Chapter XXXVI: Book X: Sidenote: Republic X. Socrates, Glaucon (2)

And now you must allow me to repeat of the just the blessings which you were attributing to the fortunate unjust. *613D* I shall say of them, what you were saying of the others, that as they grow older, they become rulers in their own city if they care to be; they marry whom they like and give in marriage to whom they will; all that you said of the others I now say of these. And, on the other hand, of the unjust I say that the greater number, even though they escape in their youth, are found out at last and look foolish at the end of their course, and when they come to be old and miserable are flouted alike by stranger and citizen; they are beaten and *613E* then come those things unfit for ears polite, as you truly term them; they will be racked and have their eyes burned out, as you were saying. And you may suppose that I have repeated the remainder of your tale of horrors. But will you let me assume, without reciting them, that these things are true?

Certainly, he said, what you say is true.

*614A* These, then, are the prizes and rewards and gifts which are bestowed upon the just by gods and men in this present life, in addition to the other good things which justice of herself provides.

Yes, he said; and they are fair and lasting.

And yet, I said, all these are as nothing either in number or greatness in comparison with those other recompenses which await both just and unjust after death. And you ought to hear them, and then both just and unjust will have received from us a full payment of the debt which the argument owes to them.

*614B* Speak, he said; there are few things which I would more gladly hear.

[Sidenote: Socrates.]

[Sidenote: The vision of Er.]

[Sidenote: The judgement.]

[Sidenote: The two openings in heaven and the two in earth through which passed those who were beginning and those who had completed their pilgrimage.]

[Sidenote: The meeting in the meadow.]

[Sidenote: The punishment tenfold the sin.]

[Sidenote: 'Unbaptized infants.']

[Sidenote: Ardiaeus the tyrant.]

[Sidenote: Incurable sinners.]

Well, I said, I will tell you a tale; not one of the tales which Odysseus tells to the hero Alcinous, yet this too is a tale of a hero, Er the son of Armenius, a Pamphylian by birth. He was slain in battle, and ten days afterwards, when the bodies of the dead were taken up already in a state of corruption, his body was found unaffected by decay, and {331} carried away home to be buried. And on the twelfth day, as he was lying on the funeral pile, he returned to life and told them what he had seen in the other world. He said that when his soul left the body he went on a journey with a great company, *614C* and that they came to a mysterious place at which there were two openings in the earth; they were near together, and over against them were two other openings in the heaven above. In the intermediate space there were judges seated, who commanded the just, after they had given judgment on them and had bound their sentences in front of them, to ascend by the heavenly way on the right hand; and in like manner the unjust were bidden by them to descend by the lower way on the left hand; these also bore the symbols of their deeds, but fastened on their backs. He drew near, *614D* and they told him that he was to be the messenger who would carry the report of the other world to men, and they bade him hear and see all that was to be heard and seen in that place. Then he beheld and saw on one side the souls departing at either opening of heaven and earth when sentence had been given on them; and at the two other openings other souls, some ascending out of the earth dusty and worn with travel, some descending out of heaven clean and bright. And *614E* arriving ever and anon they seemed to have come from a long journey, and they went forth with gladness into the meadow, where they encamped as at a festival; and those who knew one another embraced and conversed, the souls which came from earth curiously enquiring about the things above, and the souls which came from heaven about the things beneath. And they told one another of what had happened by the way, those from below weeping and sorrowing *615A* at the remembrance of the things which they had endured and seen in their journey beneath the earth (now the journey lasted a thousand years), while those from above were describing heavenly delights and visions of inconceivable beauty. The story, Glaucon, would take too long to tell; but the sum was this:--He said that for every wrong which they had done to any one they suffered tenfold; or once in a hundred years--such being reckoned to be the length *615B* of man's life, and the penalty being thus paid ten times in a thousand years. If, for example, there were any who had been {332} the cause of many deaths, or had betrayed or enslaved cities or armies, or been guilty of any other evil behaviour, for each and all of their offences they received punishment ten times over, and the rewards of beneficence and justice and *615C* holiness were in the same proportion. I need hardly repeat what he said concerning young children dying almost as soon as they were born. Of piety and impiety to gods and parents, and of murderers[7], there were retributions other and greater far which he described. He mentioned that he was present when one of the spirits asked another, 'Where is Ardiaeus the Great?' (Now this Ardiaeus lived a thousand years before the time of Er: he had been the tyrant of some city of Pamphylia, and had murdered his aged father and his elder brother, *615D* and was said to have committed many other abominable crimes.) The answer of the other spirit was: 'He comes not hither and will never come. And this,' said he, 'was one of the dreadful sights which we ourselves witnessed. We were at the mouth of the cavern, and, having completed all our experiences, were about to reascend, when of a sudden Ardiaeus appeared and several others, most of whom were tyrants; and there were also besides the tyrants private individuals *615E* who had been great criminals: they were just, as they fancied, about to return into the upper world, but the mouth, instead of admitting them, gave a roar, whenever any of these incurable sinners or some one who had not been sufficiently punished tried to ascend; and then wild men of fiery aspect, who were standing by and heard the sound, *616A* seized and carried them off; and Ardiaeus and others they bound head and foot and hand, and threw them down and flayed them with scourges, and dragged them along the road at the side, carding them on thorns like wool, and declaring to the passers-by what were their crimes, and that[8] they were being taken away to be cast into hell.' And of all the many terrors which they had endured, he said that there was none like the terror which each of them felt at that moment, lest they should hear the voice; and when there was silence, one by one they ascended with exceeding joy. These, said Er, were the penalties and retributions, and there were blessings as great. {333}

[Footnote 7: Reading [Greek: au)to/cheiras].]

[Footnote 8: Reading [Greek: kai\ o(/ti].]

[Sidenote: The whorls representing the spheres of the heavenly bodies.]

