Chapter X

Zinc chloride has a great affinity for water; it is not only
soluble in it, but in alcohol, and on being dissolved in water
becomes considerably heated, like magnesium and calcium chlorides.
Zinc chloride is capable of taking up water, not only in a free
state, but also in chemical combination with many substances. Thus,
for instance, it is used in organic researches for removing the
elements of water from many of the organic compounds.

[4 bis] When mixed with zinc oxide it forms, with remarkable ease, a
very hard mass of zinc oxychloride, which is applied in the arts;
for instance, in painting, to resist the action of water, or for
cementing such objects as are destined to remain in water. Zinc
oxychloride, ZnCl_{2},3ZnO,2H_{2}O (= Zn_{2}OCl_{2},2ZnH_{2}O_{2}),
is also formed from a solution of zinc chloride by the action of a
small quantity of ammonia on it after heating the precipitate
obtained with the liquid for a considerable time; the admixture of
ammonium salts with a mixture of a strong solution of zinc chloride
with its oxide makes a similar mass, which does not solidify so
rapidly, and is therefore more useful for some purposes. Moisture
and cold do not change the hardened mass of oxychloride, and it
also resists the action of many acids, and a temperature of 300°,
which makes it a useful cement for many purposes. A solution of
magnesium chloride with magnesium oxide forms a similar
oxychloride. The mass solidifies best when there are equal
quantities by weight of zinc in the chloride and oxide, and
therefore when it has the composition Zn_{2}OCl_{2} In preparing
such a cement, naturally zinc oxide alone may be taken, and the
requisite quantity of hydrochloric acid added to it. The capacity
of ZnCl_{2} to combine with water, ZnO, and HCl (and also with
other metallic chlorides) indicates its property to combine with
molecules of other substances, and therefore its compounds with
NH_{3}, and especially a compound, ZnCl_{2}2NH_{3}, similar to
sal-ammoniac, might be expected (_i.e._ 2NH_{4}Cl, in which H_{2}
is replaced by Zn). And indeed it has long been known that ZnCl_{2}
absorbs ammonia and gives solid substances capable of dissociating
with the disengagement of NH_{3}. Among these compounds Isambert
and V. Kouriloff (1894) obtained ZnCl_{2}6NH_{3}, ZnCl_{2}4NH_{3},
ZnCl_{2}2NH_{3}, and ZnCl_{2}NH_{3}. The dissociation tension of
the two last-mentioned compounds at 218° is equal to 43·6 mm. and
6·7 mm. CdCl_{2} also forms similar compounds with NH_{3}
(Kouriloff, 1894).

Zinc, like many heavy metals, is often _found in nature in combination with sulphur_, forming the so-called _zinc blende_,[5] ZnS. It sometimes occurs in large masses, often crystallised in cubes; it is frequently translucent, and has a metallic lustre, although this is not so clearly developed as in many other metallic sulphides with which we shall hereafter become acquainted. The ores of zinc also comprise the carbonate, calamine, and silicate, _siliceous calamine_.

[5] This mineral has been given the name of 'mock-ore,' on account of
its having the appearance (considerable density, 4·06, &c.) of
ordinary metallic ores; it deceived the first miners, because it
did not, like other ores, give metal when simply roasted in air and
fused with charcoal. The white zinc oxide, formed by burning the
vapours of zinc, was also called 'nihil album,' or 'white nothing,'
on account of its lightness.

Metallic zinc (spelter) is most frequently obtained from the ores containing the carbonate[6]--that is, from calamine, which is sometimes found in thick veins: for instance, in Poland, Galicia, in some places on the banks of the Rhine, and in considerable masses in Belgium and England. In Russia beds of zinc ore are met with in Poland and the Caucasus, but the output is small. In Sweden, as early as the fifteenth century, calamine was worked up into an alloy of zinc and copper (brass), and Paracelsus produced zinc from calamine; but the technical production of the metal itself, long ago practised in China, only commenced in Europe in 1807--in Belgium, when the Abbé Donnet discovered that zinc was volatile. From that time the production increased until it is now about 150 million kilograms in Germany alone.

[6] It may be here mentioned that by the word _ore_ is meant a hard,
heavy substance dug out of the earth, which is used in
metallurgical works for obtaining the usual heavy metals long known
and used. The natural compounds of sodium, or magnesium, are not
called ores, because magnesium and sodium have not been long
obtainable in quantity. The heavy metals, those which are easily
reduced and do not easily oxidise, are exclusively those which are
directly applied in manufactures. Ores either contain the metals
themselves (for instance, ores of silver or bismuth), and the
metals are then said to be in a native state, or else their sulphur
compounds (blende, mock-ore, pyrites--as, for example, galena, PbS;
zinc blende, ZnS; copper pyrites, CuFeS) or oxides (as the ores of
iron), or salts (calamine, for instance). Zinc is incomparably
rarer than magnesium, and is only well known because it is
transformed from its ores into a metal which finds direct use in
many branches of industry.

The reduction of metallic zinc from its ores is based on the fact that zinc oxide[7] is easily reduced by charcoal at a red heat: ZnO + C = Zn + CO. The zinc thus obtained is in a finely divided state and impure, being mixed with other metals reduced with it, but the greater portion is _converted into vapour_, from which it easily passes into a liquid or solid state. The reduction and distillation are carried on in earthenware retorts, filled with a mixture of the divided ore and charcoal. The vapours of zinc and gases formed during the reaction escape by means of a pipe leading downwards, and are led to a chamber where the vapours are cooled. By this means they do not come into contact with the air, because the neck of the retort is filled with gaseous carbonic oxide, and therefore the zinc does not oxidise; otherwise its vapour would burn in the air.[7 bis] The vapours of zinc, entering into the cooling chamber, condense into white zinc powder or zinc dust. When the neck of the retort is heated the zinc is obtained in a liquid state, and is cast into plates, in which form it is generally sold.

[7] Ores, when extracted from the earth by the miners, are often
enriched by sorting, washing, and other mechanical operations. The
sulphurous ores (and likewise others) are then generally roasted.
Roasting an ore means heating it to redness in air. The sulphur
then burns, and passes off in the form of sulphurous anhydride,
SO_{2}, and the metal oxidises. The roasting is carried on in order
to obtain an oxide instead of a sulphur compound, the oxide being
reducible by charcoal. These methods, introduced ages ago, are met
with in nearly all metallurgical works for practically all ores.
For this reason the preparatory treatment of zinc blende furnishes
zinc oxide: this is already contained in calamine.

[7 bis] with very impure ores, especially such as contain lead (PbS
often accompanies zinc), the vapour of the reduced zinc is allowed
to pass directly into the air. It burns and gives ZnO, which is
used as a pigment.

Commercial zinc is generally impure, containing a mixture of lead, particles of carbon, iron, and other metals carried over with the vapours, although they are not volatile at a temperature approaching 1000°. If it be required to obtain pure zinc from the commercial article, it is subjected to a further distillation in a crucible with a pipe passing through the bottom, the vapours formed by the heated zinc only having exit through the pipe cemented into the bottom of the crucible. Passing through this pipe, the vapours condense to a liquid, which is collected in a receiver. Zinc thus purified is generally re-melted and cast into rods, and in this form is often used for physical and chemical researches where a pure article is required.[8]

[8] This zinc, although homogeneous, still contains certain impurities,
to remove which it is necessary to prepare some salt of zinc in a
pure state and transform it into carbonate, which latter is then
distilled with charcoal; and, as thin sheets of zinc can only be
obtained from very pure metal, they are frequently made use of in
cases where pure zinc is required. In order to remove the arsenic
from zinc, it was proposed to melt it and mix it with anhydrous
magnesium chloride, by which means vapours of zinc chloride and
arsenic chloride are formed. Perfectly pure zinc is made (V. Meyer
and others) by decomposing, by means of the galvanic current, a
solution of zinc sulphate to which an excess of ammonia has been
added. The zinc used for Marsh's arsenic test (Chapter XIX.) is
purified from As by fusing it with KNO_{3} and then with ZnCl_{2}.

