Chapter L: H. Bailey (4)

CURRANTS. The Currant, being one of the hardiest and most productive of fruits, is often neglected, the patch allowed to become foul with grass, never thinned or trimmed, the worms eating the leaves until, in the course of time, the plants weaken and die. Along the fence is no place to plant Currants, or, indeed, any other fruit; plant out in the open, at least 5 feet from anything that will interfere with cultivation. No fruit crop will respond more readily to good care than the Currant. Clean cultivation and a liberal use of manure or fertilizers will certainly be followed by well paying crops. One- or two-year-old plants may be set 4 by 6 feet. Trim the bush by cutting off most of the suckers below the surface of the ground. If the season is dry, a mulch of straw or leaves will assist the plants to establish themselves.

The red and white Currants bear mostly on two-year-old or older wood. A succession of young shoots should be allowed to grow to take the place of the old bearing wood. Cut out the canes as they grow older. The partial shade afforded by a young orchard suits the Currant well, and if the ground is in good condition no bad results will follow to the orchard, provided the Currants are removed before the trees need the entire feeding space.

A Currant patch should continue in good bearing for 10 to 20 years, if properly handled. One very important point is to keep the old, weak canes cut out, and a succession of two to four new ones coming from the root each year. For home use, White Imperial and Moore's Ruby are excellent. Prince of Wales is a heavy bearer and excellent for cooking. Wilder, Victoria, Cherry and White Grape are meritorious varieties.

To combat the Currant worm, spray thoroughly with Paris green to kill the first brood, just as soon as holes can be seen in the lower leaves--usually before the plants are in bloom. For the second brood, if it appear, spray with white hellebore. For borers, cut out and burn the affected canes.

CUTTINGS. Cuttings are parts of plants which are inserted in soil or water with the intention that they shall grow and make new plants. They are of various kinds. They may be classified, with reference to the age of the wood or tissue, into two classes; viz., those made from perfectly hard or dormant wood (taken from the winter twigs of trees and bushes), and those made from more or less immature or growing wood. They may be classified again in respect to the part of the plants from which they are taken, as root Cuttings, tuber Cuttings (as the ordinary "seed" planted for potatoes), stem Cuttings and leaf Cuttings.

Dormant wood Cuttings are used for grapes, currants, gooseberries, willows, poplars and many other kinds of soft-wooded trees and shrubs. Cuttings are ordinarily taken in fall or winter, but cut into the proper lengths and then buried in sand or moss where they do not freeze, in order that the lower end may heal over or callus. In the spring these Cuttings are set in the ground, preferably in a rather sandy and well drained place. Usually, hardwood Cuttings are made with two to four joints or buds, and when they are planted, only the upper bud projects above the ground. They may be planted erect, as the picture shows, or somewhat slanting. In order that the Cutting may reach down to moist earth, it is desirable that it should not be less than 6 inches long; and it is sometimes better if it is 8 to 12 inches. If the wood is short-jointed, there may be several buds on a Cutting of this length; and, in order to prevent too many shoots from arising from these buds, the lowermost buds are often cut out. Roots will start as readily if the lower buds are removed, since the buds grow into shoots and not into roots. Cuttings of currants, grapes, gooseberries, and the like may be set in rows which are far enough apart to admit of easy tillage either with horse or hand tools, and the Cuttings may be placed from 3 to 8 inches apart in the row. After the Cuttings have grown for one season, the plants are usually transplanted and given more room for the second year's growth, after which time they are ready to be set in permanent plantations. In some cases, the plants are set at the end of the first year; but two-year plants are stronger and usually preferable.

Root Cuttings are used for blackberries, raspberries, and a few other things. They are ordinarily made of roots from the size of a lead pencil to one's little finger, and are cut in lengths from 3 to 5 inches long. The Cuttings are stored the same as stem Cuttings and allowed to callus. In the spring they are planted in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position in moist, sandy soil, being entirely covered to a depth of 1 or 2 inches.

Softwood or greenwood Cuttings are always rooted under cover; that is, in a greenhouse, coldframe or dwelling house. They are usually made of wood which is mature enough to break when it is bent sharply. When the wood is so soft that it will bend and not break, it is too immature, in the majority of plants, for the making of good Cuttings. One to two joints is the proper length of a greenwood Cutting. If of two joints, the lower leaf should be cut off and the upper leaves cut in two, so that they do not present their entire surface to the air and thereby evaporate the plant juices too rapidly. If the Cutting is of only one joint, the lower end is usually cut just above a joint. In either case, the Cuttings are usually inserted in sand or well washed gravel, nearly or quite up to the leaves. Keep the bed uniformly moist throughout its depth, but avoid any soil which holds so much moisture that it becomes muddy and sour. These Cuttings should be shaded until they begin to emit their roots. Coleus, geraniums, fuchsias, and nearly all the common greenhouse and house plants, are propagated by these Cuttings or slips.

Leaf Cuttings are often used, for the fancy-leaved begonias, gloxinias, and a few other plants. The young plant usually arises most readily from the leaf-stalk or petiole. The leaf, therefore, is inserted into the ground much as a green Cutting is. Begonia leaves, however, will throw out young plants from the main veins when these veins or ribs are cut. Therefore, well-grown and firm begonia leaves are sometimes laid flat on the sand and the main veins cut; then the leaf is weighted down with pebbles or pegs so that these cut surfaces come into intimate contact with the soil beneath. The begonia leaf may be treated in various other ways and still give good results. See _Begonia_.

