further can be said here. To the orthodox Hindu, killing a cow, even accidentally, is a serious matter, and involves the feeding of Brâhmans and the performance of pilgrimages. In the Hills a special ritual is prescribed in the event of a plough ox being killed by accident. [636] The idea that misfortune follows the killing of a cow is common. It used to be said that storms arose on the Pîr Panjâl Pass in Kashmîr if a cow was killed. [637]

General Sleeman gives a case at Sâgar, where an epidemic was attributed to the practice of cattle slaughter, and a popular movement arose for its suppression. [638] Sindhia offered Sir John Malcolm in 1802 an additional cession of territory if he would introduce an article into the Treaty with the British Government prohibiting the slaughter of cows within the territory he had been already compelled to abandon. The Emperor Akbar ordered that cattle should not be killed during the Pachûsar, or twelve sacred days observed by the Jainas; Sir John Malcolm gives a copy of the original Firmân. [639] Cow-killing is to this day prohibited in orthodox Hindu States, like Nepâl.

Bull-worship among Banjâras.

There is a good example of bull-worship among the wandering tribe of Banjâras. "When sickness occurs, they lead the sick man to the foot of the bullock called Hatâdiya; for though they say that they pay reverence to images, and that their religion is that of the Sikhs, the object of their worship is this Hatâdiya, a bullock devoted to the god Bâlajî. On this animal no burden is ever laid, but he is decorated with streamers of red-dyed silk and tinkling bells, with many brass chains and rings on neck and feet, and strings of cowry shells and silken tassels hanging in all directions. He moves steadily at the head of the convoy, and the place he lies down on when tired, that they make their halting-place for the day. At his feet they make their vows when difficulties overtake them, and in illness, whether of themselves or cattle, they trust to his worship for a cure." The respect paid by Banjâras to cattle seems, however, to be diminishing. Once upon a time they would never sell cattle to a butcher, but nowadays it is an every-day occurrence. [640]

Superstitions about Cattle.

Infinite are the superstitions about cattle, their marks, and every kind of peculiarity connected with them, and this has been embodied in a great mass of rural rhymes and proverbs which are always on the lips of the people. Thus, for instance, it is unlucky for a cow to calve in the month of Bhâdon. The remedy is to swim it in a stream, sell it to a Muhammadan, or in the last resort give it away to a Gujarâti Brâhman. Here may be noticed the curious prejudice against the use of a cow's milk, which prevails among some tribes such as the Hos and some of the aboriginal tribes of Bengal. The latter use a species of wild cattle, the Mithun, for milking purposes, but will not touch the milk of the ordinary cow. [641]

The Buffalo.

The respect paid to the cow does not fully extend to the buffalo. The buffalo is the vehicle of Yama, the god of death. The female buffalo is in Western India regarded as the incarnation of Savitrî, wife of Brahma, the Creator. Durgâ or Bhavânî killed the buffalo-shaped Asura Mahisa, Mahisâsura, after whom Maisûr is called. According to the legend as told in the Mârkandeya Purâna, Ditî, having lost all her sons, the Asuras, in the fight with the gods, turned herself into a buffalo in order to annihilate them. She underwent such terrible austerities to propitiate Brahma, that the whole world was shaken and the saint Suparsva disturbed at his devotions. He cursed Ditî that her son should be in the shape of a buffalo, but Brahma so far mitigated the curse that only his head was to be that of a buffalo. This was Mahisâsura, who ill-treated the gods, until they appealed to Vishnu and Siva, who jointly produced a lovely representation of a Bhavânî, the Mahisâsurmardanî, who slew the monster. This Mahisâsura is supposed to be the origin of the godling Mahasoba, worshipped in Western India in the form of a rude stone covered with red lead.

Another of these buffalo demons is Dundubhi, "he that roars like the sound of the kettle-drum," who in the Râmâyana bursts with his horns the cavern of Bali, son of Indra and king of monkeys. Bali seized him by the horns and dashed him to pieces. The comparative mythologists regard him as one of the forms of the cloud monster the sun. [642]

Sadasiva, one of the forms of Mahâdeva, took the form of a buffalo to escape the Pândavas, and sank into the ground at Kedârnâth. The upper portion of his body is said to have come to the surface at Mukhâr Bind in Nepâl, where he is worshipped as Pasupatinâtha. When the Pândavas were freed from their guilt, they in their gratitude built five temples in honour of the hinder parts of the deity, which are now known as the Pânch Kedâr-Kedarnâth, Madhya Maheswar, Rudranâth, Tungunâth, and Kalpeswar.