Metallic zinc has a bluish-white colour; its lustre, compared with many other metals, is insignificant. When cast it exhibits a crystalline structure. Its specific gravity is about 7--that is, varies from 6·8 to 7·2, according to the degree of compression (by forging, rolling, &c.) to which it has been subjected. It is very ductile, considering its hardness. For this reason it chokes up files when being worked. Its malleability is considerable when pure, but in the ordinary impure condition in which it is sold, it is impossible to roll it at the ordinary temperature, as it easily breaks. At a temperature of 100°, however, it easily undergoes such operations, and can then be drawn into wire or rolled into sheets. If heated further it again becomes brittle, and at 200° may be even crushed into powder, so completely does it lose its molecular cohesion. It melts at 418°, and distils at 930°.

Zinc does not undergo any change in the atmosphere. Even in very damp air it only becomes slowly coated with a very thin white coating of oxide. For this reason it is available for all objects which are only in contact with air. Therefore sheet zinc may be used for roofing and many other purposes.[9] This great unchangeability of zinc in the air shows its slight energy with regard to oxygen compared with the metals already mentioned, which are capable of reducing zinc from solutions. But zinc plays this part with regard to the remaining metals--for example, it reduces salts of lead, copper, mercury, &c. Although zinc is an almost unoxidisable metal at the ordinary temperature, it burns in the air on being heated, particularly when in the form of shavings or in the condition of vapour. At the ordinary temperature zinc does not decompose water--at any rate, if the metal be in a dense mass. But even at a temperature of 100° zinc begins little by little to decompose water; it easily displaces the hydrogen of acids at the ordinary temperature, and of alkalis on being heated.

[9] Cornices and other architectural ornaments, remarkable for their
lightness and beauty, are stamped out of sheet zinc. Zinc-roofing
does not require painting, but it melts during a conflagration, and
even burns at a strong heat. Many iron vessels, &c., are covered
with zinc ('galvanised') in order to prevent them from rusting.

In this respect the action of zinc varies a great deal with the degree of its purity. Weak sulphuric acid (corresponding with the composition H_{2}SO_{4},8H_{2}O) at the ordinary temperature does not act at all on chemically pure zinc, and even a stronger solution acts very slowly. If the temperature be raised, and particularly if the zinc be previously slightly heated, so as to cover the surface with a film of oxide, chemically pure zinc acts on sulphuric acid. Thus, for example, one cubic centimetre of zinc in sulphuric acid having a composition H_{2}SO_{4},6H_{2}O at the ordinary temperature in two hours only dissolves to the extent of 0·018 gram, and at a temperature of 100° about 3·5 grams. If we compare this slow action with that rapid evolution of hydrogen which occurs in the case of commercial zinc, we see that the influence of those impurities in the zinc is very great. Every particle of charcoal or iron introduced into the mass of the zinc, and likewise the connection of the zinc with a piece of another electro-negative metal, assists such a dissolution. The slowness of the action of sulphuric acid on pure zinc (and likewise on amalgamated zinc) may also be explained by the fact that a layer of hydrogen[10] collects on the surface of the metal, preventing contact between the acid and the metal.[10 bis]

[10] Veeren (1891) proved this by simple experiments, finding that in
vacuo the solution proceeds far more rapidly for both pure and
commercial zinc, and still more rapidly in the presence of
oxidising agents (which absorb the hydrogen) like CrO_{3} and
H_{2}O_{2}.

[10 bis] The addition of cupric sulphate, or, better still, a few drops
of platinic chloride (the metals become reduced), to the sulphuric
acid greatly accelerates the evolution of the hydrogen, because in
this case, as with commercial zinc, galvanic couples are formed
locally by the copper or platinum and the zinc, under the
influence of which the zinc rapidly dissolves. The action of acids
on metallic zinc of various degrees of purity has been the subject
of many investigations, particularly important with reference to
the application of zinc in galvanic batteries, whilst some
investigations have direct significance for chemical mechanics,
although from many points of view the matter is not clear. I
consider it useful to mention certain of these investigations.

Calvert and Johnson made the following series of observations on
the action of sulphuric acid of various degrees of concentration
on 2 grams of pure zinc during two hours. In the cold the
concentrated acid, H_{2}SO_{4}, does not act, H_{2}SO_{4},2H_{2}O
dissolves about 0·002 gram, but principally forms hydrogen
sulphide, which is obtained also when the dilution reaches
H_{2}SO_{4},7H_{2}O, when 0·035 gram of zinc is dissolved. When
largely diluted with water, pure hydrogen begins to be disengaged.
H_{2}SO_{4},2H_{2}O at 130° gives a mixture of hydrogen sulphide
and sulphurous anhydride dissolving 0·156 gram of zinc.

Bouchardat showed that if in a vessel made of glass or sulphur
dilute sulphuric acid acting on a piece of zinc liberates one part
of hydrogen, then the same acid with the same piece of zinc in the
same time will liberate 4 parts of hydrogen if the vessel be made
of tin--that is, zinc forms a galvanic couple with tin; in a
leaden vessel 9 parts of hydrogen are set free, with a vessel of
antimony or bismuth 13 parts, silver or platinum 38 parts, copper
50 parts, iron 43 parts. If a salt of platinum be added to the
dilute sulphuric acid (1 part of acid and 12 parts of water),
Millon determined that the rapidity of the action on the zinc is
increased 149 times, and by the addition of copper sulphate is
rendered 45 times greater than the action of pure sulphuric acid.
The salts which are added are reduced to metals by the zinc, their
contact serving to promote the reaction because they form local
galvanic currents.

According to the observations of Cailletet, if, at the ordinary
pressure, sulphuric acid with zinc liberates 100 parts of
hydrogen, then with a pressure of 60 atmospheres 47 parts will be
liberated and 1 part at a pressure of 120 atmospheres. With a
reduced pressure under the receiver of an air-pump 168 parts are
liberated. Helmholtz showed that a reduced pressure also exercises
its influence on galvanic elements.

Debray, Löwel, and others showed that zinc liberates hydrogen and
forms basic salts and zinc oxide with solutions of many salts--for
instance, MCl_{_n_}, aluminium sulphate, and alum, Sodium and
potassium carbonates scarcely act, because they form carbonates.
The salts of ammonia act more strongly than the salts of potassium
and sodium; the zinc remains bright. It is evident that this
action is founded on the formation of double salts and basic
salts.

The variation with concentration in the rate of the action of
sulphuric acid on zinc (containing impurities) under otherwise
uniform conditions is in evident connection with the electrical
conductivity of the solution and its viscosity, although, when
largely diluted, the action is almost proportional to the amount
of acid in a known volume of the solution. Forging, casting the
molten metal, and similar mechanical influences change the density
and hardness of zinc, and also strongly influence its power of
liberating hydrogen from acids. Kayander showed (1881) that when
magnesium is submitted to the action of acids: (_a_) the action
depends, not on the nature of the acid, but on its basicity; (_b_)
the increase of the action is more rapid than the growth of the
concentration; and (_c_) there is a decrease of action with the
increase of the coefficient of internal friction and electrical
conductivity.