In the growing of all greenwood Cuttings, it is well to remember that they should have a gentle bottom heat; the soil should be such that it will hold moisture and yet not remain wet; the air about the tops should not become close and stagnant, else the plants will damp off; and the tops should be shaded for a time.

An excellent method of starting Cuttings in the living room is to make a double pot, as shown in the picture. Inside a 6-inch pot, set a 4-inch pot. Fill the bottom, _a_, with gravel or bits of brick, for drainage. Plug the hole in the inside pot. Fill the spaces between, _c_, with earth, and in this set the Cuttings. Water may be poured into the inner pot, _b_, to supply the moisture.

CUTWORMS. Probably the remedy for Cutworms most often practiced in gardens, and which cannot fail to be effective when faithfully carried out, is hand-picking with lanterns at night or digging them out from around the base of the infested plants during the day. Bushels of Cutworms have been gathered in this way, and with profit. When from some cause success does not attend the use of the poisoned baits, discussed next, hand-picking is the only other method yet recommended which can be relied upon to check Cutworm depredations.

By far the best methods yet devised for killing Cutworms in any situation are the poisoned baits; hand-picking is usually unnecessary where they are thoroughly used. Poisoned bunches of clover or weeds have been thoroughly tested, even by the wagon-load, over large areas, and nearly all have reported them very effective; lamb's quarters (pigweed), pepper-grass and mullein are among the weeds especially attractive to Cutworms. On small areas the making of the baits is done by hand, but they have been prepared on a large scale by spraying the plants in the field, cutting them with a scythe or machine, and pitching them from wagons in small bunches wherever desired. Distributed a few feet apart between rows of garden plants at nightfall, they have attracted and killed enough Cutworms often to save a large proportion of the crop; if the bunches can be covered with a shingle, they will keep fresher much longer. The fresher the baits, and the more thoroughly the baiting is done, the more Cutworms one can destroy. However, it may sometimes happen that a sufficient quantity of such green succulent plants cannot be obtained early enough in the season in some localities. In this case, and we are not sure but in all cases, the poisoned bran mash can be used to the best advantage. It is easily made and applied at any time, is not expensive, and thus far the results show that it is a very attractive and effective bait. A tablespoonful can be quickly dropped around the base of each cabbage or tomato plant, small amounts can be easily scattered along the rows of onions, turnips, etc., or a little dropped on a hill of corn, cucumbers, etc. It was used on sweet potato hills in New Jersey last year, and "served as a complete protection, the Cutworms preferring the bran." It is well to apply it on the evening of the day the plants are set out.

The best time to apply these poisoned baits is two or three days before any plants have come up or been set out in the garden. If the ground has been properly prepared, the worms will have had but little to eat for several days and they will thus seize the first opportunity to appease their hunger upon the baits, and wholesale destruction will result. The baits should always be applied at this time wherever Cutworms are expected. But it is not too late usually to save most of a crop after the pests have made their presence known by cutting off some of the plants. Act promptly and use the baits freely.--_M. V. Slingerland._

Cutworms may be kept away from plants by making a collar of stiff paper or tin about the base, as in the picture; but this is not practicable on a large scale.

CYCLAMEN. A tender greenhouse tuberous plant, sometimes seen in the window-garden. Cyclamens may be grown from seed sown in April or September in soil containing a large proportion of sand and leaf-mold. If sown in September, they should be wintered in a coolhouse. In May they should be potted into larger pots and placed in a shaded frame, and by July will have become large enough for their flowering pot, which should be either a 5- or 6-inch one. They should be brought into the house before danger of frost, and grown cool until through flowering. A temperature of 55 deg. suits them while in flower. After flowering, they will need a rest for a short time, but should not become very dry, or the bulb will be injured. When they start into growth, they should have the old soil shaken off and be potted into smaller pots. At no time should more than half the tuber be under the soil.

Tubers large enough to flower the first year may be obtained from the seedsmen at moderate prices; and unless one has facilities for growing the seedlings for a year, purchase of the tubers will give the best satisfaction. The soil best suited to the Cyclamen is one containing two parts leaf-mold, 1 part each of sand and loam.

DAFFODILS are a kind of Narcissus. They are hardy, and require the treatment recommended for Crocus. They may be naturalized in the grass, but they usually do not persist long on account of our hot, dry summers. Daffodils have been much improved of late. Plant in the fall, 4-6 in. deep. Excellent old garden plants.

DAHLIA. The Dahlia is an old favorite which, on account of its formal flowers, has been in disfavor for a few years, although it has always held a place in the rural districts. Now, however, with the advent of the cactus and semi-cactus types (or loose-flowered forms), and the improvement of the singles, it again has taken a front rank among late summer flowers, coming in just in advance of the Chrysanthemum.