*616B* Now when the spirits which were in the meadow had tarried seven days, on the eighth they were obliged to proceed on their journey, and, on the fourth day after, he said that they came to a place where they could see from above a line of light, straight as a column, extending right through the whole heaven and through the earth, in colour resembling the rainbow, only brighter and purer; another day's journey brought them to the place, and there, in the *616C* midst of the light, they saw the ends of the chains of heaven let down from above: for this light is the belt of heaven, and holds together the circle of the universe, like the under-girders of a trireme. From these ends is extended the spindle of Necessity, on which all the revolutions turn. The shaft and hook of this spindle are made of steel, and the whorl is made partly of steel and also partly of other materials. *616D* Now the whorl is in form like the whorl used on earth; and the description of it implied that there is one large hollow whorl which is quite scooped out, and into this is fitted another lesser one, and another, and another, and four others, making eight in all, like vessels which fit into one another; the whorls show their edges on the upper side, and on their *616E* lower side all together form one continuous whorl. This is pierced by the spindle, which is driven home through the centre of the eighth. The first and outermost whorl has the rim broadest, and the seven inner whorls are narrower, in the following proportions--the sixth is next to the first in size, the fourth next to the sixth; then comes the eighth; the seventh is fifth, the fifth is sixth, the third is seventh, last and eighth comes the second. The largest [or fixed stars] is spangled, and the seventh [or sun] is brightest; the eighth [or moon] *617A* coloured by the reflected light of the seventh; the second and fifth [Saturn and Mercury] are in colour like one another, and yellower than the preceding; the third [Venus] has the whitest light; the fourth [Mars] is reddish; the sixth [Jupiter] is in whiteness second. Now the whole spindle has the same motion; but, as the whole revolves in one direction, the seven inner circles move slowly in the other, and of these the swiftest is the eighth; next in swiftness are the *617B* seventh, sixth, and fifth, which move together; third in swiftness appeared to move according to the law of this {334} reversed motion the fourth; the third appeared fourth and the second fifth. The spindle turns on the knees of Necessity; and on the upper surface of each circle is a siren, who goes round with them, hymning a single tone or note. The eight together form one harmony; and round about, at equal intervals, *617C* there is another band, three in number, each sitting upon her throne: these are the Fates, daughters of Necessity, who are clothed in white robes and have chaplets upon their heads, Lachesis and Clotho and Atropos, who accompany with their voices the harmony of the sirens--Lachesis singing of the past, Clotho of the present, Atropos of the future; Clotho from time to time assisting with a touch of her right hand the revolution of the outer circle of the whorl or spindle, and Atropos with her left hand touching and guiding the inner ones, and Lachesis laying *617D* hold of either in turn, first with one hand and then with the other.

[Sidenote: The proclamation of the free choice.]

[Sidenote: The complexity of circumstances,]

[Sidenote: and their relation to the human soul.]

When Er and the spirits arrived, their duty was to go at once to Lachesis; but first of all there came a prophet who arranged them in order; then he took from the knees of Lachesis lots and samples of lives, and having mounted a high pulpit, spoke as follows: 'Hear the word of Lachesis, the daughter of Necessity. Mortal souls, behold a new cycle of life and mortality. Your genius will not be allotted to you, *617E* but you will choose your genius; and let him who draws the first lot have the first choice, and the life which he chooses shall be his destiny. Virtue is free, and as a man honours or dishonours her he will have more or less of her; the responsibility is with the chooser--God is justified.' When the Interpreter had thus spoken he scattered lots indifferently among them all, and each of them took up the lot which fell near him, all but Er himself (he was not allowed), and each as he took his lot perceived the number which he had obtained. *618A* Then the Interpreter placed on the ground before them the samples of lives; and there were many more lives than the souls present, and they were of all sorts. There were lives of every animal and of man in every condition. And there were tyrannies among them, some lasting out the tyrant's life, others which broke off in the middle and came to an end in poverty and exile and beggary; and there were {335} lives of famous men, some who were famous for their form and beauty as well as for their strength and success in games, *618B* or, again, for their birth and the qualities of their ancestors; and some who were the reverse of famous for the opposite qualities. And of women likewise; there was not, however, any definite character in them, because the soul, when choosing a new life, must of necessity become different. But there was every other quality, and the all mingled with one another, and also with elements of wealth and poverty, and disease and health; and there were mean states also. And here, my dear Glaucon, is the supreme peril of our human state; and therefore the utmost care should be taken. *618C* Let each one of us leave every other kind of knowledge and seek and follow one thing only, if peradventure he may be able to learn and may find some one who will make him able to learn and discern between good and evil, and so to choose always and everywhere the better life as he has opportunity. He should consider the bearing of all these things which have been mentioned severally and collectively upon virtue; he should know what the effect of beauty is when combined with poverty or wealth in a *618D* particular soul, and what are the good and evil consequences of noble and humble birth, of private and public station, of strength and weakness, of cleverness and dullness, and of all the natural and acquired gifts of the soul, and the operation of them when conjoined; he will then look at the nature of the soul, and from the consideration of all these qualities he will be able to determine which is the better and which is the worse; and so he will choose, giving the name *618E* of evil to the life which will make his soul more unjust, and good to the life which will make his soul more just; all else he will disregard. For we have seen and know that this is *619A* the best choice both in life and after death. A man must take with him into the world below an adamantine faith in truth and right, that there too he may be undazzled by the desire of wealth or the other allurements of evil, lest, coming upon tyrannies and similar villainies, he do irremediable wrongs to others and suffer yet worse himself; but let him know how to choose the mean and avoid the extremes on either side, as far as possible, not only in this life but {336} in all *619B* that which is to come. For this is the way of happiness.

[Sidenote: Habit not enough without philosophy when circumstances change.]

[Sidenote: The spectacle of the election.]