Spring and Aubel (1887) measured the volume of hydrogen disengaged
by an alloy of zinc and a small quantity of lead (0·6 p.c.),
because the action of acids is then uniform. In order to deal with
a known surface, spheres were taken (9·5 millimetres diameter) and
cylinders (17 mm. dia.), the sides of which were covered with wax
in order to limit the action to the end surfaces. During the
commencement of the action of a definite quantity of acid the
rapidity increases, attains a maximum, and then declines as the
acid becomes exhausted. The results for 5, 10, and 15 per cent. of
hydrochloric acid are given below. H denotes the number of cubic
centimetres of hydrogen, D the time in seconds elapsing after the
zinc spheres have been plunged into the acid. At 15° were
obtained:

H = 50 100 200 400 600 800 1000
5 p.c. D = 714 1152 1755 2731 3908 6234 15462
10 p.c. D = 301 455 649 995 1573 2746 6748
15 p.c. D = 106 151 233 440 826 1604 4289

At 35°:

5 p.c. D = 462 705 1058 1700 2525 4132 8499
10 p.c. D = 96 148 239 460 835 1594 3735
15 p.c. D = 44 64 112 255 505 1011 2457

At 55°:

5 p.c. D = 178 276 408 699 1164 2105 5093
10 p.c. D = 34 60 113 258 491 970 2457
15 p.c. D = 24 35 58 136 239 610 1593

In consequence of the complex character of the phenomenon, the
authors themselves do not consider their determinations as being
conclusive, and only give them a relative significance; and in
this connection it is remarkable that hydrobromic acid under
similar conditions (with an equivalent strength) gives a greater
(from 2 to 5 times) rapidity of action than hydrochloric acid, but
sulphuric acid a far smaller velocity (nearly 25 times smaller).
It is also remarkable that during the reaction the metal becomes
much more heated than the acid.

It may be mentioned that zinc dust and zinc itself, when heated
with hydrated lime and similar hydrates, disengages hydrogen: this
method has even been proposed for obtaining hydrogen for filling
war balloons.

The action of zinc on acids, and the consequent formation of zinc salts, interferes with its application in many cases, particularly for the preservation of liquids either containing or capable of developing acid. For this reason zinc vessels ought not to be used for the preparation or preservation of food, as this often contains acids which form poisonous salts with the zinc. Even ordinary water, containing carbonic acid, slowly attacks zinc.

Finely divided zinc, or _zinc dust_, obtained in the distillation of the metal when the receiver is not heated up to the melting point, on account of its presenting a large surface of contact and containing foreign matter (particularly zinc oxide), has in the highest degree the property of decomposing acids, and even water, which it easily decomposes, particularly if slightly heated. On this account zinc dust is often used in laboratories and factories as a reducing agent. A similar influence of the finely divided state is also noticed in other metals--for instance, copper and silver--which again shows the close connection between chemical and physico-mechanical phenomena. We must first of all turn to this close connection for an explanation of the widely spread application of zinc in galvanic batteries, where the chemical (latent, potential) energy of the acting substances is transformed into (evident, kinetic) galvanic energy, and through this latter into heat, light, or mechanical work.

Hermann and Stromeyer, in 1819, showed that _cadmium_ is almost always found with zinc, and in many respects resembles it. When distilled the cadmium volatilises sooner, because it has a lower boiling point. Sometimes the zinc dust obtained by the first distillation of zinc contains as much as 5 per cent. of cadmium. When zinc blende, containing cadmium, is roasted, the zinc passes into the state of oxide, and the cadmium sulphide in the ore oxidises into cadmium sulphate, CdSO_{4}, which resists tolerably well the action of heat; therefore if roasted zinc blende be washed with water, a solution of cadmium sulphate will be obtained, from which it is very easy to prepare metallic cadmium. Hydrogen sulphide may be used for separating cadmium from its solutions; it gives _a yellow precipitate of cadmium sulphide_, CdS (according to the equation CdSO_{4} + H_{2}S = H_{2}SO_{4} + CdS),[11] which, on account of its characteristic colour, is used as a pigment.[11 bis] Cadmium sulphide, when strongly heated in air, leaves cadmium oxide, from which the metal may be obtained in precisely the same way as in the case of zinc.

[11] It may be here remarked that sulphate of zinc (especially in the
presence of mineral acids) does not give a precipitate of sulphide
of zinc, or is only slightly precipitated by sulphuretted
hydrogen.

[11 bis] Sulphide of cadmium appears in two varieties of a similar
chemical but different physical character: one is of a lemon
colour, and the other bright red. Kloboukoff (1890) studied the
physical properties of these varieties more closely. The sp. gr.
of the former is 3·906, and of the latter 4·513. They belong to
different crystallographic systems. The first variety may be
converted into the second by friction or pressure, but the second
cannot be converted into the first variety by these means.

Cadmium is a white metal, and when freshly cut is almost as white and lustrous as tin. It is so soft that it may be easily cut with a knife, and so malleable that it can be easily drawn into wire, rolled into sheets, &c. Its specific gravity is 8·67, melting point 320°, boiling point 770°; its vapours burn, forming a brown powder of the oxide.[12] Next to mercury it is the most volatile metal; hence Deville determined the density of its vapours compared with hydrogen, and found it to be equal to 57·1; therefore the molecule contains _one atom_ whose weight = 112. V. Meyer found the like for zinc; the molecule of mercury also contains one atom.

[12] Amongst the compounds of cadmium very closely allied to the
compounds of zinc, we must mention _cadmium iodide_, CdI_{2},
which is used in medicine and photography. This salt crystallises
very well: it is prepared by the direct action of iodine, mixed
with water, on metallic cadmium. One part of cadmium iodide at 20°
requires for its solution 1·08 part of water. It may be remarked
that cadmium chloride at the same temperature requires 0·71 part
of water to dissolve it, so that the iodine compound of this metal
is less soluble than the chloride, whilst the reverse relation
holds in the case of the corresponding compounds of the alkali or
alkaline earthy metals. Cadmium sulphate crystallises well, and
has the composition 3CdSO_{4},8H_{2}O, thus differing from zinc
sulphate.

Cadmium oxide is soluble, although sparingly, in alkalis, but in
the presence of tartaric and certain other acids the alkaline
solution of cadmium oxide does not change when boiled, whilst a
_diluted_ solution in that case deposits cadmium oxide: this may
also serve for separating zinc compounds from those of cadmium.
Cadmium is precipitated from its salts by zinc, which fact may
also be taken advantage of for separating cadmium; for this
reason, in an alloy of zinc and cadmium, acids first of all
extract the zinc. Cadmium is in all respects less energetic than
zinc. Thus, for instance, it decomposes water with difficulty, and
this only when strongly heated. It even acts but slowly on acids,
but then displaces hydrogen from them. It is necessary here to
call attention to the fact that for alkali and alkaline earthy
metals (of the even series) the highest atomic weight determines
the greatest energy; but cadmium (of the uneven series), whilst
having a larger atomic weight than zinc, is less energetic. The
salts of cadmium are colourless, like those of zinc. De Schulten
obtained a crystalline oxychloride, Cd(OH)Cl by heating marble
with a solution of cadmium chloride in a sealed tube at 200°.

_Mercury_ resembles zinc and cadmium in many respects, but
presents that distinction from them which is always noticed in all
the heaviest metals (with regard to atomic weight and density)
compared with the lighter ones--namely, that it oxidises with more
difficulty, and its compounds are more easily decomposed.[12 bis]
Besides compounds of the usual type RX_{2}, it also gives those of
the lower type, RX, which are unknown for zinc and cadmium.[13]
Mercury therefore gives salts of the composition HgX (mercurous
salts) and HgX_{2} (mercuric salts), the oxides having the formulæ
Hg_{2}O and HgO respectively.