The single varieties may be grown from seed, but the double sorts should be grown from cuttings of young stems or from division of the roots. If cuttings are to be made, it will be necessary to start the roots early either in a hotbed or house. When the growth has reached 4 or 5 inches, they may be cut from the plant and rooted in sand. Care should be taken to cut just below the joint, as a cutting made between two joints will not form tubers. The most rapid method of propagation of named varieties is to grow from cuttings in this way. In growing the plants from roots, the best plan is to place the whole root in gentle heat, covering slightly. When the young growth has started, the roots may be taken up, divided, and planted out 3 to 4 feet apart. This plan will ensure a plant from each piece of root, whereas if the roots are divided while dormant, there is danger of not having a bud at the end of each piece, in which case no growth will start.

The Dahlia flourishes best in a deep, rich, moist soil, although very good results can be had on sandy soil, provided plant-food and moisture are furnished. Clay should be avoided. If the plants are to be grown without stakes, the center of each plant should be pinched out after making two or three joints. By doing this the lateral branches will start near the ground and be stiff enough to withstand the winds. In most home gardens the plants are allowed to reach their full height, and are tied to stakes if necessary. Dahlias are very susceptible to frost. The tall kinds reach a height of 5-8 feet.

After the first frost, lift the roots, let them dry in the sun, shake off the dirt, trim off tops and broken parts, and store them in a cellar as you would potatoes. Cannas may be stored in the same place.

DAISY. The perennial English Daisy, or _Bellis perennis_, is a prime favorite as an edging plant. The cheerful little flowers show early in the spring, and with a little care bloom continuously through a long season. They should be given well enriched, moist soil, and be mulched through hot weather. The usual method of propagation is by division of the crowns, made in cool weather. They may also be grown from seed, but the chances are that many inferior flowers will be produced. Set the plants 3 or 4 inches apart. Height 3 to 5 inches. The colors are white, pink and red. Hardy if mulched in winter, but best results are obtained if plants are renewed frequently.

Many other plants are called Daisy, particularly the wild Asters, the Ox-eye Daisy or Whiteweed, and the Paris Daisy (_Chrysanthemum frutescens_).

DAMPING OFF is the rotting off of cuttings or young plants near the surface of the soil. It is the work of fungi; but these fungi are injurious because they find conditions congenial to their rapid growth. Prevention is worth more than cure. See that the soil is wet clear through, not wet on top and dry beneath. Keep it as dry as possible on the surface. Avoid soggy soils. On peaty soils, sprinkle sand or coal ashes to keep the top dry. Give the plants free circulation of air. Give them abundance of room. If Damping Off threatens, transplant.

DANDELION. This common weed would hardly be recognized if seen under cultivation in the vegetable garden. The plants attain a large size and the leaves are much more tender. The seed may be selected from the best field-growing plants, but it is better to buy the French seed of the seedsmen.

Sow in spring in well manured soil, either in drills or in hills 1 foot apart. A cutting of leaves may be had in September or October, and some of the stools may stand until spring. The delicacy of the leaves may be improved by blanching them, either by the use of boards or earth. One trade packet of seed will supply a large number of plants. The whole plant is destroyed when the crop of leaves is taken.

DATURA. BRUGMANSIA. Large-growing annuals with large, trumpet-shaped flowers. The coloring of some of the flowers is very attractive, but the odor of the plant is unpleasant. Plants should be set 4 feet apart. They grow 3-4 feet high, bear large leaves, and therefore make good low screens. Frost kills them. Sow seed where plants are to grow; or, better, start them in the house three or four weeks before the weather is fit for planting outside. Some of the Daturas are weeds. The great spiny seed pods are interesting.

DELPHINIUM. See _Larkspur_.

DEWBERRY. The Dewberry may be called an early trailing blackberry. The culture of this, as of the blackberry, is very simple; but, unlike the latter, some support should be given to the canes, as they are very slender and rank growers. A wire trellis or large-meshed fence-wire answers admirably; or (and this is the better general method) they may be tied to stakes. The fruits are large and showy, which, combined with their earliness, makes them desirable; but they are usually deficient in flavor. The Lucretia is the leading variety in cultivation.

Lay the canes on the ground in winter. In the spring tie all the canes from each plant to a stake. After fruiting, cut the old canes and burn them (as for blackberries). In the meantime, the young canes (for next year's fruiting) are growing. These may be tied up as they grow, to be out of the way of the cultivator. Dewberries are one to two weeks earlier than blackberries.

DIANTHUS, or PINK. Under this head are included Chinese Pinks, Sweet William, Picotee, Carnation (which see), and the perennial or Grass Pinks. All of them are general favorites.

The Chinese Pinks (_Dianthus Chinensis_, or _Heddewigii_) are now very popular. They are biennials, but flower the first year from seed, and are treated as hardy annuals. They have a wide range of color and markings. Some of them are as double as a rose, and are edged, splashed or lined with other colors. The single ones are very brilliant and are profuse bloomers. Sow seeds where plants are to stand, or if early bloom is desired, start in the house. Set the plants 6-10 in. apart. They grow 8-15 in. high. They bloom until after frost. Of easiest culture in any good soil, and should be even more popular. The petals are often quite deeply and oddly cut.

The Sweet William is an old-fashioned perennial, having flowers of many combinations of color, growing for several years when once planted, but being the better for renewal every two years. Raising new stock from seeds is usually better than dividing old plants. Of late years, the Sweet William has been much improved.