And according to the report of the messenger from the other world this was what the prophet said at the time: 'Even for the last comer, if he chooses wisely and will live diligently, there is appointed a happy and not undesirable existence. Let not him who chooses first be careless, and let not the last despair.' And when he had spoken, he who had the first choice came forward and in a moment chose the greatest tyranny; his mind having been darkened by folly and sensuality, he had not thought out the whole matter before he chose, and did not at first sight perceive that he *619C* was fated, among other evils, to devour his own children. But when he had time to reflect, and saw what was in the lot, he began to beat his breast and lament over his choice, forgetting the proclamation of the prophet; for, instead of throwing the blame of his misfortune on himself, he accused chance and the gods, and everything rather than himself. Now he was one of those who came from heaven, and in a former life had dwelt in a well-ordered State, but his virtue *619D* was a matter of habit only, and he had no philosophy. And it was true of others who were similarly overtaken, that the greater number of them came from heaven and therefore they had never been schooled by trial, whereas the pilgrims who came from earth having themselves suffered and seen others suffer, were not in a hurry to choose. And owing to this inexperience of theirs, and also because the lot was a chance, many of the souls exchanged a good destiny for an evil or an evil for a good. For if a man had always on his arrival in this world dedicated himself from the first to sound philosophy, *619E* and had been moderately fortunate in the number of the lot, he might, as the messenger reported, be happy here, and also his journey to another life and return to this, instead of being rough and underground, would be smooth and heavenly. Most curious, he said, was the spectacle--sad and laughable and strange; for the choice of the souls *620A* was in most cases based on their experience of a previous life. There he saw the soul which had once been Orpheus choosing the life of a swan out of enmity to the race of women, hating to be born of a woman because they had {337} been his murderers; he beheld also the soul of Thamyras choosing the life of a nightingale; birds, on the other hand, like the swan and other musicians, wanting to be men. The *620B* soul which obtained the twentieth[9] lot chose the life of a lion, and this was the soul of Ajax the son of Telamon, who would not be a man, remembering the injustice which was done him in the judgment about the arms. The next was Agamemnon, who took the life of an eagle, because, like Ajax, he hated human nature by reason of his sufferings. About the middle came the lot of Atalanta; she, seeing the great fame of an athlete, was unable to resist the temptation: and after her *620C* there followed the soul of Epeus the son of Panopeus passing into the nature of a woman cunning in the arts; and far away among the last who chose, the soul of the jester Thersites was putting on the form of a monkey. There came also the soul of Odysseus having yet to make a choice, and his lot happened to be the last of them all. Now the recollection of former toils had disenchanted him of ambition, and he went about for a considerable time in search of the life of a private man who had no cares; he had some difficulty in finding this, which was lying about and had been neglected by everybody else; *620D* and when he saw it, he said that he would have done the same had his lot been first instead of last, and that he was delighted to have it. And not only did men pass into animals, but I must also mention that there were animals tame and wild who changed into one another and into corresponding human natures--the good into the gentle and the evil into the savage, in all sorts of combinations.

[Footnote 9: Reading [Greek: ei)kostê/n].]

All the souls had now chosen their lives, and they went in the order of their choice to Lachesis, who sent with them the genius whom they had severally chosen, to be the guardian *620E* of their lives and the fulfiller of the choice: this genius led the souls first to Clotho, and drew them within the revolution of the spindle impelled by her hand, thus ratifying the destiny of each; and then, when they were fastened to this, carried them to Atropos, who spun the threads and made *621A* them irreversible, whence without turning round they passed beneath the throne of Necessity; and when they had all passed, they marched on in a scorching heat to the plain of {338} Forgetfulness, which was a barren waste destitute of trees and verdure; and then towards evening they encamped by the river of Unmindfulness, whose water no vessel can hold; of this they were all obliged to drink a certain quantity, and those who were not saved by wisdom drank more than was necessary; and each one as he drank forgot all things. *621B* Now after they had gone to rest, about the middle of the night there was a thunderstorm and earthquake, and then in an instant they were driven upwards in all manner of ways to their birth, like stars shooting. He himself was hindered from drinking the water. But in what manner or by what means he returned to the body he could not say; only, in the morning, awaking suddenly, he found himself lying on the pyre.

And thus, Glaucon, the tale has been saved and has not perished, *621C* and will save us if we are obedient to the word spoken; and we shall pass safely over the river of Forgetfulness and our soul will not be defiled. Wherefore my counsel is, that we hold fast ever to the heavenly way and follow after justice and virtue always, considering that the soul is immortal and able to endure every sort of good and every sort of evil. Thus shall we live dear to one another and to the gods, both while remaining here and when, like *621D* conquerors in the games who go round to gather gifts, we receive our reward. And it shall be well with us both in this life and in the pilgrimage of a thousand years which we have been describing.

INDEX.

A.

ABDERA, Protagoras of, 10. 600 C.

Abortion, allowed in certain cases, 5. 461 C.

Absolute beauty, 5. 476, 479; 6. 494 A, 501 B, 507 B;--absolute good, 6. 507 B; 7. 540 A;--absolute justice, 5. 479; 6. 501 B; 7. 517 E;--absolute swiftness and slowness, 7. 529 D;--absolute temperance, 6. 501 B; --absolute unity, 7. 524 E, 525 E;--the absolute and the many, 6. 507.

Abstract ideas, origin of, 7. 523. Cp. Idea.

Achaeans, 3. 389 E, 390 E, 393 A, D, 394 A.

Achilles, the son of Peleus, third in descent from Zeus, 3. 391 C; his grief, _ib._ 388 A; his avarice, cruelty, and insolence, _ib._ 390 E, 391 A, B; his master Phoenix, _ib._ 390 E.

Active life, age for, 7. 539, 540.

Actors, cannot perform both tragic and comic parts, 3. 395 A.

Adeimantus, son of Ariston, a person in the dialogue, 1. 327 C; his genius, 2. 368 A; distinguished at the battle of Megara, _ibid._; takes up the discourse, _ib._ 362 D, 368 E, 376 D; 4. 419 A; 6. 487 A; 8. 548 E; urges Socrates to speak in detail about the community of women and children, 5. 449.

Adrasteia, prayed to, 5. 451 A.

Adultery, 5. 461 A.

Aeschylus, quoted:-- S. c. T. 451, 8. 550 C; " 592, 2. 361 B, E; " 593 _ib._ 362 A; Niobe, fr. 146, 3. 391 E; " fr. 151, 2. 380 A; Xanthians, fr. 159, _ib._ 381 D; Fab. incert. 266, _ib._ 383 B; " " 326, 8. 563 C.

Aesculapius, _see_ Asclepius.

Affinity, degrees of, 5. 461.

Agamemnon, his dream, 2. 383 A; his gifts to Achilles, 3. 390 E; his anger against Chryses, _ib._ 392 E foll.; shown by Palamedes in the play to be a ridiculous general, 7. 522 D; his soul becomes an eagle, 10. 620 B.

Age, for active life, 7. 539, 540;--for marriage, 5. 460;--for philosophy, 7. 539.

Agent and patient have the same qualities, 4. 437.

Aglaion, father of Leontius, 4. 439 E.

Agriculture, tools required for, 2. 370 C.

Ajax, the son of Telamon, 10. 620 B; the reward of his bravery, 5. 468 D; his soul turns into a lion, 10. 620 B.

Alcinous, 'tales of,' 10. 614 B.