[12 bis] According to its atomic weight, mercury follows gold in the
periodic system, just as cadmium follows silver and zinc follows
copper:--

Ni = 59 Cu = 63 Zn = 65
Pd = 106 Ag = 108 Cd = 112
Pt = 196 Au = 198 Hg = 200

Eventually we shall see the near relation of platinum, palladium,
and nickel, and also of gold, silver, and copper, but we will now
point out the parallelism between these three groups. The relation
between the physical and also chemical properties is here
strikingly similar. Nickel, palladium, and platinum are very
difficult to fuse (far more so than iron, ruthenium, and osmium,
which stand before them). Copper, silver, and gold melt far more
easily in a strong heat than the three preceding metals, and zinc,
cadmium, and mercury melt still more easily. Nickel, palladium,
and platinum are very slightly volatile; copper, silver, and gold
are more volatile; and zinc, cadmium, and mercury are among the
most volatile metals. Zinc oxidises more easily than copper, and
is reduced with more difficulty, and the same is true for mercury
as compared with gold. These properties for cadmium and silver are
intermediate in the respective groups. Relations of this kind
clearly show the nature of the periodic law.

[13] Thus thallium, lead, and bismuth, following mercury according to
their atomic weights, form, besides compounds of the highest
types, TlX_{3}, PbX_{4}, and BiX_{5}, also the lower ones TlX,
PbX_{2}, and BiX_{3}.

Mercury is found _in nature_ almost exclusively in combination with sulphur (like zinc and cadmium, but is still rarer than them) in the form known as cinnabar, HgS (Chapter XX., Note 29). It is far more rarely met with in the native or metallic condition, and this in all probability has been derived from cinnabar. Mercury ore is found only in a few places--namely, in Spain (in Almaden), in Idria, Japan, Peru, and California. About the year 1880 Minenkoff discovered a rich bed of cinnabar in the Bahmout district (near the station of Nikitovka), in the Government of Ekaterinoslav, so that now Russia even exports mercury to other countries. Cinnabar is now being worked in Daghestan in the Caucasus. Mercury ores are easily reduced to metallic mercury, because the combination between the metal and the sulphur is one of but little stability. Oxygen, iron, lime, and many other substances, when heated, easily destroy the combination. If iron is heated with cinnabar, iron sulphide is formed; if cinnabar is heated with lime, mercury and calcium sulphide and sulphate are formed, 4HgS + 4CaO = 4Hg + 3CaS + CaSO_{4}. On being heated in the air, or roasted, the sulphur burns, oxidises, forming sulphurous anhydride, and vapours of metallic mercury are formed. Mercury is more easily distilled than all other metals, its boiling point being about 351°, and therefore its separation from natural admixtures, decomposed by one of the above-mentioned methods, is effected at the expense of a comparatively small amount of heat. The mixture of mercury vapour, air, and products of combustion obtained is cooled in tubes (by water or air), and the mercury condenses as liquid metal.[14]

[14] During the condensation of the vapours of mercury in works, a part
forms a black mass of finely-divided particles, which gives
metallic mercury when worked up in centrifugal machines, or on
pressure, or on re-distillation. In mercury we observe a tendency
to easily split up into the finest drops, which are difficult to
unite into a dense mass. It is sufficient to shake up mercury with
nitric and sulphuric acids in order to produce such a mercury
_powder_. The mercury separated (for instance, reduced by
substances like sulphurous anhydride) from solutions, forms such a
powder. According to the experiments of Nernst, this disintegrated
mercury when entering into reactions develops more heat than the
dense liquid metal--that is to say, the work of disintegration
reappears in the form of heat. This example is instructive in
considering thermochemical deductions.

Mercury, as everybody knows, is a liquid metal at the ordinary temperature. In its lustre and whiteness it resembles silver.[15] At -39° mercury is transformed into a malleable crystalline metal; at 0° its specific gravity is 13·596, and in the solid state at -40° it is 14·39.[16] Mercury does not change in the air--that is to say, it does not oxidise at the ordinary temperature--but at a temperature approaching the boiling-point, as was stated in the Introduction, it oxidises, forming mercuric oxide. Both metallic mercury and its compounds in general produce salivation, trembling of the hands, and other unhealthy symptoms which are found in the workmen exposed to the influence of mercurial vapours or the dust of its compounds.

[15] Mercury may sometimes be obtained in a perfectly pure state from
works (in iron bottles holding about 35 kilos), but after being
used in laboratories (for baths, calibration, &c.) it contains
impurities. It may be purified mechanically in the following way:
a paper filter with a fine hole (pricked with a needle) is placed
in a glass funnel and mercury is poured into it, which slowly
trickles through the hole, leaving the impurities upon the filter.
Sometimes it is squeezed through chamois leather or through a
block of wood (as in the well-known experiment with the air-pump).
It may be purified from many metals by contact with dilute nitric
acid, if small drops of mercury are allowed to pass through a long
column of it (from the fine end of a funnel); or by shaking it up
with sulphuric acid in air. Mercury may be purified by the action
of an electric current, if it be covered with a solution of
HgNO_{3}. But the complete purification of mercury for barometers
and thermometers can only be attained by distillation, best in a
vacuum (the vapour-tension of mercury is given in Chapter II.,
Note 27). For this purpose Weinhold's apparatus is most often
used. The principle of this apparatus is very ingenious, the
distillation being effected in a Torricellian vacuum continuously
supplied with fresh mercury, whilst the condensed mercury is
continuously removed. This process of distillation requires very
little attention, and gives about one kilo of pure mercury per
hour.

[16] If the volume of _liquid_ mercury at 0° be taken as 1000000, then,
according to the determinations of Regnault (recalculated by me in
1875), at _t_ it will be 1000000 + 180·1_t_ + 0·02_t_^2.