The buffalo is constantly sacrificed at shrines in honour of Durgâ Devî. The Toda worship of the buffalo is familiar to all students of Indian ethnology.

The Antelope.

The black buck was in all probability the tribal totem of some of the races occupying the country anciently known as Âryâvarta. Mr. Campbell accounts for the respect paid to the animal by the use of hartshorn as a remedy for faintness, swoons, and nervous disorders. [643] But this hardly explains the respect paid to it, and the use of its dung by the Bengal Parhaiyas instead of cowdung to smear their floors looks as if it were based on totemism. [644] This too is shown by the regard paid its skin. As Mr. Frazer has proved, it is a custom among many savage tribes to retain the skin as an image of the deity which the animal represented. [645] Hence according to the old ritual, the skin of the antelope was the prescribed dress of the student of theology, and it is still the seat of the ascetic. [646]

The antelope constantly appears in the folk-tales as a sort of Deus ex machinâ, which leads the hero astray in the chase and brings him to the home of the ogress or the ensorcelled maiden. [647] In the Mahâbhârata, the King Parîkshit is led astray by a gazelle, and King Pându dies when he meets his wife Madrî, because he had once killed under similar circumstances a gazelle with his mate. In the Vishnu Purâna, Bharata loses the fruits of his austerities by becoming enamoured of a fawn. These fairy hinds appear throughout the whole range of folk-lore. A Nepâlese legend tells how the three gods Vishnu, Siva, and Brahma once appeared in the form of deer, whence the place where they were seen is known as Mrigasthali. [648]

The Elephant.

The elephant naturally claims worship as the type of strength and wisdom. To the rustic he impersonates Ganesa, the god of wisdom, the remover of obstacles, who is propitiated at the commencement of any important enterprise, such as marriage and the like. Many legends are told to account for his elephant head. One tells how his mother Pârvatî was so proud of her baby that she asked Sani to look at him, forgetting the baneful effects of the look of the ill-omened deity. When he looked at the child its head was burned to ashes, and Brahma, to console her, told her to fix on the first head she could find, which happened to be that of the elephant. By another account she put Ganesa to guard the door while she was bathing, and when he refused to allow Siva to enter, the angry god cut off his head, which was afterwards replaced by that of the elephant. Again, one of his tusks was broken off by Parasurâma with the axe which Siva, father of Ganesa, had given him.

Again, there are the Lokapâlas, the eight supporters of the world. These eight pairs of elephants support the earth. Indra with Airâvata and Abhramu support the east; Agni with Pundarîka and Kapilâ the south-east; Yama with Vâmana and Pingalâ the south; Sûrya with Kumuda and Anupamâ the south-west; Varuna with Anjana and Anjanavatî the west; Vâyu with Pushpadanta and Subhadantî the north-west; Kuvera on the north with Sarvabhauma, and Soma on the north-east with Supratîka. As usual, there are differences in the enumeration.

From these all the modern elephants are descended. As Abul Fazl writes: "When occasion arises people read incantations in their names and address them in worship. They also think that every elephant in the world is offspring of one of them. Thus, elephants of a white skin and white hairs are related to the first, and elephants with a large head and long ears, of a fierce and bold temper, and eyelids far apart, belong to the second. Such as are good-looking, black, and high in the back, are the offspring of the third. If tall, ungovernable, quick in understanding, short-haired, and with red and black eyes, they come from the fourth. If bright black, with one tusk longer than the other, with a white breast and belly, and long and thick forefeet, from the fifth. If fearful, with prominent veins, a short hump and ears, and a long trunk, from the sixth. If thin-bellied, red-eyed, and with a long trunk, from the seventh. And if of a combination of the preceding seven qualities, from the eighth." [649]

Through India the reverence for the white elephant of Burma and Siam has arisen. The figure of the elephant appears on some of the pillars of Asoka. There is an elephant gate at Fatehpur Sîkri, one of the King Huvishka at Mathura, and another connected with the dynasty of Kanauj at Dabhâon in the Azamgarh District. Delhi contains the remarkable elephant statues, believed by General Cunningham to have been erected in honour of Jaymal and Patta, the two Râjput heroes who defended the Fort of Chithor against Akbar. [650]