The perennial garden or Grass Pinks are low-growing, with highly perfumed flowers. They are very useful for permanent edgings, although the grass is likely to run them out unless a clean strip is kept on either side. Divide the old plants when the edging begins to fail; or raise new plants from seed. Seedlings usually do not bloom much the first year. Usually perfectly hardy.

DIBBERS are hand tools used for making holes in which to set plants or to drop seeds. They are better than a hoe or a spade for most transplanting. For small plants, as cabbages and tomatoes, a cylindrical Dibber is generally used. (See the lower one in the cut.) It can be made from an old spade handle or any hardwood stick. When broad holes are wanted, the triangular iron Dibber (sold by dealers) is excellent. It is particularly useful in hard soils.

DICENTRA includes the Bleeding Heart; also the native little Dutchman's Breeches and Squirrel Corn, and a few other species. All are hardy perennials of the easiest culture, blooming in spring. In common with all perennial herbs, they are benefited by a winter mulch of leaves or litter. Propagated by dividing the clumps.

DICTAMNUS. FRAXINELLA or GAS PLANT. An old border plant (perennial herb) with white or pale red flowers. The leaves of the plant emit a strong odor when rubbed, likened to that of the lemon verbena. It has been advertised as the Gas Plant from the fact that the plant exudes an oily matter that may be ignited, especially in warm, dry weather. Propagated by seeds, which should be sown as soon as ripe. The plant blooms the third year, and improves with age. Set plants 3 feet apart. Height 2 to 3 feet.

DILL. An annual aromatic herb that will seed itself if seeds are left to ripen, and an abundance of plants may always be had. The culture is of the easiest. The seeds are often used to flavor pickles.

DISEASES. Diseases of plants may be caused by some physiological disturbance to the plant system, or by the incursions of some parasitic organism, as insects or fungi. The work of insects, however, is ordinarily not classed with plant Diseases (see _Insects_). Of Diseases which are caused by plant parasites or by physiological disturbances, there are two general groups:

(1) Parasitic fungous Diseases, such as the apple-scab, black-rot and mildew of the grape, leaf-blight of the plum and pear, black-knot, and the like. These Diseases are characterized by definite spots, discolorations or excrescences, which are more or less scattered over the surface of the leaf, fruit or branch. As a rule, the leaves and fruits which are attacked have a tendency to drop from the tree. The general treatment for these Diseases is to spray with some fungicidal mixture, like the Bordeaux mixture or the ammoniacal carbonate of copper. The treatment is useful in proportion as it is applied early and thoroughly. After the fungus once gets into the tissues of the host-plant, it is difficult, if not impossible, to kill it. If, however, the fungicide is upon the plant before the fungus is, the parasite may not be able to obtain a foothold. Even after it does obtain a foothold, it is probable, however, that the spray will check its spread by preventing the development of its external parts.

(2) The physiological and bacterial Diseases, or those which are termed constitutional troubles. In these cases there are rarely any definite spots, as in the attacks of parasitic fungi, but the entire leaf, or even the entire plant, or a large part of it, shows a general weakening and Disease, as if there were some cutting off of the accustomed source of nourishment. Such Diseases are very likely to be seen in a general yellowing and death of the leaf, in the dying of the leaf along the main veins and around the edges, showing that the difficulty is one which affects the entire leaf, and not any particular part of it. In general, there is a tendency for the foliage in plants so attacked to wither up and hang on the tree for a time. The peach-yellows and pear blight are Diseases of this kind. There are no specific treatments for troubles of this sort. They must be approached by what physicians call prophylaxis--that is, by methods of sanitation and prevention. The diseased plants or parts are cut away and burned. All those conditions which seem to favor the development of the Disease are removed. Varieties which are particularly susceptible are discarded. Careful management in matters of this sort is often much more important than any attempt at specific treatment.

DOLICHOS. Mentioned under _Hyacinth Bean_.

DRACAENAS of the conservatories (properly mostly CORDYLINES) are sometimes used as house plants. Protect from direct sunlight, keep an even and fairly high temperature, water freely when they are growing. When the plants begin to fail, return them to the florist for recuperation, where they may have equable conditions. They are handsome long-leaved foliage plants, excellent for jardinieres.

DRAINAGE serves two purposes: first, to carry superfluous water from the land; second, to lower the water-table or hard-pan, and to make the soil loose and friable above. Nearly all hard clay lands are much benefited by draining, even though they are not too wet. The region of free or standing water is lowered and air is admitted into the soil, rendering it fine and mellow. For carrying off mere surface water, surface or open ditches are sufficient; but if the soil is to be ameliorated, the drain must be beneath the surface. The best underdrains are those which use hollow or cylindrical tiles, but very good results may be had by making drains from stones. In regions where there are many flat stones, a very good conduit may be laid with them, but they are likely to get out of order. If there is considerable fall to the ditch, the bottom may be filled for the space of 10 inches or a foot with common stones rolled in, and the water will find its way between them. If the stones are even deeper than this, the results will be better; and such ditches also provide place for disposing of superfluous stones.