Allegory, cannot be understood by the young, 2. 378 E.

Ambition, disgraceful, 1. 347 B (_cp._ 7. 520 D); characteristic of the timocratic state and man, 8. 545, 548, 550 B, 553 E; easily passes into avarice, _ib._ 553 E; assigned {340} to the passionate element of the soul, 9. 581 A;--ambitious men, 5. 475 A; 6. 485 B.

Ameles, the river ( = Lethe), 10. 621 A, C.

Amusement, a means of education, 4. 425 A; 7. 537 A.

Anacharsis, the Scythian, his inventions, 10. 600 A.

Analogy of the arts applied to rulers, 1. 341; of the arts and justice, _ib._ 349; of men and animals, 2. 375; 5. 459.

Anapaestic rhythms, 3. 400 B.

Anarchy, begins in music, 4. 424 E [_cp._ Laws 3. 701 B]; in democracies, 8. 562 D.

Anger, stirred by injustice, 4. 440.

Animals, liberty enjoyed by, in a democracy, 8. 562 E, 563 C; choose their destiny in the next world, 10. 620 D [_cp._ Phaedr. 249 B].

Anticipations of pleasure and pain, 9. 584 D.

Aphroditè, bound by Hephaestus, 3. 390 C.

Apollo, song of, at the nuptials of Thetis, 2. 383 A; Apollo and Achilles, 3. 391 A; Chryses' prayer to, _ib._ 394 A; lord of the lyre, _ib._ 399 E; father of Asclepius, _ib._ 408 C; the God of Delphi, 4. 427 A.

Appearance, power of, 2. 365 B, 366 C.

Appetite, good and bad, 5. 475 C.

Appetites, the, 8. 559; 9. 571 (_cp._ 4. 439).

Appetitive element of the soul, 4. 439 [_cp._ Tim. 70 E]; must be subordinate to reason and passion, 4. 442 A; 9. 571 D; may be described as the love of gain, 9. 581 A.

Arcadia, temple of Lycaean Zeus in, 8. 565 D.

Archilochus, quoted, 2. 365 C.

Architecture, 4. 438 C; necessity of pure taste in, 3. 401.

Ardiaeus, tyrant of Pamphylia, his eternal punishment, 10. 615 C, E.

Ares and Aphroditè, 3. 390 C.

Argos, Agamemnon, king of, 3. 393 E.

Argument, the longer and the shorter method of, 4. 435; 6. 504; misleading nature of (Adeimantus), 6. 487; youthful love of, 7. 539 [_cp._ Phil. 15 E]. For the personification of the argument, _see_ Personification.

Arion, 5. 453 E.

Aristocracy (i.e. the ideal state or government of the best), 4. 445 C (_cp._ 8. 544 E, 545 D, _and see_ State); mode of its decline, 8. 546; --the aristocratical man, 7. 541 B; 8. 544 E (_see_ Guardians, Philosopher, Ruler):--(in the ordinary sense of the word), 1. 338 D. Cp. Constitution.

Ariston, father of Glaucon, 1. 327 A (_cp._ 2. 368 A).

Aristonymus, father of Cleitophon, 1. 328 B.

Arithmetic, must be learnt by the rulers, 7. 522-526; use of, in forming ideas, _ib._ 524 foll. (_cp._ 10. 602); spirit in which it should be pursued, 7. 525 D; common notions about, mistaken, _ib._ E; an excellent instrument of education, _ib._ 526 [_cp._ Laws 5. 747]; employed in order to express the interval between the king and the tyrant, 9. 587. Cp. Mathematics.

Armenius, father of Er, the Pamphylian, 10. 614 B.

Arms, throwing away of, disgraceful, 5. 468 A; arms of Hellenes not to be offered as trophies in the temples, _ib._ 470 A.

Army needed in a state, 2. 374.

Art, influence of, on character, 3. 400 foll.;--art of building, _ib._ 401 A; 4. 438 C; carpentry, 4. 428 C; calculation, 7. 524, 526 B; 10. {341} 602; cookery, 1. 332 C; dyeing, 4. 429 D; embroidery, 3. 401 A; exchange, 2. 369 C; measurement, 10. 602; money-making, 1. 330; 8. 556; payment, 1. 346; tactics, 7. 522 E, 525 B; weaving, 3. 401 A; 5. 455 D; weighing, 10. 602 D;--the arts exercised for the good of their subject, 1. 342, 345-347 [_cp._ Euthyph. 13]; interested in their own perfection, 1. 342; differ according to their functions, _ib._ 346; full of grace, 3. 401 A; must be subject to a censorship, _ib._ B; causes of the deterioration of, 4. 421; employment of children in, 5. 467 A; ideals in, _ib._ 472 D; chiefly useful for practical purposes, 7. 533 A;--the arts and philosophy, 6. 495 E, 496 C (cp. _supra_ 5. 475 D, 476 A);--the handicraft arts a reproach, 9. 590 C;--the lesser arts ([Greek: technu/dria]), 5. 475 D; ([Greek: te/chnia]), 6. 495 D;--three arts concerned with all things, 10. 601.

Art. [_Art, according to the conception of Plato, is not a collection of canons of criticism, but a subtle influence which pervades all things animate as well as inanimate_ (3. 400, 401). _He knows nothing of 'schools' or of the history of art, nor does he select any building or statue for condemnation or admiration._ [_Cp._ Protag. 311 C, _where Pheidias is casually mentioned as the typical sculptor, and_ Meno 91 D, _where Socrates says that Pheidias, 'although he wrought such exceedingly noble works,' did not make nearly so much money by them as Protagoras did by his wisdom._] _Plato judges art by one test, 'simplicity,' but under this he includes moderation, purity, and harmony of proportion; and he would extend to sculpture and architecture the same rigid censorship which he has already applied to poetry and music_ (3. 401 A). _He dislikes the 'illusions' of painting_ (10. 602) _and the 'false proportions' given by sculptors to their subjects_ (Soph. 234 E), _both of which he classes as a species of magic. With more justice he points out the danger of an excessive devotion to art;_ (cp. _the ludicrous pictures of the unmanly musician_ (3. 411), _and of the dilettanti who run about to every chorus_ (5. 475)). _But he hopes to save his guardians from effeminacy by the severe discipline and training of their early years. Sparta and Athens are to be combined_ [_cp._ Introduction, p. clxx]: _the citizens will live, as Adeimantus complains, 'like a garrison of mercenaries'_ (4. 419); _but they will be surrounded by an atmosphere of grace and beauty, which will insensibly instil noble and true ideas into their minds._]

Artisans, necessary in the state, 2. 370; have no time to be ill, 3. 406 D.