The elephant constantly occurs in folk-lore. In the projection of its forehead it possesses a pearl, known as the Kunjara Mani, or Gaja Mukta, which is invested with magical qualities. In the folk-tales the wooden horse of Troy is represented by an artificial elephant filled with soldiers; other elephants have the power of flying through the air; in other stories, as in one of La Fontaine's fables, an elephant selects a king by raising him up with his trunk; the elephant Kuvalyapîda is the guardian of a kingdom, and touching an elephant is one of the tests of a woman's chastity. We have also numerous instances of the metamorphosis of human beings into elephants. [651]

The hair of the elephant's tail is in high repute as an amulet, and little village children, when an elephant passes, pat the dust where his feet have rested and sing a song, of which one version is--

Hâthi hâthi, bâr dé
Sone kî tarwâr dé--

"Give us a hair, elephant, like a sword of gold."

In Europe, it may be noted, the hair from the tail of a horse is commonly regarded as a cure for wens. [652]

In the Fatehpur District there is an elephant turned into stone. The famous Jaychand of Kanauj, it is said, as in the Carthage legend, offered to Parâsara Rishi as many villages as an elephant could walk round. It traversed an enormous extent of country, and finally halted at Irâdatnagar, where it was turned into stone, and once a year an enormous fair is held in its honour. [653]

The Cat.

The cat is everywhere invested with demoniac qualities, and is the companion of the witch. In "Macbeth" the first witch says, "Thrice the brinded cat has mewed." Among Muhammadans the cat is a pure animal, and to kill a cat is very unlucky, and brings on trouble and sickness. So, among Hindus, the killing of a cat can be expiated only by the performance of the rite known as the Prajapati Yajna, which secures the birth of male issue. They say that Mahâdeva and Pârvatî were one day playing dice, and Pârvatî called in Ganesa in his form as a rat to upset the dice with his tail and cause her to make a good throw. Mahâdeva was wroth, and called in a demon like a cat, but he was afraid to kill Ganesa. Then Mahâdeva cursed any one in after days who should kill a cat. We have the same tale in the Rasâlu cycle, where the rat of Dhol Râja changes the course of the game between him and Râja Sarkap. The cat is respected because she is the vehicle of Shashthî, the protectress of children, and part of the orthodox Hindu rite at dinner is giving food to the cat. Among the Orâons, as we have seen, the birth fiend Chordeva comes in the form of a cat.

The Rat and Mouse.

The rat is sacred as the vehicle of Ganesa. In Bombay, "to call a rat a rat is considered by lower classes of Hindus as unlucky, and so they call him Undir Mâma, or 'the rat uncle.' He is so called because he is probably supposed to be the spirit of an uncle. It is considered a great sin to kill a rat, and so, when rats give trouble in a house, the women of the house make a vow to them that, if they cease troubling, sweet balls will be given to them on a certain day, and it is believed by the Hindus that when such a vow has been made, the rats cease troubling them for some time." [654] In parts of England it is believed that a field mouse creeping over the back of a sheep gives it paralysis, and that this can be cured only by shutting up a mouse in a hollow of the trunk of the witch elm or witch hazel tree and leaving it to die of famine. [655]

The curiously deformed idiot boys which are collected at the shrine of Shâh Daula at Gujarât are known from their wizened appearance as the rats of Shâh Daula. [656]

The Squirrel.

The little Indian squirrel is called in the Panjâb Râma Chandra Kâ Bhagat, or the saint of Râma Chandra, because when he was building the bridge across the strait to Lanka, the squirrel helped by shaking dust from his tail, and the god stroked it on the back, hence the dark marks which it bears to the present day. Many of the Drâvidian tribes claim descent from the squirrel.

The Bear.

The bear is regarded as a scarer of disease, and sickly children are taken for a ride on the back of a tame bear or one of his hairs is worn round the neck as an amulet. It was Jâmbavat, the king of the bears, who carried off the celebrated amulet, Syamantaka. He was pursued by Krishna, to whom he surrendered the gem and gave him his daughter Jâmbavatî to wife. He afterwards with his army of bears assisted Râma in his invasion of Lanka.

