Chapter I: Part 1

Transcriber's Notes

Certain typographical features of the original cannot be reproduced Illustrations cannot be reproduced in this version of the text. They are indicated in the text, in their approximate positions, as: . Autograph letters, signatures, and similar documents which were presented as images in the original, but have been transcribed here, in lieu of captions.

Italic fonts are rendered using delimiting underscores, as _italic_. The 'oe' ligature is spelled with separate characters. Words in all small capital letters, including those which employ mixed case, are shifted to uppercase.

Footnotes, which appeared at the bottom of the page, are positioned at logical breaks following their references. They have been assigned unique letters, beginning with 'A', and appear as:

[A] Text of footnote.

The lists of Illustrations and Contents have several anomalous, though accurate, entries. For example, the section on the re-incorporation of the Red Cross, beginning on page 94, appears in the Contents between sections on p. 184 and p. 197, for no apparent reason. The reference has been placed in its proper position in the Contents. Please note that the entries in the Contents do not always refer to formal sections of the text. They sometimes direct one to a change of topic otherwise unmarked in the text itself.

Several of the photographs associated with the Spanish American War, which were included at the end of the volume on pp. 675 and 676, are listed in the Illustrations where their subjects would appear.

The opening of the section on General History is labeled "Chapter I", the only use of that designation in the volume.

[Frontispiece: CLARA BARTON.
_From a portrait taken about 1875._]

THE RED CROSS

IN PEACE AND WAR

BY CLARA BARTON

AMERICAN HISTORICAL PRESS

1906

Copyright 1898, by CLARA BARTON

From the President of the United States

In his Message to Congress December 6, 1898.

It is a pleasure for me to mention in terms of cordial appreciation the timely and useful work of the American National Red Cross, both in relief measures preparatory to the campaigns, in sanitary assistance at several of the camps of assemblage, and, later, under the able and experienced leadership of the president of the society, Miss Clara Barton, on the fields of battle and in the hospitals at the front in Cuba. Working in conjunction with the governmental authorities and under their sanction and approval, and with the enthusiastic co-operation of many patriotic women and societies in the various States, the Red Cross has fully maintained its already high reputation for intense earnestness and ability to exercise the noble purposes of its international organization, thus justifying the confidence and support which it has received at the hands of the American people. To the members and officers and all who aided them in their philanthropic work, the sincere and lasting gratitude of the soldiers and the public is due and freely accorded.

In tracing these events we are constantly reminded of our obligations to the Divine Master for His watchful care over us and His safe guidance, for which the nation makes reverent acknowledgment and offers humble prayers for the continuance of His favors.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE.

Clara Barton, from a portrait taken about 1875 Frontispiece.

The International Committee of the Red Cross,
Geneva, Switzerland opp. 16

Clara Barton, taken about 1885 opp. 17

The First Red Cross Warehouse, Washington, D.C. 21

National Red Cross Headquarters in Washington, from 1892 to 1897 22

Some of the First Members of the American National Red Cross 43

A Group of American National Red Cross Members 44

A Group of American National Red Cross Members 55

Suburban Headquarters, American National Red Cross 56

Some Red Cross Decorations Presented to Clara Barton 83

Chronological Historic Tree 84

Clara Barton, taken about 1884 113

"Josh V. Throop" 114

Camp Perry 143

Red Cross Headquarters 144

Johnstown, Pa., before the Flood of 1889 155

Red Cross Hotel, Locust Street, Johnstown, Pa. 156

Red Cross Furniture Room, Johnstown, Pa. 163

Typical Scene after the Flood at Johnstown, Pa., May 30, 1889 164

In Memoriam 174

Typhus Fever Patients in the Russian Famine, 1891-92 181

Count Lyoff Tolstoi 182

Women Cutting Potatoes for Planting--Sea Island Relief,
S.C., February, 1894 199

A Windfall for St. Helena 200

Testimonial from Russian Workmen for American Help and Sympathy
in the Famine of 1892 217

A Russian Peasant Village 218

Receiving Room for Clothing, S.C. Island Relief, 1893-94 235

South Carolina Sea Island Relief 236

The Island District from Savannah to Beaufort 251

Sick with the Famine Fever 253

Hunger-Stricken 254

Miss Barton's Room 271

In the Old Schloss of Baden 272

Red Cross Headquarters, Constantinople 281

View from Red Cross Headquarters, Constantinople 282

Turkish Cemetery 282

Chief of the Dersin Kourds and His Three Sub-Chiefs 291

Chief of the Dersin Kourds 292

Decoration of the Royal Order of Melusine 300

Tower of Christ, Constantinople 301

W.W. Peet, Esq. 302

Rev. Henry O. Dwight, D.D. 302

Rev. Joseph K. Greene, D.D. 302

Rev. George Washburn, D.D. 302

Signature of the Sultan 303

Turkish Dispatches 306, 307

Map of the Country traversed by the Red Cross Expeditions carrying
American Relief to the Victims of the Armenian Massacres in
1896 309

Interior of Gregorian Church at Oorfa 308

American College Buildings, Aintab 311

American and Armenian Quarters, Harpoot 311

Marash 312

Red Cross Caravan 312

A Bit of Palou 318

Rev. C.F. Gates, D.D., Harpoot 321

Miss Caroline E. Bush, Harpoot 321

First Expedition Embarking on Ferryboat, Euphrates River 321

A Turkish Teskere or Passport 322

Diarbeker, Vilayet of Diarbeker 331

Ruins of an Old Gateway at Farkin 332

Some Methods of Work 340

Salemlik 341

Pera Bridge, Constantinople 341

Turkish Coffee House 342

Hamalls--Showing Manner of Carrying Heavy Burdens 342

Red Cross Expeditions Passing through the Valley of Catch Beard 348

A Turkish Procession in Arabkir 349

Judge Alexander W. Terrell, United States Minister to
Constantinople during the Armenian Troubles 351