Artist, the Great, 10. 596 [_cp._ Laws 10. 902 E];--the true artist does not work for his own benefit, 1. 346, 347;--artists must imitate the good only, 3. 401 C.

Asclepiadae, 3. 405 D, 408 B; 10. 599 C.

Asclepius, son of Apollo, 3. 408 C; not ignorant of the lingering treatment, _ib._ 406 D; a statesman, _ib._ 407 E; said by the poets to have been bribed to restore a rich man to life, _ib._ 408 B; left disciples, 10. 599 C;--descendants of, 3. 406 A;--his sons at Troy, _ibid._

Assaults, trials for, will be unknown in the best state, 5. 464 E.

Astronomy, must be studied by the rulers, 7. 527-530; spirit in which it should be pursued, _ib._ 529, 530. {342}

Atalanta, chose the life of an athlete, 10. 620 B.

Athené, not to be considered author of the strife between Trojans and Achaeans, 2. 379 E.

Athenian confectionery, 3. 404 E.

Athens, corpses exposed outside the northern wall of, 4. 439 E.

Athlete, Atalanta chooses the soul of an, 10. 620 B; athletes, obliged to pay excessive attention to diet, 3. 404 A; sleep away their lives, _ibid._; are apt to become brutalized, _ib._ 410, 411 (cp. 7. 535 D);--the guardians athletes of war, 3. 403 E, 404 B; 4. 422; 7. 521 E; 8. 543 [_cp._ Laws 8. 830].

Atridae, 3. 393 A.

Atropos (one of the Fates), her song, 10. 617 C; spins the threads of destiny, and makes them irreversible, _ib._ 620 E.

Attic confections, 3. 404 E.

Audience, _see_ Spectator.

Autolycus, praised by Homer, 1. 334 A.

Auxiliaries, the young warriors of the state, 3. 414; compared to dogs, 2. 376; 4. 440 D; 5. 451 D; have silver mingled in their veins, 3. 415 A. Cp. Guardians.

Avarice, disgraceful, 1. 347 B; forbidden in the guardians, 3. 390 E; falsely imputed to Achilles and Asclepius by the poets, _ib._ 391 B, 408 C; characteristic of timocracy and oligarchy, 8. 548 A, 553.

B.

Barbarians, regard nakedness as improper, 5. 452; the natural enemies of the Hellenes, _ib._ 469 D, 470 C [_cp._ Pol. 262 D]; peculiar forms of government among, 8. 544 D.

Beast, the great, 6. 493; the many-headed, 9. 588, 589; 'the wild beast within us,' _ib._ 571, 572.

Beautiful, the, and the good are one, 5. 452;--the many beautiful contrasted with absolute beauty, 6. 507 B.

Beauty as a means of education, 3. 401 foll.; absolute beauty, 5. 476, 479; 6. 494 A, 501 B, 507 B [_cp._ Laws 2. 655 C].

Becoming, the passage from, to being, 7. 518 D, 521 D, 525 D.

Beds, the figure of the three, 10. 596.

Bee-masters, 8. 564 C.

Being and not being, 5. 477; true being the object of the philosopher's desire, 6. 484, 485, 486 E, 490, 500 C; 7. 521, 537 D; 9. 581, 582 C (cp. 5. 475 E; 7. 520 B, 525; _and_ Phaedo 82; Phaedr. 249; Theaet. 173 E; Soph. 249 D, 254); concerned with the invariable, 9. 585 C.

Belief, _see_ Faith.

Bendidea, a feast of Artemis, 1. 354 A (cp. 327 A, B).

Bendis, a title of Artemis, 1. 327 A.

Bias of Priene, 1. 335 E.

Birds, breeding of, at Athens, 5. 459.

Blest, Islands of the, 7. 519 C, 540 B.

Body, the, not self-sufficing, 1. 341 E; excessive care of, inimical to virtue, 3. 407 (cp. 9. 591 D); has less truth and essence than the soul, 9. 585 D;--harmony of body and soul, 3. 402 D.

Body, the, and the members, comparison of the state to, 5. 462 D, 464 B.

Boxing, 4. 422.

Brass (and iron) mingled by the God in the husbandmen and craftsmen, 3. 415 A (cp. 8. 547 A).

Breeding of animals, 5. 459.

Building, art of, 3. 401 A; 4. 438 C.

Burial of the guardians, 3. 414 A; 5. 465 E, 469 A; 7. 540 B [_cp._ Laws 12. 947]. {343}

C.

Calculation, art of, corrects the illusions of sight, 10. 602 (cp. 7. 524); the talent for, accompanied by general quickness, 7. 526 B. Cp. Arithmetic.

Captain, parable of the deaf, 6. 488.

Carpentry, 4. 428 C.

Causes, final, argument from, applied to justice, 1. 352: 6. 491 E, 495 B;--of crimes, 8. 552 D; 9. 575 A.

Cave, the image of the, 7. 514 foll., 532 (cp. 539 E).

Censorship of fiction, 2. 377; 3. 386-391, 401 A, 408 C; 10. 595 foll. [_cp._ Laws 7. 801, 811]; of the arts, 3. 401.

Ceos, Prodicus of, 10. 600 C.

Cephalus, father of Polemarchus, 1. 327 B; offers sacrifice, _ib._ 328 B, 331 D; his views on old age, _ib._ 328 E; his views on wealth, _ib._ 330 A foll.

Cephalus [of Clazomenae], 1. 330 B.

Cerberus, two natures in one, 9. 588 C.

Chance in war, 5. 467 E; blamed by men for their misfortunes, 10. 619 C.

Change in music, not to be allowed, 4. 424 [_cp._ Laws 7. 799].

Character, differences of, in men, 1. 329 D [_cp._ Pol. 307]; in women, 5. 456;--affected by the imitation of unworthy objects, 3. 395;--national character, 4. 435 [_cp._ Laws 5. 747]:--great characters may be ruined by bad education, 6. 491 E, 495 B; 7. 519:--faults of character, 6. 503 [_cp._ Theaet. 144 B].