The Jackal.

The jackal is an important character in the folk-tales, where he assumes the part taken in Europe by the fox. Many are the tales told of his acuteness. The pack is supposed to howl only at each watch of the night, and the leader says, Main Dilli kâ Bâdshâh hûn--"I am King of Delhi" thrice, and his companions say, Ho! ho! ho!--"Yes! of course you are."

The Hare.

Of the hare in the moon we have spoken already, and also referred to the animal in connection with omens. In Cornwall, when a girl has loved not wisely but too well, she haunts her deceiver in the shape of a white hare. [657]

Birds: The Crow.

Passing on to birds, the crow is a famous totem or sacred bird. [658] It personifies in Indian tradition the soul of the dead man; hence, to give food to the crows, known in Northern India as Kâgaur, is equivalent to offering food to the Manes. Râma in the Râmâyana orders Sîtâ to make this offering, and Yama, in reward for its services, conceded to it the right of eating the funeral meats, for which reason the souls of the dead, when this food is given to the crows, are enabled to pass into a better world. Hence the bird is known as Balipushta or "nourished by offerings," and Balibhuj or "devourer of oblations." [659]

In the Mahâbhârata, the son of Drona, one of the few survivors of the Kauravas, sees an owl killing the crows on a sacred fig tree, and this suggests to him the idea of attacking the camp of the Pândavas. This contest of the owl and the crow forms the subject of one of the tales of Somadeva. [660] The incident of the wicked crow, which bit the foot of Sîtâ, is related in the Râmâyana. The Bhâtus of Central India, a class of migratory athletes, worship Nârâyana and the bamboo, with which all their feats are performed. When they bury their dead they place rice and oil at the head of the grave, and stand near to worship whatever animal comes to eat the offerings. They draw the happiest omen of the state of the departed from crows visiting the spot. [661]

In the Garuda Purâna a tale is told of a wicked hunter who was killed by a tiger in the depths of the forest, and his ghost became a troublesome Bhût, until one day a crow carried off one of the bones and dropped it into the Ganges, when the sinner was at once carried in a heavenly chariot to the mansions of the blessed. This legend is localized in the Hills and tells how Karma Sarma was killed by a tiger in the forest. A crow took up one of his bones and carried it to the shrine at Tungkshetra, and such is the virtue of the soil there that the hunter was at once carried off to the heaven of Indra. [662]

Bhusundi is the legendary crow of the battlefield, who drinks the blood of the slain. He had more blood than he could drink in the wars of the two Asuras, Sumbha and Nisumbha, who contended with the gods. He just quenched his thirst in the wars of Râma, but broke his beak against the hard, dry ground, which had soaked in the small amount of blood shed by the comparatively degenerate heroes of the Mahâbhârata. He now croaks over the armies as they go out to war, and looks for some Armageddon, when his thirst will at last be satisfied.

Manifold are the ideas about crows and omens taken from their appearance and cawing. Some people think a crow has only one eye, which he shifts from one cavity to the other as he finds it convenient. In the Panjâb, if a crow picks up a woman's handkerchief and then drops it, she will not use it, but gives it to a beggar. [663] The brains of a crow are a specific against old age, but the cawing of a crow is ominous at the beginning of a journey. If a crow hops and caws on the roof a guest may be expected. Musalmâns have both fear and respect for the crow, because it was he showed Cain how to bury Abel.

The Hand of Glory.

It is a common belief in Europe that the Hand of Glory, or the dried-up hand of a criminal who has been executed, is a powerful charm for thieves. In Ireland, "if a candle is placed in a dead hand, neither wind nor water can extinguish it, and if carried into a house, the inmates will sleep the sleep of the dead as long as it remains under the roof, and no power on earth can wake them as long as the dead hand holds the candle." The hand of a dead man is also used to stir the milk when butter will not form. [664] So, in Northern India, thieves have a superstition that the ashes of a corpse will, if sprinkled by the door of a house, prevent the inmates from awaking during the commission of a burglary. The Hand of Glory, according to Sir G. Cox, is "the light flashing from the dim and dusky storm-cloud," [665] but this can hardly, with the utmost ingenuity, be invoked to explain the similar usage of Indian burglars, who carry about with them the stick out of a crow's nest, the Gad kî Lakrî, which opens locks and holds the household spell-bound. The Indian thief, like his English brother, by the way, often carries about a piece of charcoal as a charm in his operations.