As many of the compounds of mercury decompose on being heated--for instance, the oxide or carbonate[17]--and as zinc, cadmium, copper, iron, and other metals separate mercury from its salts,[18] it is evident that mercury has less chemical energy than the metals already described, even than zinc and cadmium. Nitric acid, when acting on _an excess_ of mercury at the ordinary temperature, gives mercurous nitrate, HgNO_{3}.[19] The same acid, under the influence of heat and when in excess (nitric oxide being liberated), forms mercuric nitrate, Hg(NO_{3})_{2}. This,[20] both in its composition and properties, resembles the salts of zinc and cadmium. Dilute sulphuric acid does not act on mercury, but strong sulphuric acid dissolves it, with evolution of _sulphurous anhydride_ (not hydrogen), and on being slightly heated with an excess of mercury it forms the sparingly soluble mercurous sulphate, Hg_{2}SO_{4}; but if mercury be strongly heated with an excess of the acid, the mercuric salt, HgSO_{4},[21] is formed. Alkalis do not act on mercury, but the non-metals chlorine, bromine, sulphur, and phosphorus easily combine with it. They form, like the acids, two series of compounds, HgX and HgX_{2}. The oxygen compound of the first series is the suboxide of mercury, or mercurous oxide, Hg_{2}O, and of the second order the oxide HgO, mercuric oxide. The chlorine compound corresponding with the suboxide is HgCl (calomel), and with the oxide HgCl_{2} (corrosive sublimate or mercuric chloride). In the compounds HgX, mercury resembles the metals of the first group, and more especially silver. In the mercuric compounds there is an evident resemblance to those of magnesium, cadmium, &c. Here the atom of mercury is bivalent, as in the type RX_{2}.[22] Every soluble mercurous compound (corresponding with the type of the suboxide of mercury), HgX, forms a white precipitate of calomel, HgCl, with hydrochloric acid or a metallic chloride, because HgCl is very slightly soluble in water, HgX + MCl = HgCl + MX. In soluble mercuric compounds, HgX_{2}, hydrochloric acid and metallic chlorides do not form a precipitate, because corrosive sublimate, HgCl_{2}, is soluble in water. Alkali hydroxides precipitate the yellow mercuric oxide from a solution of HgX_{2}, and the black mercurous oxide from HgX. Potassium iodide forms a dirty greenish precipitate, HgI, with mercurous salts, HgX, and a red precipitate, HgI_{2}, with the mercuric salts, HgX_{2}. These reactions distinguish the mercuric from the mercurous salts, which latter represent the transition from the mercuric salts to mercury itself, 2HgX = Hg + HgX_{2}. The salts, HgX, as well as HgX_{2}, are reduced by nascent hydrogen (_e.g._ from Zn + H_{2}SO_{4}), by such metals as zinc and copper, and also by many reducing agents--for example, hypophosphorous acid, the lowest grade of oxidation of phosphorus, by sulphurous anhydride, stannous chloride, &c. Under the action of these reagents the mercuric salts are first transformed into the mercurous salts, and the latter are then reduced to metallic mercury. This reaction is so delicate that it serves to detect the smallest quantity of mercury; for instance, in cases of poisoning, the mercury is detected by immersing a copper plate in the solution to be tested, the mercury being then deposited upon it (more readily on passing a galvanic current). The copper plate, on being rubbed, shows a silvery white colour; on being heated, it yields vapours of mercury, and then again assumes its original red colour (if it does not oxidise). The mercurous compounds, HgX, under the action of oxidising agents, even air, pass into mercuric compounds, especially in the presence of acids (otherwise a basic salt is produced), 2HgX + 2HX + O = 2HgX_{2} + H_{2}O; but the mercuric compounds, when in contact with mercury, change more or less readily, and turn into mercurous compounds, HgX_{2} + Hg = 2HgX. For this reason, in order to preserve solutions of mercurous salts, a little mercury is generally added to them.

[17] All salts of mercury, when mixed with sodium carbonate and heated,
give mercurous or mercuric carbonates; these decompose on being
heated, forming carbonic anhydride, oxygen, and vapours of
mercury.

[18] Spring (1888) showed that, solid dry HgCl is gradually decomposed
in contact with metallic copper. According to the determinations
of Thomsen, the formation of a gram of mercurial compounds from
their elements develops the following amounts of heat (in
thousands of units): Hg_{2} + O, 42; Hg + O, 31; Hg + S, 17; Hg +
Cl, 41; Hg + Br, 34; Hg + I, 24; Hg + Cl_{2}, 63; Hg + Br_{2}, 51;
Hg + I_{2}, 34; Hg + C_{2}N_{2}, 19. These numbers are less than
the corresponding ones for potassium, sodium, calcium, barium, and
for zinc and cadmium--for instance, Zn + O, 85; Zn + Cl_{2}, 97;
Zn + Br_{2}, 76; Zn + I_{2}, 49; Cd + Cl_{2}, 93; Cd + Br_{2}, 75;
Cd + I_{2}, 49.

[19] This salt easily forms the crystallo-hydrate HgNO_{3},H_{2}O,
corresponding with ortho-nitric acid, H_{3}NO_{4} (the terms
ortho-, pyro-, and meta-acids are explained in the chapter on
Phosphorus), with the substitution of Hg for H. In an aqueous
solution this salt can only be preserved in the presence of free
mercury, otherwise it forms basic salts, which will be mentioned
hereafter (Chapter VI., Note 59).

[20] Mercuric nitrate, Hg(NO_{3})_{2},8H_{2}O, crystallises from a
concentrated solution of mercury in an excess of boiling nitric
acid. Water decomposes this salt; at the ordinary temperature
crystals of a basic salt of the composition
Hg(NO_{3})_{2},HgO,2H_{2}O are formed, and with an excess of water
the insoluble yellow basic salt Hg(NO_{3})_{2},H_{2}O,2HgO. These
three salts correspond with the type of ortho-nitric acid,
(H_{3}NO_{4})_{2}, in which mercury is substituted for 1, 2 and 3
times H_{2}. As all these salts still contain water, it is
possible that they correspond with the tetrahydrate = N_{2}O_{5} +
4H_{2}O = N_{2}O(OH)_{8} if ortho-nitric acid = N_{2}O_{5} +
3H_{2}O = 2NO(OH)_{3}.

[21] To obtain the mercuric salt a large excess of strong sulphuric
acid must be taken and strongly heated. With a small quantity of
water colourless crystals of HgSO_{4},H_{2}O may be obtained. An
excess of water, especially when heated, forms the basic salt (as
in Note 20), HgSO_{4},2HgO, which corresponds with trihydrated
sulphuric acid, SO_{3} + 3H_{2}O = S(OH)_{6}, with the
substitution of H_{6} by 3Hg, which in mercuric salts is
equivalent to H_{6}. Le Chatelier (1888) gives the following ratio
between the amounts of equivalents per litre:

HgSO_{4} 0·318 0·890 1·80 2·02
SO_{3} 0·752 1·42 2·10 2·40

--that is, the relative amount of free acid decreases as the
strength of the solution increases.

[22] The question of the molecular weight of calomel--that is, whether
the mercury in the salts of the suboxide is monatomic or
diatomic--long occupied the minds of chemists, although it is not
of very great importance. It is only recently (1894) that this
question can be considered as answered, thanks to the researches
of V. Meyer and Harris, in favour of diatomicity--that is, that
calomel is analogous to peroxide of hydrogen and contains
Hg_{2}Cl_{2} (like O_{2}H_{2}) in its molecule if corrosive
sublimate contains HgCl_{2} (like water OH_{2}). As a matter of
fact, direct experiment gives the vapour density of calomel as
about 118--that is, indicates that its molecule contains HgCl,
whilst the molecule of the sublimate, judging also by the vapour
density (nearly 136), contains HgCl_{2}; it might therefore be
concluded that the mercury in the suboxide is not only monovalent
(corresponding to H) but also monatomic, whilst in the oxide it is
divalent and diatomic. Instances of a variable atomicity, as shown
by the vapour density, are known in N_{2}O, NO, and NH_{3}, CO and
CO_{2}, PCl_{3} and PCl_{5}, and it might therefore be supposed
that the present was a similar instance. But there are also
instances of a variable equivalency which do not correspond to a
variation of atomicity--for example, OH_{2} (water) and OH
(peroxide of hydrogen), CH_{4} (methane), C_{2}H_{5} (ethyl), and
CH_{2} (ethylene), &c. Here, according to the law of substitution,
the residues of OH_{2} and CH_{4} combine together and give
molecules; OHOH = O_{2}H_{2} (peroxide of hydrogen) and
CH_{3}CH_{3} = C_{2}H_{6} (ethane), &c. The same may be assumed
also to be the relation of calomel to sublimate; the residue HgCl,
which is combined with Cl in sublimate, corresponds to HgCl_{2},
and in calomel it may be supposed that this residue is combined
with itself, forming the molecule Hg_{2}Cl_{2}. On this view of
the composition of the molecule of calomel it would follow that in
the state of vapour it breaks up into two molecules, HgCl_{2} and
Hg, when the vapour density would be about 118 (because that of
sublimate is about 136 and that of mercury about 100), and that in
cooling this mixture (like a mixture of HCl and NH_{3}) again
gives Hg_{2}Cl_{2}. It was therefore necessary to prove that
calomel is decomposed in the state of vapour. This was not
effected for a long time, although Odling, as far back as the
thirties, showed that gold becomes amalgamated (_i.e._ absorbs
metallic mercury) in the vapour of calomel, but not in the vapour
of sublimate. Recently, however, V. Meyer and Harris (1894) have
shown that a greater amount of the vapour of mercury than of
calomel passes (at about 465°) through a porous clay cell,
containing calomel. This proves that the vapour of calomel
contains a mixture of the vapours of Hg and HgCl_{2}, as would
follow from the second hypothesis. Moreover, on introducing a
heated piece of KHO into the vapour of calomel, Meyer observed the
formation, not of suboxide (black), but of oxide of mercury
(yellow). Therefore the molecular formula of calomel must be taken
as Hg_{2}Cl_{2} (and not HgCl).