Charmantides, the Paeanian, present at the dialogue, 1. 328 B.

Charondas, lawgiver of Italy and Sicily, 10. 599 E.

Cheese, 2. 372 C; 3. 405 E.

Cheiron, teacher of Achilles, 3. 391 C.

Children have spirit, but not reason, 4. 441 A; why under authority, 9. 590 E;--in the state, 3. 415; 5. 450 E, 457 foll.; 8. 543; must not hear improper stories, 2. 377; 3. 391 C; must be reared amid fair sights and sounds, 3. 401; must receive education even in their plays, 4. 425 A; 7. 537 A [_cp._ Laws 1. 643 B]; must learn to ride, 5. 467 [_cp._ Laws 7. 804 C]; must go with their fathers and mothers into war, 5. 467; 7. 537 A:--transfer of children from one class to another, 3. 415; 4. 423 D:--exposure of children allowed, 5. 460 C, 461 C:--illegitimate children, _ib._ 461 A.

Chimaera, two natures in one, 9. 588 C.

Chines, presented to the brave warrior, 5. 468 D.

Chryses, the priest of Apollo (Iliad i. 11 foll.), 3. 392 E foll.

Cithara, _see_ Harp.

Citizens, the, of the best state, compared to a garrison of mercenaries (Adeimantus), 4. 419 (cp. 8. 543); will form one family, 5. 462 foll. _See_ Guardians.

City, situation of the, 3. 415:--the 'city of pigs,' 2. 372:--the heavenly city, 9. 592:--Cities, most, divided between rich and poor, 4. 422 E; 8. 551 E [_cp._ Laws 12. 945 E]:--the game of cities, 4. 422 E. Cp. Constitution, State.

Classes, in the state, should be kept distinct, 2. 374; 3. 397 E, 415 A; 4. 421, 433 A, 434, 441 E, 443; 5. 453 (cp. 8. 552 A, _and_ Laws 8. 846 E).

Cleitophon, the son of Aristonymus, present at the dialogue, 1. 328 B; interposes on behalf of Thrasymachus, _ib._ 340 A.

Cleverness, no match for honesty, 3. 409 C (cp. 10. 613 C); not often united with a steady character, 6. {344} 503 [_cp._ Theaet. 144 B]; needs an ideal direction, 7. 519 [_cp._ Laws 7. 819 A].

Clotho, second of the fates, 10. 617 C, 620 E; sings of the present, _ib._ 617 C; the souls brought to her, _ib._ 620 E.

Colours, comparison of, 9. 585 A; contrast of, _ib._ 586 C;--indelible colours, 4. 429:--'colours' of poetry, 10. 601 A.

Comedy, cannot be allowed in the state, 3. 394 [_cp._ Laws 7. 816 D]; accustoms the mind to vulgarity, 10. 606;--same actors cannot act both tragedy and comedy, 3. 395.

Common life in the state, 5. 458, 464 foll.;--common meals of the guardians, 3. 416; common meals for women, 5. 458 D [_cp._ Laws 6. 781; 7. 806 E; 8. 839 D];--common property among the guardians, 3. 416 E; 4. 420 A, 422 D; 5. 464; 8. 543.

Community of women and children, 3. 416; 5. 450 E, 457 foll., 462, 464; 8. 543 A [_cp._ Laws 5. 739 C];--of property, 3. 416 E; 4. 420 A, 422 D; 5. 464; 8. 543;--of feeling, 5. 464.

Community. [_The communism of the Republic seems to have been suggested by Plato's desire for the unity of the state_ (cp. 5. 462 foll.). _If those 'two small pestilent words, "meum" and "tuum," which have engendered so much strife among men and created so much mischief in the world,' could be banished from the lips and thoughts of mankind, the ideal state would soon be realized. The citizens would have parents, wives, children, and property in common; they would rejoice in each other's prosperity, and sorrow at each other's misfortune; they would call their rulers not 'lords' and 'masters,' but 'friends' and 'saviours.' Plato is aware that such a conception could hardly be carried out in this world; and he evades or adjourns, rather than solves, the difficulty by the famous assertion that only when the philosopher rules in the city will the ills of human life find an end_ [_cp._ Introduction, p. clxxiii]. _In the Critias, where the ideal state, as Plato himself hints to us_ (110 D), _is to some extent reproduced in an imaginary description of ancient Attica, property is common, but there is no mention of a community of wives and children. Finally in the Laws_ (5. 739), _Plato while still maintaining the blessings of communism, recognizes the impossibility of its realization, and sets about the construction of a 'second-best state' in which the rights of property are conceded; although, according to Aristotle_ (Pol. ii. 6, § 4), _he gradually reverts to the ideal polity in all except a few unimportant particulars._]

Conception, the, of truth by the philosopher, 6. 490 A.

Confidence and courage, 4. 430 B.

Confiscation of the property of the rich in democracies, 8. 565.

Constitution, the aristocratic, is the ideal state sketched in bk. iv (cp. 8. 544 E, 545 D);--defective forms of constitution, 4. 445 B; 8. 544 [_cp._ Pol. 291 E foll.]; aristocracy (in the ordinary sense), 1. 338 D; timocracy or 'Spartan polity,' 8. 545 foll.; oligarchy, _ib._ 550 foll., 554 E; democracy, _ib._ 555 foll., 557 D; tyranny, _ib._ 544 C, 562. Cp. Government, State.

Contentiousness, a characteristic of timocracy, 8. 548.

Contracts, in some states not protected by law, 8. 556 A.

Contradiction, nature of, 4. 436; 10. 602 E; power of, 5. 454 A. {345}

Convention, justice a matter of, 2. 359 A.

Conversation, should not be personal, 6. 500 B.

Conversion of the soul, 7. 518, 521, 525 [_cp._ Laws 12. 957 E].

Cookery, art of, employed in the definition of justice, 1. 332 C.

Corinthian courtesans, 3. 404 D.

Corpses, not to be spoiled, 5. 469.

Correlative and relative, qualifications of, 4. 437 foll. [_cp._ Gorg. 476]; how corrected, 7. 524.

_Corruptio optimi pessima_, 6. 491.

Corruption, the, of youth, not to be attributed to the Sophists, but to public opinion, 6. 492 A.