Armenian and Turkish Decorations 352

Group of Armenian Teachers and Pupils, Harpoot American Missionary
College 357

Clara Barton, taken in 1897 358

A Part of the American National Red Cross Fleet in the
Spanish-American War of 1898 371

Officers of the Executive Committee American National Red Cross 372

Admiral William T. Sampson 381

Governor-General's Palace, Havana 382

Entrance to Harbor of Havana--Punta Park 391

John D. Long, Secretary of Navy 392

On San Juan Hill, Santiago 407

Spanish Guerillas 409

A Mounted Advance, Reconnoitring 410

United States Steamship "Oregon" 413

"Almirante Oquendo," after the Engagement 419

United States Warships before the Entrance to Santiago Harbor 421

"Marie Teresa" after the Engagement 424

Chickamauga Camp 427

Camp Thomas, Headquarters American National Red Cross 428

Fortifications of Manila 440

Red Cross Dining Room for Convalescents, Fort McPherson, Ga. 445

Dining Tent Attached to Red Cross Kitchen, at Camp Hobson, Ga. 446

Panorama of Manila 451

In the Trenches before Santiago 453

A Soldier Funeral 463

McCalla Camp--Early Morning Attack 454

A Typical Cuban Camp 464

A Cuban "Block House," Garrisoned 481

A View of Eastern Cuba 482

A Part of the Red Cross Corps 499

"I Am with the Wounded."--Clara Barton's Cable Message from
Havana 500

Wreck of the Battleship "Maine," Havana Harbor 517

The Prado--Principal Street in Havana 518

Havana Harbor 535

Captain C.D. Sigsbee 536

Street in Cavite 539

Citizens of Jaruco Presenting a Memorial for the Victims of
the "Maine" 553

Little Convalescents in Hospital 554

Location of Shore Batteries, Santiago 556

July Fifth in Rifle Pits 558

Scenes on the "State of Texas" and in Siboney 570

The Physicians and Nurses of the Orphanage and Clinic in Havana 571

A Cuban Thatch Hut 581

A Battery of Cuban Artillery 582

A Group of Red Cross Sisters 591

Diploma of Gratitude for Miss Clara Barton from the Red Cross
of Spain 592

View of Santiago de Cuba from the Harbor 675

View of Morro Castle, Santiago de Cuba 676

The Burning of Siboney 597

Annie E. Wheeler 609

The Youngest Red Cross Nurse 610

Scenes in Siboney 627

Scenes in Santiago 628

Refugees from Santiago 636

Santiago Refugees at El Caney 639

Establishing Headquarters Ashore 640

Starving in the Plaza 647

Los Fosos 648

Bringing in the Wounded 657

Clearing for a Cross Road 658

CONTENTS.

PAGE

TO THE PEOPLE 13

INTRODUCTION 17

THE RED CROSS. General History 23

Organization and Methods of Work 27

Occupation in Times of Peace 29

Services in Time of War 30

Neutral Countries in Time of Peace 34

International Correspondence. M. Moynier's First Letter 36

American Association of the Red Cross. Constitution and
Original Incorporation 46-47

First International Conference 48

The Treaty of the Red Cross 57

Governments Adopting the Treaty 58

Address by Clara Barton 60

Action of the United States Government 72

The "Additional Articles" Concerning the Navy 74

International Bulletin, Extract from 77

Accession of the United States to the Treaty and
"Additional Articles" 80

Proclamation of President Arthur 85

International Bulletin. Concerning Adhesion of the
United States 87

International Committee. Letter Acknowledging Notice of
Adhesion by United States 90

International Committee. Fiftieth Circular Announcing
Adoption of Treaty by United States 91

The Reincorporation of the American National Red Cross 94

Significance of "Red Cross" in its Relation to Philanthropy.
Address by Clara Barton 97

MICHIGAN FOREST FIRES 107

MISSISSIPPI AND OHIO RIVER FLOODS 111

MISSISSIPPI AND LOUISIANA CYCLONE 112

OHIO RIVER FLOOD 115

Down the Mississippi 121

"The Little Six" 130

TEXAS FAMINE 136

THE MOUNT VERNON CYCLONE 145

YELLOW FEVER EPIDEMIC IN FLORIDA 147

The MacClenny Nurses 150

THE JOHNSTOWN FLOOD 157

Arrival at Johnstown 158

Appointment of Committees 160

The Work of Relief 161

Farewell to Miss Barton 169

"The Dread Conemaugh" 170

In Memoriam 174

THE RUSSIAN FAMINE 175

Count Tolstoi on the Character of the Peasants 176

Beginning of American Relief 177

Appreciation of American Sympathy 180

Dr. Hubbell's Report 184

SEA ISLANDS HURRICANE 197

Coast of South Carolina 197

Admiral Beardslee's Description of the Hurricane 203

Relief Work South of Broad River 211

Report by John McDonald 211

Hiltonhead District Clothing Department. Report by Mrs. MacDonald 220

Medical Department. Report by Dr. E.W. Egan 222-228

Relief Methods in Field. Dr. Hubbell's Report 232

On the Charleston Group. Report by H.L. Bailey 244

The Clothing Department. Mrs. Gardner's Report 252

The Sewing Circles 257

A Christmas Carol 261

Mrs. Reed's Report 263

Leaving the Field 268

Letter to Charleston _News and Courier_ 268

Circular to Clergymen and Committees 273

ARMENIA 275

Distance and Difficulties of Travel and Transportation 305

Funds 307

Committees 310

To the Press of the United States 313

To Contributors 313

To the Government at Washington 314

To Our Legation in Constantinople 314

To the Ambassadors of other Nations 315

Commendatory 315

"Marmora." Poem by Clara Barton 319

Report of Financial Secretary 324

General Field Agent's Report 334

Medical Report 350

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR 360

Home Camps and American Waters 361

The Central Cuban Relief Committee, Appointment of 362

The Red Cross Requested to Administer Relief in Cuba 365

Taking Command of the "State of Texas" 368

Relief Work at Tampa and Key West 368

Feeding Spanish Prisoners of War 369

Correspondence with Admiral Sampson 370

Appointment of the Executive Committee of the Red Cross and the
Relief Committee of New York 375