The lowest oxygen compound of mercury--that is, _mercurous oxide_, Hg_{2}O--does not seem to exist, for the substance precipitated in the form of a black mass by the action of alkalis on a solution of mercurous salts gradually separates on keeping into the yellow mercuric oxide and metallic mercury, as does also a simple mechanical mixture of oxide, HgO, with mercury (Guibourt, Barfoed). The other compound of mercury with oxygen is already known to us as _mercuric oxide_, HgO, obtained in the form of a red crystalline substance by the oxidation of mercury in the air, and precipitated as a yellow powder by the action of sodium hydroxide on solutions of salts of the type HgX_{2}. In this case it is amorphous and more amenable to the action of various reagents (Chap. XI., Note 32) than when it is in the crystalline state. Indeed, on trituration, the red oxide is changed into a powder of a yellow colour. It is very sparingly soluble in water, and forms an alkaline solution which precipitates magnesia from the solution of its salts.

Mercury combines directly with chlorine, and the first product of combination is _calomel_ or _mercurous chloride_, Hg_{2}Cl_{2}. This is obtained, as above stated, in the form of a white precipitate by mixing solutions of mercurous salts with hydrochloric acid or with metallic chlorides. A precipitate of calomel is also obtained by reducing a boiling aqueous solution of corrosive sublimate, HgCl_{2}, with sulphurous anhydride. It is likewise produced by heating corrosive sublimate with mercury.[22 bis] Calomel may be distilled (although in so doing it decomposes and recombines on cooling from a state of vapour); its vapour density equals 118 compared with hydrogen (= 1) (_see_ Note 23). In the solid state its specific gravity is 7·0; it crystallises in rhombic prisms, is colourless, but has a yellowish tint, turns brown from the action of light, and when boiled with hydrochloric acid decomposes into mercury and corrosive sublimate. It is used as a strong purgative. _Corrosive sublimate or mercuric chloride_, HgCl_{2}, can be obtained from or converted into calomel by many methods.[23] An excess of chlorine (for instance, _aqua regia_) converts calomel and also mercury into corrosive sublimate. It owes its name corrosive sublimate to its volatility, and, in medicine up to the present day, it is termed _Mercurius sublimatus seu corrosivus_. The vapour density, compared with hydrogen (= 1) is 135; therefore its molecule contains HgCl_{2}. It forms colourless prismatic crystals of the rhombic system, boils at 307°, and is soluble in alcohol. It is usually prepared by subliming a mixture of mercuric sulphate with common salt, HgSO_{4} + 2NaCl = Na_{2}SO_{4} + HgCl_{2}. Corrosive sublimate combines with mercuric oxide, forming an oxychloride or basic salt,[23 bis] of the composition HgCl_{2},2HgO (magnesium and zinc form similar compounds). This compound is obtained by mixing a solution of corrosive sublimate with mercuric oxide or with a solution of sodium bicarbonate. In general, with both mercurous and mercuric salts, there is a marked tendency to form basic salts.[24]

[22 bis] Calomel (in Japanese 'Keyfun') has been prepared in Japan (and
China) for many centuries, by heating mercury in clay crucibles
with sea salt, which contains MgCl_{2} and gives HCl. The vapour
of the mercury reacts with this HCl and the oxygen of the air and
forms calomel: 2Hg + 2HCl + O = Hg_{2}Cl_{2} + H_{2}O. The calomel
collects on the lid of the crucible in the form of a sublimate
(Divers, 1894).

[23] HgCl_{2} is partially converted into calomel even in the act of
dissolving in ordinary water, especially under the action of light.

[23 bis] As feebly energetic bases (for instance, the oxides MgO, ZnO,
PbO, CuO, Al_{2}O_{3}, Bi_{2}O_{3}, &c.), mercuric oxide (_see_
Notes 20, 21) and mercurous oxide easily give basic salts, which
are usually directly formed by the action of water on the normal
salt, according to the general equation (for mercuric compounds,
RX_{2}):

_n_RX_{2} + _m_H_{2}O = 2_m_HX + (_n_-_m_)RX_{2}_m_RO
neutral salt water acid basic salt

or else are produced directly from the normal salt and the oxide
or its hydroxide. Thus mercurous nitrate, when treated with water,
forms basic salts of the composition 6(HgNO_{3}),Hg_{2}O,H_{2}O,
2(HgNO_{3}),Hg_{2}O,H_{2}O, and 3(HgNO_{3}),Hg_{2}O,H_{2}O, the
first two of which crystallise well. Naturally it is possible
either to refer similar salts to the type of hydrates--for
instance, the second salt to the hydrate N_{2}O_{5},4H_{2}O--or to
view it as a compound, HgNO_{3},HgHO, but our present knowledge of
basic salts is not sufficiently complete to admit of
generalisations. However, it is already possible to view the
subject in the following aspects: (1) basic salts are principally
formed from feeble bases; (2) certain metals (mentioned above)
form them with particular ease, so that one of the causes of the
formation of many basic salts must depend on the property of the
metal itself; (3) those bases which readily form basic salts as a
rule also readily form double salts; (4) in the formation of basic
salts, as also everywhere in chemistry, where sufficient facts
have accumulated, we clearly see the conditions of equally
balanced heterogeneous systems, such as we saw, for instance, in
the formation of double salts, crystallo-hydrates, &c.

The mercuric salts often form double salts (confirming the third
thesis), and mercuric chloride easily combines with ammonia,
forming Hg(NH_{4})_{2}Cl_{4}, or in general HgCl_{2}_n_MCl. If a
mixture of mercurous and potassium sulphates be dissolved in
dilute sulphuric acid, the solution easily yields large colourless
crystals of a double salt of the composition
K_{2}SO_{4},3HgSO_{4},2H_{2}O. Boullay obtained crystalline
compounds of mercuric chloride with hydrochloric acid, and
mercuric iodide with hydriodic acid; and Thomsen describes the
compound HgBr_{2},HBr,4H_{2}O as a well-crystallised salt, melting
at 13°, and having, in a molten state, a specific gravity 3·17 and
a high index of refraction. Moreover, the capacity of salts for
forming basic compounds has been considerably cleared up since the
investigation (by Würtz, Lorenz, and others) of glycol,
C_{2}H_{4}(OH)_{2} (and of polyatomic alcohols resembling it),
because the ethers C_{2}H_{4}X_{2}, corresponding with it, are
capable of forming compounds containing
C_{2}H_{4}X_{2}_n_C_{2}H_{4}O.

On the other hand, there is reason to think that the property of
forming basic salts is connected with the polymerisation of bases,
especially colloidal ones (_see_ the chapter on Silica, Lead
Salts, and Tungstic Acid).