The Fowl.

Among some of the Indian races the value set on the fowl may possibly, as Mr. Campbell suggests, depend on the feeling that the spirits of the dead wandering near their ancient homes find an asylum in the domestic fowls. [666] At any rate, as a sacrifice, the black fowl is very generally preferred. This is so among the Drâvidian races of Central India. In Ireland the first egg laid by a little black hen, eaten the very first thing in the morning, will keep you from fever for the year. [667] In Germany it was held that to find treasure, that is to say, to scare the fiends which guard and hide it, one should use a black he-goat and a black fowl. [668]

One of the Italian charms directs, "To bewitch one till he die, take a black hen and pluck from it every feather; and this done, keep them all carefully, so that not one be lost. With these you may do any harm to grown-up people or children." [669] Another possible reason for the respect paid to the fowl is that the corn spirit is often killed in the form of a cock to promote the periodical vegetation of the crops.

The Dove and Pigeon.

The dove is held in much respect by Musalmâns. "Among the Northern Semites the dove is sacred to Ashtoreth and has all the marks of a totem, for the Syrians would not eat it. It was not merely a symbol, but received divine honour. In Arabia we find a dove idol in the Qaaba, and sacred doves surround it." [670] So, the Kheshgi Pathâns of Qasûr in the Panjâb will not kill pigeons; they are similarly protected by Hindus at Bharatpur, and among Muhammadans they rank as the Sayyid among birds. In Northern India a house with pigeons is supposed to be safe from ghosts. The dove is believed to utter a peculiar note four times in succession, in which she bewails her neglected lover. She says,--

Pisûn thi, kâtûn thi:
Ayâ thâ, chalâ gayâ.

"While I was grinding flour and spinning, he came and departed." [671]

The Goose or Swan.

The goose or swan is possibly an illustration of what may be a tribal totem. It is said in the Bhâgavata Purâna that at one time there existed one Veda, one god Agni, and one caste. This we learn from the commentator was in the Krita age, and the one caste he tells us of was named Hansa or Swan. The Hansas are, again, in the Vishnu Purâna, said to be one of four castes or tribes existing in a district exterior to India, and finally we learn from the Linga Purâna that Hansa was a name of Brahma himself. It is reasonable to suppose that we have a swan tribe in the Indian Hansas. [672] As an argument in favour of the theory that the Hansa was a tribal totem, we find that the Kalhans Râjputs of Oudh are said to take their name from the Kâla Hansa or Black Swan; that Râjputs nowadays will not eat it; and that the same respect is shown to a bird of allied type, the Brâhmani Duck, and its mate, the Chakwa, Chakwi of our rivers. They were once two lovers, separated by fate, changed into ducks, and all through the night they call sadly to each other across the broad stream of the Ganges, which keeps them apart.

To the Hansa is ascribed the fabulous power of being able to separate milk from water after the two have been mixed together. [673] In England the goose is supposed to have some uncanny way of predicting weather. [674] In Welsh belief the wild goose is a witch, especially if first seen on the first Thursday night of the lunar month. [675] The ancient Greeks ascribed to the swan the gift of prophecy and song; the sacred geese of the capital were respected at Rome, and the ancient Germans considered it a prophetic bird. The goose was a favourite Buddhist emblem, and a flock of them is depicted on the Lion Pillar at Betiya in Tirhût. [676]

In the story of Nala and Damayantî, a flock of these birds arranges the interviews between the lovers, and in the Mahâbhârata the Rishis take the form of a swan to convey the divine message. According to the comparative mythologists, it is needless to say, the Hansa is the sun. [677]

Sundry Sacred Birds.

Mention has already been made of Garuda, half man, half bird, the vehicle of Vishnu. He is the son of one of the daughters of Daksha, whom we have already met with in connection with the moon, and the sage Kasyapa. According to the Mahâbhârata, he was given leave to devour wicked men, but not to touch a Brâhman. Once he did devour a Brâhman, but the holy man so burnt his throat that he was glad to disgorge him. In the Râmâyana we meet with Jatâyu, who is said to be a son of Garuda and king of the vultures. He tried to stop the chariot in which Râvana was abducting Sîtâ, and though wounded, was able to carry the news to Râma.