Communication from Secretary of State Acknowledging Official
Status of the American National Red Cross 377

The Modus Vivendi with Spain 384-394

Services of the Red Cross accepted by the Government 395

Appointment of Red Cross Field Agents for the Camps 395

Camp Alger, Washington, D.C. 397

Camp Thomas, Chickamauga Park 408

Jacksonville and Miami, Florida 414

Fort McPherson, Atlanta, Ga. 420

Camp Hobson, Lithia, Ga. 422

St. Paul Red Cross 425

Montauk Point, Long Island 426

Pacific Coast 431

The Red Cross of California 433

The Red Cross of Oregon 441

The Red Cross, Seattle, Wash. 452

PORTO RICO 460

Report of Horace F. Barnes 460

Shipments by United States Transports 470

Relief Committee of New York, Report by 473

Women's Auxiliaries of the Red Cross 491

"Women who went to the Field." Poem by Clara Barton 509

CUBA AND THE CUBAN CAMPAIGN 514

Havana 520

Los Fosos 521

The Orphanage 522

Destruction of the "Maine" 524

Jaruco 527

Matanzas 531

Senator Redfield Proctor's Speech in United States Senate 534

Artemisa 540

Sagua La Grande 542

Cienfuegos 544

Back to Havana 545

Leaving Havana 549

On Board the "State of Texas" 550

Tampa 552

Arrival at Santiago 555

Siboney 557

Hospital Work at Siboney 560

Relief Work at the Front 566

Entering the Harbor of Santiago 576

Unloading the "State of Texas" 577

Feeding the Refugees 577

Relief Work in Santiago 578

Departure of the "State of Texas" 580

The Transport "Clinton" at the Disposition of the Red Cross 583

Leaving Santiago for Havana 584

Departure from Havana 585

REPORTS.

Report of Dr. A. Monae Lesser 587

Report of Financial Secretary, Mr. C.H.H. Cottrell 600

The Schooner "Mary E. Morse." Distribution of Ice 624

Letter of Santiago Committee 637

Medical Report by E.W. Egan, M.D. 642

Clothing Department. Report by Miss Annie M. Fowler 656

The Red Cross of Other Nations 662

To the Congress of the United States. Address by Clara Barton 666

To the Committees on The Red Cross 674

To the Auxiliaries of the Red Cross and the Nurses Who Went
to the War 677

Unwritten Thanks 680

A Word of Explanation 680

Conclusion 681

Notes 683

TO THE PEOPLE.

In recounting the experience of the Red Cross in the Cuban campaign, I have endeavored to tell the story of the events as they succeeded each other, recording simply the facts connected with the work of the War Relief, and refraining from criticism of men and methods. There were unpleasant incidents to relate, and unfortunate conditions to describe, but I have neither said nor written that any particular person, or persons, were to blame. It is not my duty, nor is it within my power, to analyze and criticise all the intricate workings of a government and its armies in the field.

The conditions that existed during the campaign and the suffering that had to be endured, were by no means peculiar to the Spanish-American War. Suffering, sickness, confusion, and death--these are inseparable from every armed conflict. They have always existed under such circumstances; they are a part of war itself, against which no human foresight can wholly provide.

Every civilized government is financially able to provide for its armies, but the great and seemingly insuperable difficulty is, to always have what is wanted at the place where it is most needed. It is a part of the strategy of war, that an enemy seeks battle at a time and place when his opponent is least prepared for it. Occasionally, too, an attacking commander is deceived. Where he expects only slight resistance, he encounters an overwhelming force and a battle of unforeseen proportions, with unexpected casualties, occurs. This is the universal testimony of nations. If it were not so, all needs could be provided for and every move planned at the outset.

It was for these reasons that a body of gentlemen, now known as the International Committee of Geneva, aided by National Associations in each country, planned, urged and finally succeeded in securing the adoption of the Treaty of the Red Cross. For these reasons the Treaty of Geneva and the National Committees of the Red Cross exist to-day. It is through the National Committees of the Red Cross in each treaty nation, that the people seek to assist the government in times of great emergency, in war or other calamity. It is only by favoring the organization of this Auxiliary Relief in times of peace, encouraging its development to the highest state of efficiency, preparing to utilize not only all the ordinary resources, but also the generous support of the people, through the Red Cross, that a government may hope to avoid much of the needless suffering, sickness and death in war.

In carrying out its mission, to assist in the prevention and relief of suffering, the Red Cross has neither the desire nor the intention to be censorious, and is actuated neither by political opinion nor motives of interference. It is but the outward and practical expression of that universal sympathy that goes out from the millions of homes and firesides, from the great heart of the nation, to humanity in distress, to the soldier on the march, in the bivouac and on the field of battle.

