Chapter I: Preface

Lord Gifford in founding his lectureship directed that the lectures should be public and popular, _i.e._ not restricted to members of a University. Accordingly in lecturing I endeavoured to make myself intelligible to a general audience by avoiding much technical discussion and controversial matter, and by keeping to the plan of describing in outline the development and decay of the religion of the Roman City-state. And on the whole I have thought it better to keep to this principle in publishing the lectures; they are printed for the most part much as they were delivered, and without footnotes, but at the end of each lecture students of the subject will find the notes referred to by the numbers in the text, containing such further information or discussion as has seemed desirable. My model in this method has been the admirable lectures of Prof. Cumont on "les Religions Orientales dans le Paganisme Romain."

I wish to make two remarks about the subject-matter of the lectures. First, the idea running through them is that the primitive religious (or magico-religious) instinct, which was the germ of the religion of the historical Romans, was gradually atrophied by over-elaboration of ritual, but showed itself again in strange forms from the period of the Punic wars onwards. For this religious instinct I have used the Latin word _religio_, as I have explained in the _Transactions of the Third International Congress for the History of Religions_, vol. ii. p. 169 foll. I am, however, well aware that some scholars take a different view of the original meaning of this famous word, which has been much discussed since I formed my plan of lecturing. But I do not think that those who differ from me on this point will find that my general argument is seriously affected one way or another by my use of the word.

Secondly, while I have been at work on the lectures, the idea seems to have been slowly gaining ground that the patrician religion of the early City-state, which became so highly formalised, so clean and austere, and eventually so political, was really the religion of an invading race, like that of the Achaeans in Greece, engrafted on the religion of a primitive and less civilised population. I have not definitely adopted this idea; but I am inclined to think that a good deal of what I have said in the earlier lectures may be found to support it. Once only, in Lecture XVII., I have used it myself to support a hypothesis there advanced.

I have retained the familiar English spelling of certain divine names, _e.g._ Jupiter (instead of Iuppiter), as less startling to British readers.

I wish to express my very deep obligations to the works of Prof. Wissowa and Dr. J. G. Frazer, and also to Mr. R. R. Marett, who gave me useful personal help in my second and third lectures. From Prof. Wissowa and Dr. Frazer I have had the misfortune to differ on one or two points; but "difference of opinion is the salt of life," as a great scholar said to me not long ago. In reading the proofs I have had much kind and valuable help from my Oxford friends Mr. Cyril Bailey and Mr. A. S. L. Farquharson, who have read certain parts of the work, and to whose suggestions I am greatly indebted. The whole has been read through by my old pupil Mr. Hugh Parr, now of Clifton College, to whom my best thanks are due for his timely discovery of many misprints and awkward expressions. The loyalty and goodwill of my old Oxford pupils never seem to fail me.

W. W. F.

Kingham, Oxon, _3rd March 1911_.

CONTENTS

LECTURE I

INTRODUCTORY
PAGE

Accounts of the Roman religion in recent standard works;
a hard and highly formalised system. Its interest lies
partly in this fact. How did it come to be so? This the
main question of the first epoch of Roman religious
experience. Roman religion and Roman law compared. Roman
religion a technical subject. What we mean by religion.
A useful definition applied to the plan of Lectures
I.-X.; including (1) survivals of primitive or
quasi-magical religion; (2) the religion of the
agricultural family; (3) that of the City-state, in its
simplest form, and in its first period of expansion.
Difficulties of the subject; present position of
knowledge and criticism. Help obtainable from (1)
archaeology, (2) anthropology 1-23

LECTURE II

ON THE THRESHOLD OF RELIGION: SURVIVALS

Survivals at Rome of previous eras of quasi-religious
experience. Totemism not discernible. Taboo, and the
means adopted of escaping from it; both survived at Rome
into an age of real religion. Examples: impurity (or
holiness) of new-born infants; of a corpse; of women in
certain worships; of strangers; of criminals. Almost
complete absence of blood-taboo. Iron. Strange taboos on
the priest of Jupiter and his wife. Holy or tabooed
places; holy or tabooed days; the word _religiosus_ as
applied to both of these 24-46