A bird known as the Malahâri or "filth destroyer" is a sort of totem of the Kanjar gipsies. If they see it singing on a green branch to the front or right, it is an auspicious omen, and they start at once on the prowl.

So with the Khanjarît, in Sanskrit Khanjanâkriti, the wagtail, which is also known as Râm Chiraiya or "the bird of Râma." It is associated with Vishnu, because the marks on its throat are said to resemble the Sâlagrâma. It comes from the heaven of Râma in the end of the rains, and remains till the close of spring, and then bears back to Râma a report of the state of the world and the crops. When it first appears every one bows to it. A Sanskrit text lays down that when a person first sees the bird, if he be standing near a Brâhman, or near water, or sitting on an elephant, or at daybreak, or when the bird is flying near or sitting on a serpent, it is considered propitious. When a person first sees it in the east, it brings him good luck all through the year; when seen in the south-east, it predicts loss by fire; to the south-west, fighting; to the west, acquisition of wealth; if seen to the north-east, the observer will gain good clothes and jewels. He who sees it in the north-west will die. The superstitions in Europe connected with the magpie and cuckoo are of much the same class. In Ireland it is said, "Beware of killing the water wagtail, for it has three drops of the Devil's blood in its little body, and ill-luck ever goes with it and follows it." [678]

The Ojhiyâls or wizards of the Central Provinces sell the skins of a species of Buceros, called Dhanchirya, which are used to hang up in the house to secure wealth (dhan), whence its name; and thigh bones of the same bird are hung round the wrists of children as a charm against evil spirits. [679]

The Hoopoe.

The legend of the hoopoe is thus told by Arrian: "To the king of the Indians was born a son. The child had elder brothers, who, when they came to man's estate, turned out to be very unjust and the greatest of reprobates. They despised their brother because he was the youngest; and they scoffed at their father and their mother, whom they despised because they were old and grey-headed. The boy, accordingly, and his aged parents could no longer live with these wicked men, and away they fled from home, all three together. In the course of the protracted journeys which they had then to undergo, the old people succumbed to fatigue and died, and the boy showed them no light regard, but buried them in himself, having cut off his head with a sword. Then, as the Brachmanes (Brâhman) tell us, the all-seeing sun, in admiration of this surprising act of piety, transformed the boy into a bird, which is most beautiful to behold, and which lives to a very advanced age. So on his head there grew up a crest, which was, as it were, a memorial of what he had done in the time of his flight." [680]

Somadeva gives another story of this bird. Rajatadanshtra one day saw his sister Somaprabhâ playing on a Pinjara, and when she would not give it to him, took the form of a bird and flew away with it to heaven. She cursed him that he should become a bird with a golden crest, but promised that when in his bird shape he should fall into a blind well, "and a merciful person draws you out, and you do him a service in return, you shall be released from this curse." [681]

The Muhammadan tradition is that the Hudhud, or hoopoe, had the power of finding water which the devils have buried under the earth, and she assisted Solomon to find water for ablution, and helped him to find Bilqîs, the queen of Sheba. In Sweden the appearance of the hoopoe is looked on as an omen of war. [682]

The Woodpecker.

So of the woodpecker, which is said to have been a Râja in a former birth, and still to retain his royal crest. In Italian tradition the woodpecker (Picus Martis) is a digger in forests, where he lives alone and digs and hews, and knows all hidden secrets and treasures. [683] In India the Titihrî, or sandpiper, is said to sleep with his legs in the air and thus supports the firmament.

The Peacock.

The peacock is, of course, a sacred bird. He is specially venerated by the Jâts, who strongly object to seeing the bird killed near their villages. A bunch of the feathers is waved over the sick to scare the demon of disease. As we have already seen, it is a charm against snake-bite to smoke one of its feathers in a pipe. In Europe the loud calling of the bird presages a death.

The Pheasant.

Once upon a time the Monâl pheasant of the Hills and the Kalchuniya had a dispute as to when the sun arose. The Monâl woke first and then walked between the legs of the other, who was so injured that he has never been able to do anything but skip ever since.

The Kite.