Through all the past years, during which the Red Cross has sought recognition, protection and co-operation, it was but for one purpose--to be ready. Our only regret is that, during the late war, we were not able to render greater service. Even the little that was accomplished, could not have been done without the ever ready assistance of the President and the Secretary of War.

Before us now lie the problems of the future, and the question is: How shall we meet them? As friends of humanity, while there is still a possibility of war or calamity, it behooves us to prepare. In America perhaps, we are apt to undervalue careful preparation and depend too much upon our impulses. Certainly in no other country have the people so often risen from a state of unreadiness and accomplished such wonderful results--at such a great sacrifice. The first American war since the adoption of the Treaty of Geneva, has brought the Red Cross home to the people; they have come to understand its meaning and desire to become a permanent part of it. Now that the appropriate time has come, it is the purpose of the Red Cross, relying upon the active sympathy of the government and the generous support of the people, to continue its work of preparation, until in its councils and in its ranks the whole country shall be represented, standing together, ready for any great emergency, inspired by the love of humanity and the world-wide motto of the Red Cross:

"In time of peace and prosperity, prepare for war and calamity."

_Dr. Appia died, succeeded by M.E. Jouard Neville. Recent
additions to the Committee are, N. Adolphe Moynier and M.
Paul des Goulles, Secretary to the President._]

INTRODUCTION.

To be called to tell in a few brief weeks the whole story of the Red Cross from its origin to the present time seems a labor scarcely less than to have lived it. It is a task that, however unworthily it may now be performed, is, in itself, not unworthy the genius of George Eliot or Macaulay. It is a story illustrating the rapid rise of the humane sentiment in the latter half of the nineteenth century. On its European side, it tells of the first timid and cautious putting forth of the sentiment of humanity in war, amid the rattling swords and guns of Solferino, its deaths and wounds and its subsequent awful silence.

It tells of its later fertilization on the red fields of Gravelotte and Sedan beneath my own personal observation.

It was from such surroundings as these that the Red Cross has become the means by which philanthropy has been grafted onto the wild and savage stem of war.

From the first filaments spun in the heart of a solitary traveler have been drawn onward stronger and larger strands, until now more than forty of the principal nations of the earth are bound together by bonds of the highest international law, that must make war in the future less barbarous than it has been in the past.

It gives hope that "the very torrent, tempest and whirlwind" of war itself may some day at last, far off, perhaps, give way to the sunny and pleasant days of perpetual and universal peace. When a proposition for an absolute and common disarmament of nations, made by the strongest of the rulers of Europe, will not be met by cynical sneers and suggestions of Machiavelian craft.

On its American side it is a story of such immense success on the part of the American National Red Cross in some of its greatest and most difficult fields of labor, that no financial report of them has ever been made, because the story would have been altogether incredible. The universal opinion of ordinary business people would have been that these results could not have been obtained on the means stated, and therefore something must be wrong or hidden, and to save ourselves from painful suspicion, it was decided, rightly or wrongly, that the story must remain substantially untold till its work in other fields had prepared the public mind to accept the literal truth.

But the time has come at last when the facts may properly be set forth without fear that they will be discredited or undervalued.

It will relate some of the experiences, the labors, the successes and triumphs of the American National Red Cross in times of peace, by which it had prepared itself to enter upon the Cuban contest as its first independent work in time of war.

The Red Cross has done its part in that contest in the same spirit in which it has heretofore done all the work which has been committed to its care. It has done it unobtrusively, faithfully and successfully.

It may not altogether have escaped censure in the rather wild cyclone of criticism that has swept over the country, but we remember not so much the faultfinding that may have occasionally been poured out upon the Red Cross, as the blessings and benedictions from all sides for work well and nobly done that have fallen even upon its humblest ministers and assistants.

It has been truthfully said that "so great has been the pressure to share the difficulties and dangers of this service with only transportation and subsistence for pay, that the Red Cross could on these terms have had as many volunteers as there were enlisted men, if their services could have been utilized and made important."

Indeed, it seems to have become the milder romance of war, and is gradually winning its way into the very heart of the pomp and circumstance of "glorious" war itself.

The Red Cross has therefore come to be so loved and trusted, its principles and insignia have been so deeply set into the substance of international law and the life of many great nations, that people everywhere are beginning to ask with enthusiasm about its origin and history; about the principles on which it acts. They ask for some statement of its experiences, its hardships and its perils, and for some account of those who have been most prominent in its operations.

It is partially to answer these and many similar inquiries that this book has been prepared. It is in part a compilation and revision of various statements necessarily incomplete and unsatisfactory, made from time to time to meet emergencies. In part it has been wholly rewritten.

A great portion of the story of the Red Cross has been told in other languages than English, because it was of work done by other than English people. Much of this literature has never been translated or placed within the reach of the English-speaking public.

Although the gradual growth of the idea of something like humanity in war, stimulated by the ignorant and insane horrors of India and the Crimea, and soothed and instructed by the sensible and practical work of Florence Nightingale, had slowly but surely led up to the conditions which made such a movement possible, it was not until the remarkable campaign of Napoleon III. in Northern Italy again woke the slumbering sympathies of the world that any definite steps revealed themselves.

In compiling this book I have been compelled to make use of much of the material contained in a previous history written by myself in 1883, which in turn was based upon the records and the literature of the International Committee, and the official correspondence connected with the treaty.

THE FIRST RED CROSS WAREHOUSE, WASHINGTON, D.C.]

_Formerly headquarters of General Grant from which he
entered the White House as President._]

THE RED CROSS.