LECTURE III

ON THE THRESHOLD OF RELIGION: MAGIC

Magic; distinction between magic and religion. Religious
authorities seek to exclude magic, and did so at Rome.
Few survivals of magic in the State religion. The
_aquaelicium_. Vestals and runaway slaves. The magical
whipping at the Lupercalia. The throwing of puppets from
the _pons sublicius_. Magical processes surviving in
religious ritual with their meaning lost. Private magic:
_excantatio_ in the XII. Tables; other spells or
_carmina_. Amulets: the _bulla_; _oscilla_ 47-67

LECTURE IV

THE RELIGION OF THE FAMILY

Continuity of the religion of the Latin agricultural
family. What the family was; its relation to the _gens_.
The _familia_ as settled on the land, an economic unit,
embodied in a _pagus_. The house as the religious centre
of the _familia_; its holy places. Vesta, Penates,
Genius, and the spirit of the doorway. The _Lar
familiaris_ on the land. Festival of the Lar belongs to
the religion of the _pagus_: other festivals of the
_pagus_. _Religio terminorum._ Religion of the
household: marriage, childbirth, burial and cult of the
dead 68-91

LECTURE V

THE CALENDAR OF NUMA

Beginnings of the City-state: the _oppidum_. The
earliest historical Rome, the city of the four regions;
to this belongs the surviving religious calendar. This
calendar described; the basis of our knowledge of early
Roman religion. It expresses a life agricultural,
political, and military. Days of gods distinguished from
days of man. Agricultural life the real basis of the
calendar; gradual effacement of it. Results of a fixed
routine in calendar; discipline, religious confidence.
Exclusion from it of the barbarous and grotesque.
Decency and order under an organising priestly authority
92-113

LECTURE VI

THE DIVINE OBJECTS OF WORSHIP

Sources of knowledge about Roman deities. What did the
Romans themselves know about them? No personal deity in
the religion of the family. Those of the City-state are
_numina_, marking a transition from animism to
polytheism. Meaning of _numen_. Importance of names,
which are chiefly adjectival, marking functional
activity. Tellus an exception. Importance of priests in
development of _dei_. The four great Roman gods and
their priests: Janus, Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus.
Characteristics of each of these in earliest Rome. Juno
and the difficulties she presents. Vesta 114-144

LECTURE VII

THE DEITIES OF THE EARLIEST RELIGION:
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

No temples in the earliest Rome; meaning of _fanum, ara,
lucus, sacellum_. No images of gods in these places,
until end of regal period. Thus deities not conceived as
persons. Though masculine and feminine they were not
married pairs; Dr. Frazer's opinion on this point.
Examination of his evidence derived from the _libri
sacerdotum_; meaning of Nerio Martis. Such combinations
of names suggest forms or manifestations of a deity's
activity, not likely to grow into personal deities
without Greek help. Meaning of _pater_ and _mater_
applied to deities; procreation not indicated by them.
The deities of the _Indigitamenta_; priestly inventions
of a later age. Usener's theory of Sondergoetter
criticised so far as it applies to Rome 145-168

LECTURE VIII

RITUAL OF THE IUS DIVINUM

Main object of _ius divinum_ to keep up the _pax
deorum_; meaning of _pax_ in this phrase. Means towards
the maintenance of the _pax_: sacrifice and prayer,
fulfilment of vows, lustratio, divination. Meaning of
_sacrificium_. Little trace of sacramental sacrifice.
Typical sacrifice of _ius divinum_: both priest and
victim must be acceptable to the deity; means taken to
secure this. Ritual of slaughter: examination and
_porrectio_ of entrails. Prayer; the phrase _Macte esto_
and its importance in explaining Roman sacrifice.
Magical survivals in Roman and Italian prayers; yet they
are essentially religious 169-199

LECTURE IX

RITUAL (continued)

_Vota_ (vows) have suggested the idea that Roman worship
was bargaining. Examination of private vows, which do
not prove this; of public vows, which in some degree do
so. Moral elements in both these. Other forms of vow:
_evocatio_ and _devotio_.

_Lustratio_: meaning of _lustrare_ in successive stages
of Roman experience. _Lustratio_ of the farm and
_pagus_; of the city; of the people (at Rome and
Iguvium); of the army; of the arms and trumpets of the
army: meaning of _lustratio_ in these last cases, both
before and after a campaign 200-222

LECTURE X

THE FIRST ARRIVAL OF NEW CULTS IN ROME

Recapitulation of foregoing lectures. Weak point of the
organised State religion: it discouraged individual
development. Its moral influence mainly a disciplinary
one; and it hypnotised the religious instinct.