[24] Mercuric iodide, HgI_{2}, is obtained first as a yellow, and then
as a red, precipitate on mixing solutions of mercuric salts and
potassium iodide, and is soluble in an excess of the latter (in
consequence of the formation of the double salt, HgKI_{3}); of
ammonium chloride (for a similar reason), &c. It crystallises at
the ordinary temperature in square prisms of a red colour. On
being heated, these change into yellow rhombic crystals,
isomorphous with mercuric chloride. This yellow form of mercuric
iodide is very unstable, and when cooled and triturated easily
again assumes the more stable red form. When fused, a yellow
liquid is obtained. _Mercuric cyanide_, Hg(CN)_{2}, forms one of
the most stable metallic cyanides. It is obtained by dissolving
mercuric oxide in prussic acid, and by boiling Prussian blue with
water and mercuric oxide, ferric oxide being then obtained in the
precipitate. Mercuric cyanide is a colourless crystalline
substance, soluble in water, and distinguished by its great
stability; sulphuric acid does not liberate prussic acid from it,
and even caustic potash does not remove the cyanogen (a complex
salt is probably produced), but the halogen acids disengage HCN.
Like the chloride, it combines with mercuric oxide, forming the
oxycyanide, Hg_{2}O(CN)_{2}, and it shows a very marked tendency
to form double compounds--for example, K_{2}Hg(CN)_{4}. The alkali
chlorides and iodides form similar compounds--for instance, the
salt HgKI(CN)_{2} crystallises very well, and is produced by
directly mixing solutions of potassium iodide and mercuric
cyanide.

Wells (1889) and Vare obtained and investigated many such double
salts, and showed the possibility of the formation, not only of
HgCl_{2}MCl and HgCl_{2}2MCl where M is a metal of the
alkalis--for example, Cs--but also of HgCl_{2}3MCl,2(HgCl_{2})MCl,
and in general _n_HgX_{2}_m_MX, where X stands for various
haloids.

Mercury has a remarkable power of forming very unstable compounds with ammonia, in which the mercury replaces the hydrogen, and, if a mercuric compound be taken, its atom occupies the place of two atoms of the hydrogen in the ammonia. Thus Plantamour and Hirtzel showed that precipitated mercuric oxide dried at a gentle heat, when continuously heated (up to 100°-150°) in a stream of dry ammonia, leaves a brown powder of _mercuric nitride_, N_{2}Hg_{3}, according to the equation 3HgO + 2NH_{3} = N_{2}Hg_{3} + 3H_{2}O.[24 bis] This substance, which is attacked by water, acids, and alkalis (giving a white powder), is very explosive when struck or rubbed, evolving nitrogen, proving that the bond between the mercury and the nitrogen is very feeble.[25] By the action of liquefied ammonia on yellow mercuric oxide Weitz also obtained an explosive compound, dimercurammonium hydroxide, N_{2}Hg_{4}O, which corresponds with an ammonium oxide, (NH_{4})_{2}O, in which the whole of the hydrogen is replaced by mercury. A solution of ammonia reacts with mercuric oxide, forming the hydroxide, NHg_{2}.OH, to which a whole series of salts, NHg_{2}X, correspond; these are generally insoluble in water and capable of decomposing with an explosion. But salts of the same type, but with one atom of mercury, NH_{2}HgX, are more frequently and more easily formed; they were principally studied by Kane, although known much earlier. Thus, if ammonia be added to a solution of corrosive sublimate (or, still better, in reverse order), a precipitate is obtained known as white precipitate (_Mercurius præcipitatus albus_) or _mercurammonium chloride_, NH_{2}HgCl, which may also be regarded not only as sal-ammoniac with the substitution of H_{2} by mercury, but also as HgX_{2}, where one X represents Cl and the other X represents the ammonia radicle, HgCl_{2} + 2NH_{3} = NH_{2}.HgCl + NH_{4}Cl. When heated, mercurammonium chloride decomposes, yielding mercurous chloride; when heated with dry hydrochloric acid it forms ammonium chloride and mercuric chloride. Other simple and double salts of mercurammonium, NH_{2}HgX, are also known. Pici (1890) showed that all the compounds HgH_{2}NX may be regarded as compounds of the above-named Hg_{2}NX with NH_{4}X because their sum equals 2HgH_{2}X.[25 bis]

[24 bis] _See_ Chapter XIX., Note 6 bis: Hg_{3}P_{2}. In studying the
metallic nitrides it is necessary to keep the corresponding
phosphides in mind.

[25] Hg_{3}N_{2} is similar in composition to Mg_{3}N_{2}, &c. (Chapter
XIV.) The readiness with which mercuric nitride explodes shows
that the connection between the nitrogen and the mercury is very
unstable, and explains the circumstance that the so-called
_mercury fulminate_, or _fulminating mercury_, is an exceedingly
explosive substance. This substance is prepared in large
quantities for explosive mixtures; it enters into the composition
of percussion caps, which explode when struck, and ignite
gunpowder. Mercury fulminate was discovered by Howard, and from
that time has been prepared in the following way: one part of
mercury is dissolved in twelve parts of nitric acid, of sp. gr.
1·36, and when the whole of the mercury is dissolved, 5·5 parts of
90 p.c. alcohol are added, and the mass is shaken. A reaction then
commences, accompanied by a rise in temperature due to the
oxidation of the alcohol. As a matter of fact, many oxidation
products are produced during the action of the nitric acid on the
alcohol (glycolic acid, ethers, &c.) When the reaction becomes
tolerably vigorous, the same quantity of alcohol is added as at
the commencement, when a grey precipitate of the fulminate
separates. This salt has the composition C_{2}Hg(NO_{2})N. It
explodes when struck or heated. The mercury in it may be replaced
by other metals--for instance, copper or zinc, and also silver.
The silver salt, C_{2}Ag_{2}(NO_{2})N, is obtained in a precisely
analogous manner, and is even more explosive. Under the action of
alkali chlorides, only half the silver is replaced by the alkali
metal, but if the whole of the silver be replaced by an alkali
metal, then the salt decomposes. This is evidently because
combinations of this kind proceed in virtue of the formation of
substances in which mercury, and metals akin to it, are connected
in an unstable way with nitrogen. Potassium and other light metals
are incapable of entering into such connection and therefore, the
substitution of potassium for mercury entails the splitting-up of
the combination. Investigations of the fulminates were carried on
by Gay-Lussac and Liebig, but only the investigations of L. N.
Shishkoff fully cleared up the composition and relation of these
substances to the other carbon compounds. Shishkoff showed that
fulminates correspond with the nitro-acid, C_{2}H_{2}(NO_{2})N.
The explosiveness of the group depends partly on its containing at
the same time NO_{2} and carbon; we already know that all such
nitrogen compounds are explosive. If we imagine that the NO_{2} is
replaced by hydrogen, we shall have a substance of the composition
C_{2}H_{3}N. This is acetonitrile--that is, acetic acid + NH_{3} -
2H_{2}O, or ethenyl nitrile, as shown in Chapter VI. The formation
of an acetic compound by the action of nitric acid on alcohol is
easily understood, because acetic acid is produced by the
oxidation of alcohol, and the production of the elements of
ammonia, indispensable for the formation of a nitrile, is
accounted for by the fact that nitric acid under the action of
reducing substances in many cases forms ammonia. Moreover a
certain analogy has been found between fulminating acid and
hydroxylamine, but details upon this subject must be looked for in
works on organic chemistry. The explosiveness of fulminating
mercury, the rapidity of its decomposition (gunpowder, and even
guncotton, burn more slowly and explode less violently), and the
force of its explosion, are such that a small quantity (loosely
covered) will shatter massive objects.