CHAPTER I

On June 24, 1859, occurred the memorable battle of Solferino, in which the French and Sardinians were arrayed against the Austrians. The battle raged over a wide reach of country and continued for sixteen hours; at the end of which sixteen thousand French and Sardinian soldiers and twenty thousand Austrians lay dead or were wounded and disabled on that field. The old and ever-recurring fact reappeared: the medical staff was wholly inadequate to the immense task suddenly cast upon them. For days after the battle the dead in part remained unburied, and the wounded where they fell, or crawled away as they could for shelter and help.

A Swiss gentleman, Henri Dunant by name, was then traveling near that battlefield, and was deeply impressed by the scenes there presented to him. He joined in the work of relief, but the inadequacy of preparation and the consequent suffering of the wounded haunted him afterwards and impelled him to write a book entitled "A Souvenir of Solferino," in which he strongly advocated more humane and extensive appliances of aid to wounded soldiers. He lectured about them before the "Society of Public Utility" of Geneva. M. Gustav Moynier, a gentleman of independent fortune, was then president of that society. Dr. Louis Appia, a philanthropic physician, and Adolph Ador, a counsellor of repute in Geneva, became interested in his views. They drew the attention of Dufour, the general of the Swiss army, to the subject, and enlisted his hearty co-operation. A meeting of this society was called to consider "a proposition relative to the formation of permanent societies for the relief of wounded soldiers." This meeting took place on the ninth of February, 1863. The matter was laid fully before the society. It was heartily received and acted upon and a committee was appointed with M. Moynier at its head to examine into methods by which the desired results might be obtained. So fully did this committee realize its responsibility and the magnitude, grandeur and labor of the undertaking, that the first steps were made even with timidity. But overcoming all obstacles, it decided upon a plan which seemed possible, and announced for the twenty-sixth of the following October a reunion to which were invited from many countries men sympathizing with its views or able to assist in its discussions. This international conference was held at the appointed time, and continued its sessions four days. At this meeting it was decided to call an international convention to be held at Geneva during the autumn of the following year (1864). At this convention was brought out the Geneva Treaty, and a permanent international committee with headquarters at Geneva was formed, and the fundamental plan of the national permanent relief societies adopted.

One of the first objects necessary and desired by the International Committee for the successful prosecution of its work was the co-operation by some of the more important states of Europe in a treaty which should recognize the neutrality of the hospitals established, of the sick and wounded, and of all persons and effects connected with the relief service; also the adoption of a uniform protective sign or badge. It inquired with care into the disposition of the several governments, and was met with active sympathy and moral support. It first secured the co-operation of the Swiss Federal Council and the Emperor of France. It shortly after procured the signatures of ten other governments, which were given at its room in the city hall of Geneva, August 22, 1864, and was called the Convention of Geneva.

Its sign or badge was also agreed upon, namely, a red cross on a white ground, which was to be worn on the arm by all persons acting with or in the service of the committees enrolled under the convention.

The treaty provides for the neutrality of all sanitary supplies, ambulances, surgeons, nurses, attendants, and sick or wounded men, and their safe conduct when they bear the sign of the organization, viz: the Red Cross.

Although the convention which originated the organization was necessarily international, the relief societies themselves are entirely national and independent; each one governing itself and making its own laws, according to the genius of its nationality and needs.

It was necessary for recognition and safety, and for carrying out the general provisions of the treaty, that a uniform badge should be agreed upon. The Red Cross was chosen out of compliment to the Swiss republic, where the first convention was held, and in which the central committee has its headquarters. The Swiss colors being a white cross on a red ground, the badge chosen was these colors reversed.

There are no "members of the Red Cross," but only members of societies whose _sign_ it is. There is no "_Order of the Red Cross_." The relief societies use, each according to its convenience, whatever methods seem best suited to prepare in times of peace for the necessities of sanitary service in times of war. They gather and store gifts of money and supplies; arrange hospitals, ambulances, methods of transportation of wounded men, bureaus of information, correspondence, etc. All that the most ingenious philanthropy could devise and execute has been attempted in this direction.

In the Franco-Prussian war this was abundantly tested. That Prussia acknowledged its beneficence is proven by the fact that the emperor affixed the Red Cross to the Iron Cross of Merit. The number of governments adhering to the treaty was shortly after increased to twenty-two and at the present date there are forty-two.

The German-Austria war of 1866, though not fully developing the advantages of this international law, was yet the means of discovering its imperfections. Consequently, in 1867 the relief societies of Paris considered it necessary that the treaty should be revised, modified and completed. Requests were issued for modification. The International Committee transmitted them to the various governments, and in 1868 a second diplomatic conference was convened at Geneva at which were voted additional articles, improving the treaty by completing its design and extending its beneficial action to maritime warfare.

During the war of 1866 no decisive trial of the new principles involved in the treaty could be made, for Austria at that time had not adopted it. But in 1870-71 it was otherwise. The belligerents, both France and Germany, had accepted the treaty. Thus it became possible to show to the world the immense service and beneficent results which the treaty, through the relief societies, might accomplish.

The dullest apprehension can partially appreciate the responsibility incurred by relief societies in time of war. The thoughtful mind will readily perceive that these responsibilities involve constant vigilance and effort during periods of peace. It is wise statesmanship which suggests that in time of peace we must prepare for war, and it is no less a wise benevolence that makes preparation in the hour of peace for assuaging the ills that are sure to accompany war. We do not wait till battles are upon us to provide efficient soldiery and munitions of war. Everything that foresight and caution can devise to insure success is made ready and kept ready against the time of need. It is equally necessary to hold ourselves in readiness for effective service in the mitigation of evils consequent upon war, if humane work is to be undertaken for that purpose.