The deeper the ditch the further it will draw on either side. It should always be deep enough to be protected from freezing, particularly if tiles are used. Three feet should be the least depth, and 3-1/2 feet is a good average depth. Drains as deep as this need not be placed oftener than 2 to 3 rods apart, unless, in garden conditions, it is desired to very thoroughly ameliorate a heavy clay soil, in which case they may be placed every 20 feet. The better the fall the quicker the drain will act and the more permanent it will be, as it will tend to clean itself and not fill up with silt. It is important that the outlet be entirely free, and it should be protected with stones or mason work. The roots of some trees, particularly of willows and elms, are attracted by tile drains, and often fill up the pipes. When the drain goes near such trees, therefore, it is well to cement the joints. In general practice, however, the joints should not be cemented, because a large part of the drainage water enters at those places. In laying the tiles, it is well to cover the joints with inverted sod, tarred paper, wisps of straw, stones or other material. This prevents the fresh earth from falling in between the joints, and by the time the material is decayed the earth will have become so thoroughly set that no further trouble will result. Although under-drains take off superfluous water, nevertheless an under-drained soil will hold more moisture than one which is not drained, particularly in the case of clay lands with high subsoils. This is because fine, mallow soils are able to hold more moisture than very loose and open or very dense and compact ones. A well constructed underdrain should last indefinitely.

DUTCHMAN'S PIPE. See _Aristolochia_.

ECHEVERIA. Tender succulents largely used for carpet bedding and rock gardens. _Echeveria secunda_ is sometimes called OLD-HEN-AND-CHICKENS, from the little plants that grow out from the stem of the parent plant and show around the edges of the rosette top; but the hardy Hen-and-Chickens of old gardens is a different but closely allied plant (_Sempervivum tectorum_). All the species are of easy culture and thrive on sandy soil. They should not be planted out until all danger of frost is over and the ground thoroughly warm. Propagated by the offsets. Height 3 inches. The name Echeveria is now given up by botanists for _Cotyledon_.

EGG-PLANT. GUINEA SQUASH. Unless one has a greenhouse or a very warm hotbed, the growing of Egg-plants in the North should be left to the professional gardener, as the young plants are very tender, and should be grown without a check. The seed should be sown in the hotbed or greenhouse about April 10, keeping a temperature of from 65 deg. to 70 deg. When the seedlings have made three rough leaves, they may be pricked out into shallow boxes, or, still better, into 3-inch pots. The pots or boxes should be plunged to the rim in soil in a hotbed or coldframe so situated that protection may be given on chilly nights. The 10th of June is early enough to plant them out in central New York. The soil in which they are to grow cannot well be made too rich, as they have only a short season in which to develop their fruits. The plants are usually set 3 feet apart each way. A dozen plants are sufficient for the needs of a large family, as each plant should yield from two to six large fruits. The fruits are fit to eat at all stages of growth, from those the size of a large egg to their largest development. One ounce of seed will furnish 600 to 800 plants.

The New York Improved Purple is the standard variety. Black Pekin is good. For early, or for a short-season climate, the Early Dwarf Purple is excellent.

ENDIVE. As a fall salad vegetable, this should be better known, it being far superior to lettuce at that time and as easily grown. For fall use, the seed may be sown from June to August, and as the plants become fit to eat about the same time from sowing as lettuce does, a succession may be had until cold weather. The plants will need protection from the severe fall frosts, and this may be given by carefully lifting the plants and transplanting to a frame, where sash or cloth may be used to cover them in freezing weather. The leaves, which constitute practically the whole plant, are blanched before being used, either by tying together with some soft material or by standing boards on each side of the row, allowing the top of the boards to meet over the center of the row. The rows should be 1-1/2 or 2 feet apart, the plants 1 foot apart in the rows. One ounce of seed will sow 150 feet of drill.

ESCHSCHOLTZIA. See _California Poppy_.

EUTOCA. Hardy early-flowering annuals having pink or blue flowers, good for masses. Sow seed early where wanted. Height 1 foot. Eutocas are properly classed with Phacelias.

EVERGREENS. Evergreens are plants which hold their foliage in winter. Ordinarily, however, in this country the word Evergreen is understood to mean coniferous trees with persistent leaves, as pines, spruces, firs, cedars, junipers, arborvitae, retinosporas, and the like. These trees have always been favorites with plant lovers, as they have very distinctive forms and other characteristics. Many of them are of the easiest culture. It is a common notion that, since spruces and other conifers grow so symmetrically, they will not stand pruning; but this is an error. They may be pruned with as good effect as other trees, and if they tend to grow too tall the leader may be cut out without fear. A new leader will arise, but in the meantime the upward growth of the tree will be somewhat checked, and the effect will be to make the tree dense. The tips of the branches may also be headed in with the same effect. The beauty of an Evergreen lies in its natural form; therefore, it should not be sheared into unusual shapes, but a gentle trimming back, as suggested, will tend to prevent the Norway spruce and others from growing open and ragged. After the tree attains some age, 4 or 5 inches may be taken off the ends of the main branches every year or two with good results. This slight trimming is ordinarily done with Waters' long-handled pruning shears.