Courage, required in the guardians, 2. 375; 3. 386, 413 E, 416 E; 4. 429; 6. 503 E; inconsistent with the fear of death, 3. 386; 6. 486 A; = the preservation of a right opinion about objects of fear, 4. 429, 442 B (cp. 2. 376, _and_ Laches 193, 195); distinguished from fearlessness, 4. 430 B; one of the philosopher's virtues, 6. 486 A, 490 E, 494 A:--the courageous temper averse to intellectual toil, _ib._ 503 D [_cp._ Pol. 306, 307].

Courtesans, 3. 404 D.

Covetousness, not found in the philosopher, 6. 485 E; characteristic of timocracy and oligarchy, 8. 548, 553; = the appetitive element of the soul, 9. 581 A.

Cowardice in war, to be punished, 5. 468 A; not found in the philosopher, 6. 486 B.

Creophylus, 'the child of flesh,' companion of Homer, 10. 600 B.

Crete, government of, generally applauded, 8. 544 C; a timocracy, _ib._ 545 B;--Cretans, naked exercises among, 5. 452 C; call their country 'mother-land,' 9. 575 E;--Cretic rhythm, 3. 400 B.

Crimes, great and small, differently estimated by mankind, 1. 344 (cp. 348 D); causes of, 6. 491 E, 495 B; 8. 552 D; 9. 575 A.

Criminals, are usually men of great character spoiled by bad education, 6. 491 E, 495 B; numerous in oligarchies, 8. 552 D.

Croesus, 2. 359 C; 'as the oracle said to Croesus,' 8. 566 C.

Cronos, ill treated by Zeus, 2. 377 E; his behaviour to Uranus, _ibid._

Cunning man, the, no match for the virtuous, 3. 409 D.

Cycles, recurrence of, in nature, 8. 546 A [_cp._ Tim. 22 C; Crit. 109 D; Pol. 269 foll.; Laws 3. 677].

D.

Dactylic metre, 3. 400 C.

Daedalus, beauty of his works, 7. 529 E.

Damon, an authority on rhythm, 3. 400 B (cp. 4. 424 C).

Dancing (in education), 3. 412 B.

Day-dreams, 5. 458 A, 476 C.

Dead (in battle) not to be stripped, 5. 469; judgment of the dead, 10. 615.

Death, the approach of, brings no terror to the aged, 1. 330 E; the guardians must have no fear of, 3. 386, 387 (cp. 6. 486 C); preferable to slavery, 3. 387 A.

Debts, abolition of, proclaimed by demagogues, 8. 565 E, 566 E.

Delphi, religion left to the god at, 4. 427 A (cp. 5. 461 E, 469 A; 7. 540 B).

Demagogues, 8. 564, 565.

Democracy, 1. 338 D; spoken of under the parable of the captain and the mutinous crew, 6. 488; democracy and philosophy, _ib._ 494, 500; the third form of imperfect state, 8. 544 [_cp._ Pol. 291, 292]; detailed account of, _ib._ 555 foll.; characterised by freedom, _ib._ 557 B, 561-563; a 'bazaar of constitutions,' _ib._ 557 D; the {346} humours of democracy, _ib._ E, 561; elements contained in, _ib._ 564.--democracy in animals, _ib._ 563:--the democratical man, _ib._ 558, 559 foll., 561, 562; 9. 572; his place in regard to pleasure, 9. 587.

Desire, has a relaxing effect on the soul, 4. 430 A; the conflict of desire and reason, 4. 440 [_cp._ Phaedr. 253 foll.; Tim. 70 A];--the desires divided into simple and qualified, 4. 437 foll.; into necessary and unnecessary, 8. 559.

Despots (masters), 5. 463 A. _See_ Tyrant.

Destiny, the, of man in his own power, 10. 617 E.

Dialectic, the most difficult branch of philosophy, 6. 498; objects of, _ib._ 511; 7. 537 D; proceeds by a double method, 6. 511; compared to sight, 7. 532 A; capable of attaining to the idea of good, _ibid._; gives firmness to hypotheses, _ib._ 533; the coping stone of the sciences, _ib._ 534 [_cp._ Phil. 57]; must be studied by the rulers, _ib._ 537; dangers of the study, _ibid._; years to be spent in, _ib._ 539; distinguished from eristic, _ib._ D (cp. 5. 454 A; 6. 499 A):--the dialectician has a conception of essence, 7. 534 [_cp._ Phaedo 75 D].

Dialectic. [_Dialectic, the 'coping stone of knowledge,' is everywhere distinguished by Plato from eristic, i.e., argument for argument's sake_ [_cp._ Euthyd. 275 foll., 293; Meno 75 D; Phaedo 101; Phil. 17; Theaet. 167 E]. _It is that 'gift of heaven'_ (Phil. 16) _which teaches men to employ the hypotheses of science, not as final results, but as points from which the mind may rise into the higher heaven of ideas and behold truth and being. This vague and magnificent conception was probably hardly clearer to Plato himself when he wrote the Republic than it is to us_ [_cp._ Introduction, p. xcii]; _but in the Sophist and Statesman it appears in a more definite form as a combination of analysis and synthesis by which we arrive at a true notion of things._ [_Cp. the_ [Greek: u(phêgême/nê metho/dos] _of Aristotle_ (Pol. i. 1, § 3; 8, § 1), _which is an analogous mode of proceeding from the parts to the whole.] In the Laws dialectic no longer occupies a prominent place; it is the 'old man's harmless amusement'_ (7. 820 C), _or, regarded more seriously, the method of discussion by question and answer, which is abused by the natural philosophers to disprove the existence of the Gods_ (10. 891).]

Dice ([Greek: ku/boi]), 10. 604 C; skill required in dice-playing, 2. 374 C.

Diet, 3. 404; 8. 559 C [_cp._ Tim. 89].

Differences, accidental and essential, 5. 454.

Diomede, his command to the Greeks (Iliad iv. 412), 3. 389 E; 'necessity of,' (proverb), 6. 493 D.

Dionysiac festival (at Athens), 5. 475 D.

Discord, causes of, 5. 462; 8. 547 A, 556 E; the ruin of states, 5. 462; distinguished from war, _ib._ 470 [_cp._ Laws 1. 628, 629].

Discourse, love of, 1. 328 A; 5. 450 B; increases in old age, 1. 328 D; pleasure of, in the other world, 6. 498 D [_cp._ Apol. 41].