The investigations of Abel on the communication of explosion from
one substance to another are remarkable. If guncotton be ignited
in an open space, it burns quietly; but if fulminating mercury be
exploded by the side of it, the decomposition of the guncotton is
effected instantaneously, and it then shatters the objects upon
which it lies, so rapid is the decomposition. Abel explains this
by supposing that the explosion of the fulminating salt brings the
molecules of guncotton into a uniform or as it were harmonious
state of vibration, which causes the rapid decomposition of the
whole mass. This rapid decomposition of explosive substances
defines the distinction between explosion and combustion. Besides
this, Berthelot showed that from that form of powerful molecular
concussion which takes place during the explosion of fulminating
mercury, the state of strain and stability of equilibrium of
substances which are endothermal, or capable of decomposing with
the disengagement of heat--for instance, cyanogen, nitro
compounds, nitrous oxide, &c.--is generally destroyed. Thorpe
showed that carbon bisulphide, CS_{2}, also an endothermal
substance, decomposes into sulphur and charcoal, when fulminating
mercury is exploded in contact with it.

[25 bis] The capacity for replacing hydrogen in chloride of ammonium by
metals also belongs to Zn and Cd. Kvasnik (1892), by the action of
ammonia upon alcoholic solutions of CdCl_{2} and ZnCl_{2},
obtained substances of the general formula M(NH_{3}Cl)_{2}, formed
as it were from two molecules of sal-ammoniac by the substitution
of two atoms of hydrogen by a diatomic metal. These substances
appear as white, finely crystalline powders. Under the action of
heat half the ammonia passes off, and a compound of the
composition MClNH_{3}Cl is formed. The compounds of cadmium and
zinc are distinguished from each other by the former being more
volatile than the latter.

We may further remark that in the series Mg, Zn, Cd, and Hg the
capacity to form double salts of diverse composition increases
with the atomic weight. Thus, according to Wells and Walden's
observations (1893), the ratio _n_ : _m_ for the type
_n_MCl_m_RCl_{2} (M = K, Li, Na ... R = Mg, Zn ...) is for Mg 1 :
1, for Zn 3 : 1, 2 : 1, and 1 : 1; for Cd, besides this, salts are
known with the ratio 4 : 1, and for Hg 3 : 1, 2 : 1, 1 : 1, 2 : 3,
1 : 2, and 1 : 5.

Mercury as a liquid metal is capable of dissolving other metals and forming metallic solutions. These are generally called 'amalgams.' The formation of these solutions is often accompanied by the development of a large amount of heat--for instance, when potassium and sodium are dissolved (Chapter XII., Note 39); but sometimes heat is absorbed, as, for instance, when lead is dissolved. It is evident that phenomena of this kind are exceedingly similar to the phenomena accompanying the dissolution of salts and other substances in water, but here it is easy to demonstrate that which is far more difficult to observe in the case of salts: the solution of metals in mercury is accompanied by the formation of definite chemical compounds of the mercury with the metals dissolved. This is shown by the fact that when pressed (best of all in chamois leather) such solutions leave solid, definite compounds of mercury with metals. It is, however, very difficult to obtain them in a pure state, on account of the difficulty of separating the last traces of mercury, which is mechanically distributed between the crystals of the compounds. Nevertheless, in many cases such compounds have undoubtedly been obtained, and their existence is clearly shown by the evident crystalline structure and characteristic appearance of many amalgams. Thus, for instance, if about 2-1/2 p.c. of sodium be dissolved in mercury, a hard, crystalline amalgam is obtained, very friable and little changeable in air. It contains the compound NaHg_{5} (Chapter XII., Note 39). Water decomposes it, with the evolution of hydrogen, but more slowly than other sodium amalgams, and this action of water only shows that the bond between the sodium and the mercury is weak, just like the connection between mercury and many other elements--for instance, nitrogen. Mercury directly and easily dissolves potassium, sodium, zinc, cadmium, tin, gold, bismuth, lead, &c., and from such solutions or alloys it is in most cases easy to extract definite compounds--thus, for instance, the compounds of mercury and silver have the compositions HgAg and Ag_{2}Hg_{3}. Objects made of copper when rubbed with mercury become covered with a white coating of that metal, which slowly forms an amalgam; silver acts in the same way, but more slowly, and platinum combines with mercury with still greater difficulty. This metal only readily forms an amalgam when in the form of a fine powder. If salts of platinum in solution are poured on to an amalgam of sodium, the latter element reduces the platinum, and the platinum separated is dissolved by the mercury. Almost all metals readily form amalgams if their solutions are decomposed by a galvanic current, where mercury forms the negative pole. In this way an amalgam may even be made with iron, although iron in a mass does not dissolve in mercury. Some amalgams are found in nature--for instance, silver amalgams. Amalgams are used in considerable quantities in the arts. Thus the solubility of silver in mercury is taken advantage of for extracting that metal from the ore by means of amalgamation, and for silvering by fire. The same is the case with gold. Tin amalgam, which is incapable of crystallising and is obtained by dissolving tin in mercury, composes the brilliant coating of ordinary looking-glasses, which is made to adhere to the surface of the polished glass by simply pressing by mechanical means sheets of tin foil bathed in mercury on to the cleansed surface of the glass.[26] (_See_ 'The Nature of Amalgams,' by W. L. Dudley; Toronto, 1889.)

[26] I consider it appropriate here to call attention to the want of an
element (ekacadmium) between cadmium and mercury in the periodic
system (Chapter XV.) But as in the ninth series there is not a
single known element, it may be that this series is entirely
composed of elements incapable of existing under present
conditions. However, until this is proved in one way or another,
it may be concluded that the properties of ekacadmium will be
between those of cadmium and mercury. It ought to have an atomic
weight of about 155, to form an oxide EcO, a slightly stable oxide
Ec_{2}O. Both ought to be feeble bases, easily forming double and
basic salts. The volume of the oxide will be nearly 17·5, because
the volume of cadmium oxide is about 16, and that of mercuric
oxide 19. Therefore the density of the oxide will approach 171 ÷
17·5 = 9·7. The metal ought to be easily fusible, oxidising when
heated, of a grey colour, with a specific volume, about 14
(cadmium = 13, mercury = 15), and, therefore, its specific gravity
(155 ÷ 14) will nearly = 11. Such a metal is unknown. But in 1879
Dahl, in Norway, discovered in the island of Oterö, not far from
Kragerö, in a vein of Iceland spar in a nickel mine, traces of a
new metal which he called norwegium, and which presented a certain
resemblance to ekacadmium. Perfect purity of the metal was not
attained, and therefore the properties ascribed to norwegium must
be regarded as approximate, and likely to undergo considerable
alteration on further study. A solution of the roasted mineral in
acid was twice precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen, and again
ignited; the oxide obtained was easily reduced. When the metal was
dissolved in hydrochloric acid largely diluted with water, and the
solution boiled, the basic salt was precipitated, and thus freed
from the copper which remained in the solution. The reduced metal
had a density 9·44, and easily oxidised. If the composition NgO be
assigned to the oxide, then Ng = 145·9. It fused at 254°; the
hydroxide was soluble in alkalis and potassium carbonate. In any
case, if norwegium is not a mixture of other metals, it belongs to
the uneven series, because the heavy metals of the even series are
not easily reducible. Brauner thinks that norwegium oxide is
Ng_{2}O_{3}, the atom Ng = 219, and places it in Group VI., series
11, but then the feebly acid higher oxide, NgO_{3}, ought to be
formed.

Amongst the metals accompanying zinc which have been named, but
not authentically separated, must be included the _actinium_ of
Phipson (1881). He remarked that certain sorts of zinc give a
white precipitate of zinc sulphide which blackens on exposure to
light and then becomes white in the dark again. Its oxide, closely
resembling in many ways cadmium oxide, is insoluble in alkalis,
and it forms a white metallic sulphide, blackening on exposure to
light. As no further mention has been made of it since 1882, its
existence must be regarded as doubtful.