There is much difference of opinion as to the proper time for the transplanting of Evergreens, which means that there is more than one season in which they may be moved. It is ordinarily unsafe to transplant them in the fall in northern climates or bleak situations, since the evaporation from the foliage during the winter is likely to injure the plant. The best results are usually secured when they are transplanted just as new growth is beginning, rather late in the spring. Some people also plant them in August, and the roots secure a hold of the soil before winter. In transplanting conifers, it is very important that the roots be not exposed to the sun. They should be moistened and covered with burlaps or other material. The holes should be ready to receive them. If the trees are large, or if it has been necessary to trim in the roots, the top should be cut when the tree is set. Large Evergreens (those 10 feet and more high) are usually best transplanted late in winter, at a time when a large ball of earth may be moved with them. A trench is dug around the tree, it being deepened a little day by day so that the frost can work into the earth and hold it in shape. When the ball is thoroughly frozen, it is hoisted onto a stone-boat and moved to its new position.

For low hedges or screens, one of the most serviceable Evergreens is the arborvitae in its various forms. Red cedars are also useful. Perhaps the handsomest of all of them for such purposes is the ordinary hemlock spruce; but it is usually difficult to move. Transplanted trees from nurseries are usually safest. If the trees are taken from the wild, they should be selected from open and sunny places. For neat and compact effects near porches and along walks, the dwarf retinosporas are very useful. Most of the pines and spruces are too coarse for planting very close to the house. They are better at some distance removed, where they serve as a background to other planting. If they are wanted for individual specimens, they should be given plenty of room, so that the limbs will not be crowded and the tree become misshapen. Whatever else is done to the spruces and firs, the lower limbs should not be trimmed up, at least not until the tree has become so old that the lowest branches die. Some species hold their branches much longer than others. The oriental spruce (_Picea orientalis_) is one of the best in this respect. The occasional slight heading-in, which we have mentioned, will tend to preserve the lower limbs, and it will not be marked enough to alter the form of the tree.

EVERLASTINGS are flowers which retain their shape and usually their color when they are dried. Most of them are members of the composite family. In order to have them hold shape and color, cut them with very long stems just before they are fully expanded, and hang them in an airy place away from the sun. They are all annuals, or grown as such, and are of very easy culture. Sow seeds where the plants are to stand. Good kinds are Ammobium, Gomphrena or Bachelor's Buttons, Rhodanthe, Helichrysum, Xeranthemum, and Acroclinium. Certain wild composites may be similarly used, particularly Anaphalis and species of Gnaphalium. Some of the grasses make excellent additions to dry bouquets (see _Grass_). With these dry bouquets, various seed pods look well.

FENZLIA. Little hardy annuals, having a profusion of bloom through the entire summer. The flowers are a delicate pink, with yellow throat surrounded by dark spots. A charming edging plant or window box subject. Sow the seed in boxes or where plants are wanted, and thin to the distance of 10 inches. Height 3 to 4 inches. Now classed with Gilia.

FERNS. Probably the one Fern grown most extensively as a house plant is the small-leaved Maidenhair Fern (or _Adiantum gracillimum_). This and other species are among the finest of house plants, when sufficient moisture can be given. They make fine specimens, as well as serving the purpose of greenery for cut-flowers. Other species often grown for house plants are _A. cuneatum_ and _A. Capillus-Veneris_. All these do well in a mixture of fibrous sod, loam, and sand, with ample drainage material. They may be divided if an increase is wanted.

Other Ferns for house culture include _Nephrolepis exaltata_. This is no doubt the most easily grown of the list, flourishing in a sitting-room. The new variety of _N. exaltata_, called the Boston Fern (see figure), is a decided addition to this family, having a drooping habit, covering the pot and making a fine stand or bracket plant.

Several species of Pteris, particularly _P. serrulata_, are valuable house Ferns, but require a warmer situation than those mentioned above. They will also thrive better in a shady or ill-lighted corner.

Perfect drainage and care in watering have more to do with the successful growing of Ferns than any special mixture of soils. If the drainage material in the bottom of the pot or box is sufficient, there is little danger of over-watering; but water-logged soil is always to be avoided. Do not use clay soils. Ferns need protection from the direct sunshine, and also a moist atmosphere. They thrive well in a close glass box, or window-garden, if the conditions can be kept equable.

The native Ferns transplant easily to the garden, and they make an attractive addition to the side of a house, or as an admixture in a hardy border. The Ostrich and Cinnamon Ferns are the best subjects. Give all outdoor Ferns a place which is protected from winds, otherwise they will shrivel and perhaps die. Screen them from the hot sun, or give them the shady side of the building. See that the soil is uniformly moist, and that it does not get too hot. Mulch with leaf-mold in the fall.

FERTILIZERS. Soil is productive when it has good physical texture, plant-food, and a sufficient supply of moisture. Even though it has an abundance of plant-food, if its texture is not good, it will not raise a good crop. Soil has good texture when it is open, mellow, friable, rather than loose and leachy, or hard and cloddy. Commercial Fertilizers add plant-food, but usually they have only a small influence in correcting faulty texture. Therefore, before concentrated Fertilizers are applied to land, it should be gotten into good physical condition by judicious tillage and by the incorporation of vegetable mold or humus. The leading source of humus in most gardens is stable manure. See _Manure_.