Disease, origin of, 3. 404; the right treatment of, _ib._ 405 foll.; the physician must have experience of, in his own person, _ib._ 408; disease and vice compared, 4. 444; 10. 609 foll. [_cp._ Soph. 228; Pol. 296; Laws 10. {347} 906]; inherent in everything, 10. 609.

Dishonesty, thought by men to be more profitable than honesty, 2. 364 A.

Dithyrambic poetry, nature of, 3. 394 B.

Diversities of natural gifts, 2. 370; 5. 455; 7. 535 A.

Division of labour, 2. 370, 374 A; 3. 394 E, 395 B, 397 E; 4. 423 E, 433 A, 435 A, 441 E, 443, 453 B; a part of justice, 4. 433, 435 A, 441 E (cp. _supra_ 1. 332, 349, 350, _and_ Laws 8. 846 C);--of lands, proclaimed by the would-be tyrant, 8. 565 E, 566 E.

Doctors, flourish when luxury increases in the state, 2. 373 C; 3. 405 A; two kinds of, 5. 459 C [_cp._ Laws 4. 720; 9. 857 D]. Cp. Physician.

Dog, Socrates' oath by the, 3. 399 E; 8. 567 E; 9. 592;--dogs are philosophers, 2. 376; the guardians the watch-dogs of the state, _ibid._; 4. 440 D; 5. 451 D; breeding of dogs, 5. 459.

Dolphin, Arion's, 5. 453 E.

Dorian harmony, allowed, with the Phrygian, in the state, 3. 399 A.

Draughts, 1. 333 A; skill required in, 2. 374 C;--comparison of an argument to a game of draughts, 6. 487 C.

Dreams, an indication of the bestial element in human nature, 9. 571, 572, 574 E.

Drones, the, 8. 552, 554 C, 555 E, 559 C, 564 B, 567 E; 9. 573 A [_cp._ Laws 10. 901 A].

Drunkenness, in heaven, 2. 363 D; forbidden in the guardians, 3. 398 E, 403 E;--the drunken man apt to be tyrannical, 8. 573 C. Cp. Intoxication.

Dyeing, 4. 429 D.

E.

Early society, 2. 359.

Eating, pleasure accompanying, 8. 559.

Education, commonly divided into gymnastic for the body and music for the soul, 2. 376 E, 403 (_see_ Gymnastic, Music, _and_ _cp._ Laws 7. 795 E); both music and gymnastic really designed for the soul, 3. 410:--use of fiction in, 2. 377 foll.; 3. 391; the poets bad educators, 2. 377; 3. 391, 392, 408 B; 10. 600, 606 E, 607 B [_cp._ Laws 10. 886 C, 890 A]; must be simple, 3. 397, 404 E; melody in, _ib._ 398 foll.; mimetic art in, _ib._ 399; importance of good surroundings, _ib._ 401; influence of, on manners, 4. 424, 425; innovation in, dangerous, _ibid._; early, should be given through amusement, _ib._ 425 A; 7. 536 E [_cp._ Laws 1. 643 B]; ought to be the same for men and women, 5. 451 foll., 466; dangerous when ill-directed, 6. 491; not a process of acquisition, but the use of powers already existing in us, 7. 518; not to be compulsory, _ib._ 537 A;--education of the guardians, 2. 376 foll.; 4. 429, 430; 7. 521 (cp. Guardians, Ruler);--the higher or philosophic education, 6. 498, 503 E, 504; 7. 514-537; age at which it should commence, 6. 498; 7. 537; 'the longer way,' 6. 504 (cp. 4. 435); 'the prelude or preamble,' 7. 532 E.

Education. [_Education in the Republic is divided into two parts,_ (i) _the common education of the citizens;_ (ii) _the special education of the rulers._ (i) _The first, beginning with childhood in the plays of the children_ [_cp._ Laws 1. 643 B], _is the old Hellenic education,_ [_the_ [Greek: katabeblême/na paideu/mata] _of Aristotle_, Pol. viii. 2, § 6], {348}--_'music for the mind and gymnastic for the body'_ [_cp._ Laws 7. 795 E]. _But Plato soon discovers that both are really intended for the benefit of the soul_ [_cp._ Laws 5. 743 D]; _and under 'music' he includes literature_ ([Greek: lo/goi]), _i.e. humane culture as distinguished from scientific knowledge. Music precedes gymnastic; both are not to be learned together; only the simpler kinds of either are tolerated_ [_cp._ Laws Book VII, _passim_]. _Boys and girls share equally in both_ [_cp._ Laws 7. 794 D]. _The greatest attention must be paid to good surroundings; nothing mean or vile must meet the eye or strike the ear of the young scholar. The fairy tales of childhood and the fictions of the poets are alike placed under censorship_ [_cp._ Laws Book X, _and see s. v._ Poetry]. _Gentleness is to be united with manliness; beauty of form and activity of mind are to mingle in perfect and harmonious accord._--(ii) _The special education commences at twenty by the selection of the most promising students. These spend ten years in the acquisition of the higher branches of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, harmony_ [_cp._ Laws 7. 817 E], _which are not to be pursued in a scientific spirit or for utility only, but rather with a view to their combination by means of dialectic into an ideal of all knowledge_ (_see s. v._ Dialectic). _At thirty a further selection is made: those selected spend five years in the study of philosophy, are then sent into active life for fifteen years, and finally after fifty return to philosophy, which for the remainder of their days is to form their chief occupation_ (_see s. v._ Rulers).]

Egyptians, characterised by love of money, 4. 435 E.

Elder, the, to bear rule in the state, 3. 412 B [_cp._ Laws 3. 690 A; 4. 714 E]; to be over the younger, 5. 465 A [_cp._ Laws 4. 721 D; 9. 879 C; 11. 917 A].

Embroidery, art of, 3. 401 A.

Enchantments, used by mendicant prophets, 2. 364 B;--enchantments, i.e. tests to which the guardians are to be subjected, 3. 413 (cp. 6. 503 A; 7. 539 E).

End, the, and use of the soul, 1. 353:--ends and excellencies ([Greek: a)retai\]) of things, _ibid._; things distinguished by their ends, 5. 478.

Endurance, must be inculcated on the young, 3. 390 C (cp. 10. 605 E).

Enemies, treatment of, 5. 469.

Enquiry, roused by some objects of sense, 7. 523.

Epeus, soul of, turns into a woman, 10. 620 C.