Growth of a new population at end of regal period, also
of trade and industry. New deities from abroad represent
these changes: Hercules of Ara Maxima; Castor and
Pollux; Minerva. Diana of the Aventine reflects a new
relation with Latium. Question as to the real religious
influence of these deities. The Capitoline temple of
Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, of Etruscan origin. Meaning
of cult-titles Optimus Maximus, and significance of this
great Jupiter in Roman religious experience 223-247

LECTURE XI

CONTACT OF THE OLD AND NEW IN RELIGION

Plan of this and following lectures. The formalised
Roman religion meets with perils, material and moral,
and ultimately proves inadequate. Subject of this
lecture, the introduction of Greek deities and rites;
but first a proof that the Romans were a really
religious people; evidence from literature, from
worship, from the practice of public life, and from
Latin religious vocabulary.

Temple of Ceres, Liber, Libera (Demeter, Dionysus,
Persephone); its importance for the date of Sibylline
influence at Rome. Nature of this influence; how and
when it reached Rome. The keepers of the "Sibylline
books"; new cults introduced by them. New rites:
lectisternia and supplicationes, their meaning and
historical importance 248-269

LECTURE XII

THE PONTIFICES AND THE SECULARISATION OF RELIGION

Historical facts about the Pontifices in this period; a
powerful exclusive "collegium" taking charge of the _ius
divinum_. The legal side of their work; they
administered the oldest rules of law, which belonged to
that _ius_. New ideas of law after Etruscan period;
increasing social complexity and its effect on legal
matters; result, publication of rules of law, civil and
religious, in XII. Tables, and abolition of legal
monopoly of Pontifices. But they keep control of (1)
procedure, (2) interpretation, till end of fourth
century B.C. Publication of Fasti and _Legis actiones_;
the college opened to Plebeians. Work of Pontifices in
third century: (1) admission of new deities, (2)
compilation of annals, (3) collection of religious
formulae. General result; formalisation of religion; and
secularisation of pontifical influence 270-291

LECTURE XIII

THE AUGURS AND THE ART OF DIVINATION

Divination a universal practice: its relation to magic.
Want of a comprehensive treatment of it. Its object at
Rome: to assure oneself of the _pax deorum_; but it was
the most futile method used. Private divination; limited
and discouraged by the State, except in the form of
family _auspicia_. Public divination; _auspicia_ needed
in all State operations; close connection with
_imperium_. The augurs were skilled advisers of the
magistrates, but could not themselves take the auspices.
Probable result of this: Rome escaped subjection to a
hierarchy. Augurs and _auspicia_ become politically
important, but cease to belong to religion. State
divination a clog on political progress. Sinister
influence on Rome of Etruscan divination; history of the
_haruspices_ 292-313

LECTURE XIV

THE HANNIBALIC WAR

Tendency towards contempt of religious forms in third
century B.C.; disappears during this war. _Religio_ in
the old sense takes its place, _i.e._ fear and anxiety.
This takes the form of reporting _prodigia_; account of
these in 218 B.C., and of the prescriptions supplied by
Sibylline books. Fresh outbreak of _religio_ after
battle of Trasimene; _lectisternium_ of 216, without
distinction of Greek and Roman deities; importance of
this. Religious panic after battle of Cannae;
extraordinary religious measures, including human
sacrifice. Embassy to Delphi and its result; symptoms of
renewed confidence. But fresh and alarming outbreak in
213; met with remarkable skill. Institution of Apolline
games. Summary of religious history in last years of the
war; gratitude to the gods after battle of Metaurus.
Arrival of the Great Mother of Phrygia at Rome. Hannibal
leaves Italy 314-334

LECTURE XV

AFTER THE HANNIBALIC WAR

Religion used to support Senatorial policy in declaring
war (1) with Philip of Macedon, (2) with Antiochus of
Syria; but this is not the old religion. Use of
_prodigia_ and Sibylline oracles to secure political and
personal objects; mischief caused in this way. Growth of
individualism; rebellion of the individual against the
_ius divinum_. Examples of this from the history of the
priesthoods; strange story of a Flamen Dialis. The
story of the introduction of Bacchic rites in 186 B.C.;
interference of the Senate and Magistrates, and
significance of this. Strange attempt to propagate
Pythagoreanism; this also dealt with by the government.
Influence of Ennius and Plautus, and of translations
from Greek comedy, on the dying Roman religion 335-356