Permanent armies are organized, drilled and supported for the actual service in war. It is no less incumbent if we would do efficient work in alleviating the sufferings caused by the barbarisms of war, that we should organize philanthropic efforts and be ready with whatever is necessary, to be on the field at the sound of the first gun. An understanding of this truth led the conference of 1863 to embody in its articles as one of its first cardinal characteristics the following: "In time of peace the committee will occupy itself with means to render genuine assistance in time of war."

The International Committee assumed that there should be a relief association in every country which endorsed the treaty, and so generally was the idea accepted that at the end of the year 1864, when only ten governments had been added to the convention, twenty-five committees had been formed, under each of which relief societies were organized. It was, however, only after the wars of 1864, 1866 and 1870 that the movement began really to be popular. These conflicts brought not only contestants, but neutral powers so to appreciate the horrors of war, that they were quite ready to acknowledge the beneficence and wisdom of the Geneva Treaty. Many who approved the humane idea and expressed a hearty sympathy for the object to be obtained, had heretofore regarded it as Utopian, a thing desirable but not attainable, an amiable and fanatical illusion which would ever elude the practical grasp. Nevertheless, the work accomplished during the wars referred to won over not only such cavillers, but persons actually hostile to the movement, to regard it as a practical and most beneficent undertaking. The crowned heads of Europe were quick to perceive the benign uses of the associations, and bestowed upon the central committees of their countries money, credit and personal approbation. The families of sovereigns contributed their sympathy and material support. The list of princes and princesses who came forward with personal aid and assumed direction of the work, was by no means small, thus proving correct the augury of the Conference of 1863, that "The governments would accord their high protection to the committees in their organization."

From one of the bulletins of the International Committee we make the following hopeful extract:

"The whole of Europe is marshaled under the banner of the Red Cross. To its powerful and peaceful sign the committee hopes to bring all the civilized nations of the earth. Wherever men fight and tear each other in pieces, wherever the glare and roar of war are heard, they aim to plant the white banner that bears the blessed sign of relief. Already they have carried it into Asia. Their ensign waves in Siberia, on the Chinese frontier, and in Turkestan, and, through the African committee, in Algeria and Egypt. Oceanica has a committee at Batavia. Japan accepted the Treaty of Geneva in 1886, and on the breaking out of hostilities between Japan and China, the Minister of War issued a notification to the Japanese army, September 22, 1894, calling their attention to the substance of the treaty."

ORGANIZATION AND METHODS OF WORK.

One of the things considered indispensable, and therefore adopted as a resolution by the Conference of 1863, was the centralization of the work in each country separately by itself.

While the treaty must be universally acknowledged and its badge accepted as a universal sign, it was equally essential that the societies of the different countries should be simply national and in no respect international. It was therefore ordained by the conference that all local committees or organizations desirous of working with the Red Cross, should do so under the auspices of the Central Committee of their own nation, which is recognized by its government and also recognized by the International Committee from which the sign of the Red Cross emanates. Singularly enough, the International Committee has had considerable difficulty in making this fully understood, and frequently has been obliged to suggest to local committees the necessity for their subordination to the Central or National Committee. Once in three months the International Committee publishes an official list of all central committees recognized by it as national. In this way it is able to exercise a certain control, and to repress entanglements and abuses which would become consequent on irresponsible or counterfeit organizations. To recapitulate: the Commission of Geneva, of which M. Moynier is president, is the only International Committee. All other committees are simply national or subordinate to national committees. The Conference of 1863 foresaw that national differences would prevent a universal code of management, and that to make the societies international would destroy them, so far as efficiency was concerned. They therefore adopted a resolution that "Central committees should organize in such a manner as seemed the most useful and convenient to themselves." Every committee being its own judge, has its own constitution and laws. To be efficient, it must have the recognition of its own government, must bear the stamp of national individuality and be constructed according to the spirit, habits and needs of the country it represents. No hierarchy unites the national societies; they are independent of each other, but they have each an individual responsibility to the treaty, under the ensign of which they work, and they labor in a common cause. It is desirable that they should all be known by one name, namely, the Society of the Red Cross. The functions of the International Committee, whose headquarters are at Geneva, were also determined by the Conference of 1863. It is to serve provisionally as an intermediate agent between national committees, and to facilitate their communications with each other. It occupies itself with the general interests of the Red Cross in correspondence, and the study of theoretical and practical methods of amelioration and relief.

The national committees are charged with the direction and responsibility for the work in their own countries. They must provide resources to be utilized in time of need, take active measures to secure adherents, establish local societies, and have an efficient working force always in readiness for action, and in time of war to dispatch and distribute safely and wisely all accumulations of material and supplies, nurses and assistants, to their proper destination, and, in short, whatever may be gathered from the patriotism and philanthropy of the country. They must always remember that central committees without abundant sectional branches would be of little use.

In most countries the co-operation of women has been eagerly sought. It is needless to say it has been as eagerly given. In some countries the central committees are mixed, both sexes working together; in others, sub-committees are formed by women, and in others, such as the Grand Duchy of Baden, woman leads.

As a last detail of organization, the Conference of 1863 recommended to the central committees to put themselves _en rapport_ with their respective governments, in order that their offers of service should be accepted when required. This makes it incumbent upon national societies to obtain and hold government recognition, by which they are endowed with the immunities and privileges of legally constituted bodies and with recognition from other nations in time of war, not otherwise possible to them.

OCCUPATIONS OF RELIEF SOCIETIES IN TIMES OF PEACE.