The plant-food in commercial Fertilizers is largely in a soluble or quickly available condition. Therefore, a little Fertilizer applied late in the fall or early in the spring will tend to start the plants off quickly in the spring and to cause them to become established before the trying weather of summer. For garden purposes, it is usually advisable to buy one of the so-called complete Fertilizers; that is, one which contains nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. If a luxuriant growth of stalk and foliage is wanted rather than flowers or fruit, an application of nitrogen alone is usually advisable. The most readily available nitrogen in commercial form is that which is afforded by nitrate of soda and sulfate of ammonia. In garden practice this may be applied at the rate of 300 to 400 pounds an acre, although this quantity is more than is profitable to use in most general field or agricultural conditions. If it is desired to have stout, stocky plants, with early and profuse bloom, it is ordinarily advisable to use somewhat sparingly of nitrogen and to use a little more heavily of potash and phosphoric acid. This is especially true of the leguminous plants, which have the power of appropriating atmospheric nitrogen, and among such plants are sweet peas. Heavy fertilizing of sweet pea land with strong stable manure tends to make the vines grow too tall and to bear comparatively few flowers. For dressing of lawns, a Fertilizer which is comparatively rich in nitrogen is usually to be advised.

An important value of commercial Fertilizers is to use them to start off the plants quickly in the spring. The food is available and acts at once. When used for this purpose, the Fertilizer may be applied in the hill; but when it is desired for the enriching of the land and for the support of the crop throughout the season, it should be applied to the entire surface. Always avoid putting the Fertilizer on the crown of the plant, or directly in contact with it. It is usually better to work the Fertilizer in lightly. For most garden operations, it is better to apply in spring.

FEVERFEW. See _Pyrethrum_.

FIG. The Fig is little grown in the East except as a curiosity, but on the Pacific coast it has gained more or less prominence as an orchard fruit. The trees are usually planted at distances of about 18 to 25 feet apart. Figs will stand considerable frost, and seedling or inferior varieties grow out of doors without protection as far north as Virginia. Many of the varieties fruit on young sprouts, and, inasmuch as the roots will stand considerable cold, these varieties will often give a few Figs in the northern states. Figs have been fruited in the open ground in Michigan. In all frosty countries, however, the Fig should be laid down during the winter time. The following notes from Professor Massey, of North Carolina, indicate how this may be done:

"The light hoar-frosts that have occurred here affected vegetation only on low grounds, and today (November 5) our gardens on high ground show no signs of frost. Lima beans and tomato vines are as green as in summer time, and this morning we gathered ripe Figs from our trees in the garden--the latest I have ever known Figs to ripen. As the early crop of Figs ripens in July (if it escapes the winter frosts, for the fruit is now set on the trees), and the late crop begins in August and continues to ripen in succession till frost, it is easy to see what a desirable fruit the Fig is. In this section it is easy to have a great abundance of Figs, and it is possible almost anywhere in the United States to have both early and late crops in abundance by taking a little trouble to protect the trees in winter. Years ago the writer grew Figs in abundance in a very cold locality in northern Maryland, and never failed to get a good crop. Where the winter temperature seldom drops lower than 18 deg. or 20 deg. above zero, Figs will need no special protection if sheltered from cold winds. In colder climates they should be branched from the ground, and, after the leaves have fallen, be bent to the ground in four bundles and covered with earth, making a sharp mound over the center and sloping off like a four-pointed star or cross, as shown in the cuts, taken from Bulletin 74 of North Carolina Experiment Station."

FLOWER BEDS. Two classes of subjects are to be considered in the discussion of Flower Beds: those concerned with the location of the bed; those concerned with the actual making of the bed itself. Most persons do not consider the former subject. If one wants a flower garden in which there is to be a collection of plants grown for the plants' sake, the garden should be placed at the rear or one side, and may be laid out in regular fashion like a vegetable garden. If the flowers are to be a part of the home picture,--that is, a part of the place itself,--then they may be freely distributed amongst the border planting, or as edgings along groups of shrubbery. It is rarely, if ever, allowable to place formal beds in the lawn in home grounds. The place for carpet-bedding is usually in parks or other public areas, in sections which are set aside and devoted to that particular purpose, the same as another section may be devoted to a zoological garden, play-ground or to other specific use. Flowers which are grown in the middle of the lawn have little relation to other planting, and they have no background to show them off to good advantage. It is also difficult to grow them in small beds in the grass, since they are exposed to sun and wind, and the grass roots absorb the food and moisture. In the formal bed, every effort must be made to keep it prim, otherwise it becomes displeasing; whereas, if the flowers are planted more or less promiscuously in large, irregular borders, or along the edge of shrubbery, the failure of one or even of a dozen plants is not a serious matter. The growing of plants in formal designs requires so much care and attention that a large part of the fun of plant-growing is lost. Such plant-growing should ordinarily be left to those who make a business of it.

In making a Flower Bed, see that the ground is well drained; that the subsoil is deep; that the land is in a mellow and friable condition, and that it is rich. Each fall it may have a mulch of rotted manure or of leaf-mold, which may be spaded under deeply in the spring; or the land may be spaded and left rough in the fall, which is a good practice when the soil has much clay. Make the Flower Beds as broad as possible, so that the roots of the grass running in from either side will not meet beneath the flowers and rob them of food and moisture. It is well to add a little commercial fertilizer each fall or spring.