LECTURE XVI

GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ROMAN RELIGION

Religious destitution of the Roman in second century
B.C. in regard to (1) his idea of God, (2) his sense of
Duty. No help from Epicurism, which provided no
religious sanction for conduct; Lucretius, and Epicurean
idea of the Divine. Arrival of Stoicism at Rome;
Panaetius and the Scipionic circle. Character of Scipio.
The religious side of Stoicism; it teaches a new
doctrine of the relation of man to God. Stoic idea of
God as Reason, and as pervading the universe; adjustment
of this to Roman idea of _numina_. Stoic idea of Man as
possessing Reason, and so partaking the Divine nature.
Influence of these two ideas on the best type of Roman;
they appeal to his idea of Duty, and ennoble his idea of
Law. Weak points in Roman Stoicism: (1) doctrine of
Will, (2) neglect of emotions and sympathy. It failed to
rouse an "enthusiasm of humanity" 357-379

LECTURE XVII

MYSTICISM--IDEAS OF A FUTURE LIFE

Early Pythagoreanism in S. Italy; its reappearance in
last century B.C. under the influence of Posidonius, who
combined Stoicism with Platonic Pythagoreanism. Cicero
affected by this revival; his Somnium Scipionis and
other later works. His mysticism takes practical form on
the death of his daughter; letters to Atticus about a
_fanum_. Individualisation of the Manes; freedom of
belief on such questions. Further evidence of Cicero's
tendency to mysticism at this time (45 B.C.), and his
belief in a future life. But did the ordinary Roman so
believe? Question whether he really believed in the
torments of Hades. Probability of this: explanation to
be found in the influence of Etruscan art and Greek
plays on primitive Roman ideas of the dead. Mysticism in
the form of astrology; Nigidius Figulus 380-402

LECTURE XVIII

RELIGIOUS FEELING IN THE POEMS OF VIRGIL

Virgil sums up Roman religious experience, and combines
it with hope for the future. Sense of depression in his
day; want of sympathy and goodwill towards men. Virgil's
sympathetic outlook; shown in his treatment of animals,
Italian scenery, man's labour, and man's worship. His
idea of _pietas_. The theme of the Aeneid; Rome's
mission in the world, and the _pietas_ needed to carry
it out. Development of the character of Aeneas; his
_pietas_ imperfect in the first six books, perfected in
the last six, resulting in a balance between the ideas
of the Individual and the State. Illustration of this
from the poem. Importance of Book vi., which describes
the ordeal destined to perfect the _pietas_ of the hero.
The sense of Duty never afterwards deserts him; his
_pietas_ enlarged in a religious sense 403-427

LECTURE XIX

THE AUGUSTAN REVIVAL

Connection of Augustus and Virgil. Augustus aims at
re-establishing the national _pietas_, and securing the
_pax deorum_ by means of the _ius divinum_. How this
formed part of his political plans. Temple restoration
and its practical result. Revival of the ancient ritual;
illustrated from the records of the Arval Brethren. The
new element in it; Caesar-worship; but Augustus was
content with the honour of re-establishing the _pax
deorum_. Celebration of this in the Ludi saeculares, 17
B.C. Our detailed knowledge of this festival; meaning of
_saeculum_; description of the _ludi_, and illustration
of their meaning from the _Carmen saeculare_ of Horace.
Discussion of the performance of this hymn by the choirs
of boys and girls 428-451

LECTURE XX

CONCLUSION

Religious ingredients in Roman soil likely to be
utilised by Christianity. The Stoic ingredient;
revelation of the Universal, and ennobling of
Individual. The contribution of Mysticism; preparation
for Christian eschatology. The contribution of Virgil;
sympathy and sense of Duty. The contribution of Roman
religion proper: (1) sane and orderly character of
ritual, (2) practical character of Latin Christianity
visible in early Christian writings, (3) a religious
vocabulary, _e.g. religio, pietas, sanctus,
sacramentum_. But all this is but a slight contribution;
essential difference between Christianity and all that
preceded it in Italy; illustration from the language of
St. Paul 452-472

APPENDIX