Young kites do not open their eyes till they are shown a bit of gold. The best cure for weak eyes is to apply to them antimony mixed with the yolk of a kite's egg, a good instance of sympathetic magic, because the kite is the most long-sighted of birds. When sweepers suffer from rheumatic pains, they kill a kite on Tuesday, cut up the bones, and tie them to the affected part, which brings about an immediate cure. [684]

The Partridge.

The partridge and the peacock once contended in dancing, and when the turn of the partridge came he borrowed the pretty feet of the peacock, which he has never returned since. Râja Nala, at one period of his life, came under the malignant influence of Sani or Saturn and lost all he possessed in the world. At last, as he was starving, he managed to catch a black partridge and set about roasting it. But the ill-luck of the evil planet asserted itself and the dead bird came to life and flew away. The result is the black marks of charring which still remain upon its body. Now it cries in the words, Subhân terî qudrat--"Great is the power of the Almighty," because it was saved from the fire.

The Parrot.

Last among sacred birds comes the parrot. Of course, according to Professor De Gubernatis and his school, he represents the sun. [685] The bird appears constantly in the folk-tales as gifted with the power of speaking and possessed of wisdom. The wife of the sage Kasyapa was, according to the Vishnu Purâna, the mother of all the parrots. In the folk-tales we have the parrot who knows the four Vedas who is like the falcon in the Squire's tale of Chaucer. [686] In others he warns the hero of fortune, befriends the heroine, and is the companion of Râja Rasâlu. [687] The talking parrot constantly warns the deceived husband. The bird seems to have been a sort of marriage totem among the Drâvidian races, for images of it made of the wood of the cotton tree or of clay are hung up in the marriage shed among the Kols and lower castes in the North-Western Provinces.

The Alligator.

The alligator and crocodile are revered because of their habit of killing human beings. Writing of South Africa, Mr. Macdonald says: "To the Bathlapin the crocodile is sacred, and by all it is revered, but rather under the form of fear than of affection. I have often thought that the 'river calling' of South Africa, where there are no crocodiles, is the survival of an ancient recollection of the time when the ancestors of the present Kaffirs dwelt on the margins of rivers infested by these murderous brutes, and where they often saw their women drawn underneath when going to the river to fetch water." [688] The crocodile may thus be the type of many of the Indian water demons to whom reference has been already made. Hence, it is a general rule among savages to spare crocodiles, or rather only to kill them in obedience to the law of blood feud, that is, as a retaliation for the slaughter of men by crocodiles. In India it became a favourite form of religious suicide to be devoured by the crocodiles at Gangasâgar. Makara, a sort of marine monster, half crocodile and half shark, is the vehicle of Kâmadeva, the god of love, and Gangâ Mâî is depicted as riding on an alligator. They are sometimes put into tanks and worshipped, and fishermen have a tradition that, if duly appeased, they never attack them. [689]

Fish.

Fish are in many places regarded as sacred. The salmon of knowledge appears in the Celtic folk-lore. [690] The sacred speckled trout are found in many Irish wells, and the same idea prevails in many parts of Europe. [691] We find the fish figuring in the Hindu myth of the Creation. Manu, while he was bathing, found a fish in the water, which said, "I will save thee from the flood which shall destroy the world." The fish grew and was about to go to the ocean, when he directed Manu to build a boat. When the deluge came, the fish dragged the boat by his horn to a place of safety. The myth appears in other forms, more or less akin to the Hebrew story based on Babylonian tradition.

There are many places in India where fish are protected, such as those at Kota and in the Mahânadî river, the Betwa at Bhilsa, Hardwâr, Mathura, Mirzapur, Benares, Nepâl, and in Afghanistân. [692] In the Sâraswata pool in the Himâlaya lived the sacred fish called Mrikunda; they are fed on the fourteenth of the light half of each month, and oblations are offered for the repose of the Manes of deceased relations. [693] It is a common custom among pious Hindus to feed fish at sacred places with a lâkh or more of little balls of flour wrapped up in Bhojpatra or birch bark or paper with the name of Râma written upon it. Their eating the name of the deity ensures their salvation, and thus confers religious merit on the giver. The fish is the vehicle of Khwâja Khizr, the water god, and hence has become a sort of totem of the Shiah Musalmâns and the crest of the late royal family of Oudh. Pictures of fish are constantly drawn on the walls of houses as a charm against demoniacal influence.

The Fish in Folk-lore.