Organization, recognition and communication are by no means all that is necessary to insure the fulfillment of the objects of these associations. A thing most important to be borne in mind is that if money be necessary for war, it is also an indispensable agent in relief of the miseries occasioned by war. Self-devotion alone will not answer. The relief societies need funds and other resources to carry on their work. They not only require means for current expenses, but, most of all, for possible emergencies. To obtain and prudently conserve these resources is an important work. The Russian Society set a good example of activity in this direction. From the beginning of its organization in 1867 it systematically collected money over the whole empire and neglected nothing that tended to success. It put boxes in churches, convents, armories, railroad depots, steamboats, in every place frequented by the public. Beside the collection of funds, the Conference of 1863 recommended that peace periods should be occupied in gathering necessary material for service. In 1868 there were in Geneva alone five depots where were accumulated one thousand two hundred and twenty-eight shirts, besides hosiery, bandages, lint, etc., for over one thousand wounded. There were also large collections in the provinces, and now, thirty years later, these accumulations have probably greatly increased. In other countries the supplies remaining after wars were gathered in depots and were added to abundantly. Thus, in 1868, the Berlin Committee was in possession of supplies worth over twenty-five thousand dollars. Especial care is taken to acquire familiarity with the use of all sanitary material, to eliminate as far as possible whatever may be prejudicial to sick or wounded men, to improve both sanitary system and all supplies to be used under it, to have everything of the very best, as surgical instruments, medicine chests, bandages, stretchers, wagons, tents and field hospitals.

We would refer to the effort made in the national exhibitions of the various countries, where the societies of the Red Cross have displayed their practical improvements and inventions in competitive fields, taxing to the utmost human ingenuity and skill. Some countries have taken grand prizes. An exposition at The Hague was held in 1867 exclusively for the work of the Red Cross. Permanent museums have been established where all sorts of sanitary material for relief are exhibited, as may be seen in Stockholm, Carlsruhe, St. Petersburg, Moscow and Paris. The museum of Paris is the most important of all, and is international, other countries having participated in its foundation. Another method is the publication of works bearing upon this subject, some of which are scientific and very valuable. Not less important is the sanitary personnel. Of all aid, efficient nurses are the most difficult to obtain. There are numbers of men and women who have the will and devotion necessary to lead them into hospitals or to battlefields, but very few of them are capable of performing well the duties of nurses. Therefore, but a small portion of the volunteers are available. The relief societies soon found that women were by nature much better fitted for this duty than men can be, and to enable them to fulfill to the best advantage the mission for which they are so well adapted, it was decided to afford them the best possible professional instruction. For this purpose, during peace training schools were established from which were graduated great numbers of women who are ready at a moment's notice to go upon the battlefield or into hospitals. These professional nurses find no difficulty during times of peace in securing remunerative employment. Indeed, they are eagerly sought for by the community to take positions at the bedside of the sick, with the proviso that they are to be allowed to obey the pledge of their society at the first tocsin of war. There are schools for this purpose in England, Germany, Sweden, Holland, Russia and other European countries, and nothing has been neglected to make them thorough and to place them on a strong and solid basis.

SERVICES IN TIME OF WAR.

Notwithstanding the readiness with which most persons will perceive the beneficent uses of relief societies in war, it may not be amiss to particularize some of the work accomplished by the societies of the Red Cross. Not to mention civil disturbances and lesser conflicts, they participated in not less than five great wars in the first ten years, commencing with Schleswig-Holstein, and ending with the Franco-German. Russia and Turkey have followed, with many others since that time, in all of which these societies have signally proved their power to ameliorate the horrors of war. The earlier of these, while affording great opportunity for the beneficent work of the societies, were also grand fields of instruction and discipline to the committee, enabling them to store up vast funds of practical knowledge which were to be of great service.

The Sanitary Commission of the United States also served as an excellent example in many respects to the relief societies of Europe, and from it they took many valuable lessons. Thus in 1866 Europe was much better prepared than ever before for the care of those who suffered from the barbarisms of war. She was now ready with some degree of ability to oppose the arms of charity to the arms of violence, and make a kind of war on war itself. Still however there was a lack of centralization. The provincial committees worked separately, and consequently lost force. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, large amounts of money were gathered, and munificent supplies of material brought into store. The Austrian Committee alone collected 2,170,000 francs, and a great supply of all things needed in hospital service. The Central Committee was of great use in facilitating correspondence between the different peoples comprising the Austrian Empire, the bureau maintaining correspondence in eleven different languages.

Italy was not backward in the performance of her duty. She used her abundant resources in the most effectual way. Not only were her provincial societies of relief united for common action, but they received external aid from France and Switzerland. Here was exhibited the first beautiful example of neutral powers interfering in the cause of charity in time of war--instead of joining in the work of destruction, lending their aid to repair its damages. The provincial committees banded together under the Central Committee of Milan. Four squads, comprising well-trained nurses and assistants, were organized and furnished with all necessary material to follow the military ambulances or field hospitals, whose wagons were placed at their disposal.

Thus the committee not only reinforced the sanitary _personnel_ of the army, but greatly increased its supplies. It provided entirely the sanitary material for the Tyrolese volunteers, and afforded relief to the navy, and when the war was over it remained among the wounded. In addition to the supplies this committee afforded, it expended in money not less than 199,064 francs.