FLOWERING MAPLE. See _Abutilon_.

FORGET-ME-NOT. This old favorite grows so easily, looks so cheerful, and with a little care will bloom so long, that it should have a place in every collection of flowering plants. It is perennial, but the best results may be had by dividing the roots as often as every other year; or seedlings may be taken up from around the old plants. They require a moist soil, with shade a part of the day. They will thrive exceedingly if grown in a frame like pansies. Easily grown from seeds, usually blooming the first fall. Excellent for low edgings. Height 6 inches.

FOUR-O'CLOCK. MIRABILIS. Tender annual, a plant of old-fashioned gardens, and always interesting. Grows 2 to 3 feet high. Drop seeds where the plants are to stand, thinning them to 12 to 18 inches apart. The colors are white and pink. There are variegated-leaved forms; also dwarfs. Excellent for the back row in a bed of annuals.

FOXGLOVE, or DIGITALIS. Foxgloves make most effective border plants, either as a background or planted among other things. The tall flower-spikes are covered during the blooming period with funnel-shaped drooping flowers in various colors and with fine markings. Some of the newer varieties have flowers that rival the Gloxinias in shadings and markings. The plants are perfectly hardy, growing in one situation for a number of years; but, as with many other perennials, they are all the better for being divided at intervals. They may be grown readily from seed. Sow in boxes under glass or in the border where wanted. They bloom the second year. A rich, deep soil and partial shade suit their requirements. Period of bloom, July and August. Height 2 to 4 feet.

FRAME. See _Hotbed_ and _Coldframe_.

FREESIA. One of the best and most easily handled winter-flowering bulbs. The white or yellowish bell-shaped flowers are produced on slender stalks just above the foliage, to the number of six to eight in a cluster. They are very fragrant, and last for a considerable time when picked. The bulbs are small, and look as though they could not produce a growth of foliage and flowers, but even the smallest mature bulb will prove satisfactory. Several bulbs should be planted together in a pot, box or pan, in October, if wanted for the holidays, or later if wanted at Easter. The plants bloom from ten to twelve weeks from planting, under ordinary care. No special treatment is required; keep the plants cool and moist through the growing season. The soil should contain a little sand mixed with fibrous loam, and the pot should be well drained. After flowering, gradually withhold water and the tops will die down, after which the roots may be shaken out and rested until time to plant in fall. Care should be taken to keep them perfectly dry. The bulbs increase rapidly from offsets. Plants may also be grown from seed, which should be sown as soon as ripe, giving blooming plants the second or third year. Height 12 or 15 inches. Easy to bloom in the window. The white form (_Freesia refracta alba_) is the best. See _Bulbs_.

FRITILLARIA, or FRITILLARY. Bulbous plants, the commoner species hardy. Only the Crown Imperial is well known in this country. This is an old-fashioned plant, which takes care of itself when once planted. The other hardy Fritillarias are treated like tulips.

FROST. The light frosts of late spring and of early fall may be prevented by any means which will keep the air in motion, or which will fill the air with moisture or cloud-like vapor, so that there is less radiation from the ground. When frost is expected, it is well to water the plants and the ground thoroughly. This will ordinarily protect them from two or three degrees of still frost. The water should be applied just at nightfall. On larger areas, it is often practicable to make a smudge. In order to be effective, the smudge must be rather dense and lie over the whole area, and it should be kept up until the danger from frost is past. Material which burns very slowly and with much smoke is preferable. Moist manure or straw or other litter is useful. Materials which are dry enough to blaze are of little use. Ordinarily, frost comes towards morning. It is well to have the piles of rubbish ready at nightfall and have them lighted toward the latter part of the night, when the frost is expected. The smudge should be kept up until sunrise. It is well to have these piles of smudge material on all sides of the area; or if the area is on a slope, it may be sufficient to have them on the upper side, for there is usually a movement of air down the hillside and the area will thereby be covered with the smudge. For a thorough protection, it is best to have many small piles rather than a few large ones. If the piles are placed every ten feet around the areas, better results are to be expected. There are especially prepared tar-like materials for use in smudging plantations, but they are little used in this country, although some of them are excellent.

FUCHSIA. Well-known window or greenhouse shrub. It is readily grown from cuttings. Soft, green wood should be used for cuttings, and it will root in about three weeks, when the cuttings should be potted. Take care not to have them pot-bound while in growth, but do not over-pot when bloom is wanted. Given warmth and good soil, they will make fine plants in three months or less. In well protected, partially shady places they may be planted out, growing into miniature bushes by fall. Plants may be kept on from year to year; and if the branches are well cut back after blooming, abundant new bloom will come. But it is usually best to make new plants each year from cuttings, since young plants usually bloom most profusely and demand less care. Fuchsias are amongst the best of window subjects.

FUMIGATION is mentioned under _Insects_.

FUNGI. Flowerless, leafless plants, living mostly on food (either living or dead) which has been prepared by other plants or by animals, Molds, mushrooms and puff-balls are familiar examples. Some of the parasitic kinds cause great damage to the plants or animals on which they live. Examples of these injurious parasitic kinds are apple-scab fungus, potato mildew, grape mildew, corn smut fungus, and the like. Most of these are combated by spraying with materials containing copper or sulfur.