But after all it was Germany standing between the two armies which distinguished herself. Since the Conference of 1863 she had been acting on the rule of preparation, and now found herself in readiness for all emergencies. The Central Committee of Berlin was flooded with contributions from the provincial committees. In the eight provinces of Prussia 4,000,000 of thalers were collected, and the other states of Germany were not behind. So munificently did the people bestow their aid, that large storehouses were provided in Berlin and in the provinces for its reception, and at the central depot in Berlin two hundred paid persons, besides a large number of volunteers, and nearly three hundred ladies and misses were employed in classifying, parceling, packing up, and dispatching the goods. Special railroad trains carried material to the points of need. In one train were twenty-six cars laden with 1800 to 2000 cwt. of supplies. Never had private charity, however carefully directed, been able to accomplish such prodigies of benevolence. It was now that the beneficence of the Treaty and the excellence of the organization were manifested. But the committee did not confine itself to sending supplies for the wounded to the seat of war. It established and provisioned refreshment stations for the trains, to which those unable to proceed on the trains to the great hospitals without danger to life, were admitted, nursed and cared for with the tenderest solicitude until they were sufficiently recovered to be removed, or death took them. At the station of Pardubitz from six hundred to eight hundred were cared for daily for two months, and lodging provided for three hundred at night. This example suffices to show the extraordinary results of well-organized plans and concerted action. During the war, the relief societies had also to contend with the terrible scourge of cholera. There can be no estimate of the misery assuaged and deaths prevented by the unselfish zeal and devotion of the wearers of the Red Cross.

In the interval between the wars of 1866 and 1867, and that of 1870-71, the time had been improved by the societies existing under the Geneva Treaty, in adding to their resources in every possible manner. Improvements were made in all articles of sanitary service; excellent treatises regarding the hygiene of the camp and hospital were widely circulated; the press had greatly interested itself in the promulgation of information regarding all matters of interest or instruction pertaining to sanitary effort, and almost universally lent its powerful influence to build up the societies. Ten new societies were formed during this time. In Germany the work of the Red Cross was so thoroughly organized, that at the first signal from Berlin, committees arrived as if by magic at all required points, forming a chain which extended over the whole country, and numbered over two thousand persons. This is more remarkable since Germany was a neutral power. Constant communication was kept up between these committees and the central bureau, and the most perfect order and discipline were maintained. Relief was sent from one or another of these stations as was needed. The state afforded free transport, and the voluntary contributions of the people kept up the supplies of sanitary material, so that there was never any lack or danger of failure. With the government transports, whether by land or water, there went always the agents of the Red Cross, protected by their badges and flag, to wait on the invoices, hasten their progress, see to their being kept in good order, and properly delivered at their destination. Depots of supplies were moved from place to place as exigencies demanded. The greatest care was taken to prevent disorder or confusion, and the best military circumspection and regularity prevailed. The great central depot at Berlin comprised seven sections, viz: Camp material; clothing; dressing, for wounds; surgical apparatus; medicines and disinfectants; food and tobacco; and hospital furnishings. Did space allow, it would be desirable to give statistics of the contributions in money and supplies to this service. Suffice it to say, the humanity of peoples is far beyond that of governments. Governments appropriate immense sums to carry on destructive conflicts, but the work of relief societies the world over, and especially during the war of 1870-71, has shown that the philanthropy of the people equals their patriotism. The sums given to assuage the miseries of the Franco-Prussian war were simply fabulous. In 1863, fears were expressed that there would be difficulty in collecting needful funds and supplies to carry out the designs of the treaty. These misgivings proved groundless. After the war of 1870-71, notwithstanding nothing had been withheld in the way of relief, the societies settled their accounts with large balances in their treasuries.

In France not nearly so much had been previously done to provide for the exigencies which fell upon them, but the committee worked with such vigor and so wrought upon the philanthropy of individuals, that active measures of relief were instantly taken. Gold and supplies poured into the hands of the committee at Paris. One month sufficed to organize and provide seventeen campaign ambulances or field hospitals, which immediately joined the army and accompanied it through the first period of the war, or until the battle of Sedan. In Paris ambulances were stationed at the railroad depots to pick up the wounded, and a bureau of information was created for soldiers' families. When the siege of Paris was about to take place, the committee threw, without delay, a commission into Brussels charged with the direction and help of flying hospitals. Nine committees were established in the provinces, with power to act for the Central Committee and to invite the people to help. Meanwhile the committee in Paris did its utmost to mitigate the distress that reigned there, and to prepare for the result of the siege. History has recorded the sufferings, the horrors of misery that accompanied and followed that siege; but history can never relate what wretchedness was averted, what agonies were alleviated, what multitudes of lives were saved, by the presence and effort of the relief societies! What the state of France must have been without the merciful help of the Red Cross societies the imagination dare not picture. After the armistice was signed there were removed from Paris, under the auspices of the relief societies, ten thousand wounded men, who otherwise must have lingered in agony, or died from want of care; and there were brought back by them to French soil nine thousand men who had been cared for in German hospitals.

HELP FROM NEUTRAL COUNTRIES.

Neutral countries also during this war were ready and bountiful with help; and those working under the treaty did most effectual service. England contributed 7,500,000 francs, besides large gifts of sanitary supplies; in one hundred and eighty-eight days' time she sent to the seat of war twelve thousand boxes of supplies through the agents of the Red Cross.

To give an idea of the readiness and efficacy with which the committees worked even in neutral countries, one instance will suffice. From Pont-a-Mousson a telegram was sent to London for two hundred and fifty iron beds for the wounded, and in forty-eight hours they arrived in answer to the request. England kept also at the seat of war agents to inform the committee at home of whatever was most needed in supplies. The neutral countries sent also surgeons, physicians and nurses, and in many other ways gave practical testimony to the benign efficacy of the Geneva treaty.

As will be seen by the foregoing pages, the objects and provisions of the Geneva convention and the societies acting under it, are designed for, and applicable to, the exigencies of war only. The close contact of the nations hitherto signing this treaty, renders them far more liable to the recurrence of war among them than our own, which by its geographical position and distance from neighboring nations, entertains a feeling of security which justifies the hope that we may seldom, if ever again, have occasion to provide for the exigencies of war in our land.