Chapter III: Courses of Study in State Schools (1)

I. INTRODUCTORY--RISE, DEVELOPMENT, AND PRESENT FORM OF THE CURRICULUM

We come now to a consideration of the course of study in the school system as it has evolved and is now operative. As was true throughout other parts of Europe, so in Norway, education during the middle ages issued almost exclusively from the cloister and cathedral schools (_Dom-og Kathedral Skoler_), and in them are found the germs of most modern courses of study. Inasmuch as the successive steps in the evolution of the recent schools of Europe from the earlier forms vary but little in the several countries, and since the subject is already familiar to nearly all students of education, we omit any technical discussion of that interesting feature of history, and refer the reader to any of the several works treating it fully. Suffice it to say, the aim of the church in maintaining these earlier schools centered in the development of a qualified clergy about whom should be gathered a loyal following, well-trained in the dogmas, doctrines, and traditions of the organization.

At this time the monk and a small company of disciples constituted the school. The little group studied together from day to day in and about the cloister or cathedral. Among them, very naturally, certain new thoughts and ideals sprung up. The masters saw the new developments if they were not themselves parties to them. As the newer thoughts became fixed in the youthful minds, individual interests pressed harder and harder still until provision was made for extending the work of instruction as well as for widening the scope of activities within the schools. While the aim was at first to give instruction and discipline in lines necessary to a clerical career, it changed by degrees until it included branches useful in legitimate occupations other than that of the clergy. However, the diversifying of school activities and the enrichment of the program of study did not keep pace with the changes that were taking place in other phases of the social cosmos. A spirit of unrest grew to proportions almost ungovernable until the middle age renaissance in learning removed the fetters and brought relief by effecting systems of education very fitting to the requirements. Great credit is due to the leaders in the Reformation for the part they played in placing means for instruction and education upon a more secure and permanent basis, and for the service they rendered in giving to the schools certain vitality that had rarely, if ever, been characteristic of any similar institution.

The new type of school bore a stamp of general approval which enabled it to gain a momentum which was not soon to be overcome. In fact, the schools of all the more civilized countries are still largely dominated by traditions dating back to the epoch-making works of such men as Erasmus, Luther, Melanchthon, and Sturm.

Now the ideas of these famous educators were less subjected to change in Norway than in the centers from whence they came. Until the union between this country and Denmark came to an end in 1814, very little thought was given to advancing educational interests in Norway. The work of her cathedral schools had been little improved during the centuries that had passed since their establishment. When at last Norway became a free constitutional state and these Norsemen breathed the air of freedom, felt the exhilaration of greater personal liberties, realized that their destiny was to be of their own making, and fully sensed their important responsibilities in the situation, they all, ecclesiasts and politicians, capitalists and laborers, combined in developing their schools in ways calculated to lift the masses to higher intellectual planes. The changes wrought were in relation to what was to be taught and to the extension of learning. An opportunity for instruction was given to every youth in the land.

For a long time the ancient languages formed the bulk of higher learning, while in the primary schools only the rudiments of a few subjects were attempted. Social tendencies soon required an increase in the number of branches to be taught, and also laid added weight upon the importance of such study as would be of benefit in vocational activities. Accordingly, mathematics, history, geography, and nature study became more prominent features in all schools. One of the best characteristics of the work throughout is that the mother-tongue has been at all times a dominating factor through every grade of their schools. Later in the process a demand for the modern foreign languages was responded to favorably and they took places in the curriculum of the higher school. These changes bring us down through the last century to the recent forms in courses of study and we shall introduce the reader immediately into the present situation.

Besides the institutions for higher learning there are now three distinct sections in the school system of Norway, viz.: Primary School, Middle School, and Gymnasium. The primary school is designed to provide education of an elementary type for every citizen of the country. By vital cooperation and the exercise of great care in organization, distribution, supervision, and inspection of these schools, the people have overcome illiteracy and have reduced truancy to a minimum--almost to a negligible factor. They are unitedly converted to the belief that an enlightened populace is a necessity to the continuity of desirable institutions, to the development of resources, and to the maintenance of worthy traditions. To secure for all the essentials of good and intelligent citizenship, an attempt has been made to have the curriculum for the primary schools include the branches of study which have meaning in every walk of life, and which enhance the efficiency of each citizen in his individual activities. In short, it is the intent that all the people shall have the more abundant life which comes with a thorough, general, elementary education; and, at the same time, that they shall be prepared for the higher schools which build on the broad foundation of the common school.

Following the primary schools are the middle schools which lead still farther in the pathway of intellectual development those whose situation in life enables them to proceed with school work. Besides carrying forward the lines of study begun in the lower school with added vigor and exactitude, they include a large amount of work in foreign modern languages. Thus we see that this second section in the great institution of learning fills in the elementary framework, enriches the fund of information, adds a considerable amount of culture, and paves the way for the more liberal training to follow in the next section.

The Gymnasium succeeds and builds directly upon the work of the middle school. Its function is to provide a liberal culture and education suited to the needs and desires of those who become in large part the leaders in all phases of political, professional, or other social careers.

Thus we note that the succeeding steps taken in the educational ladder are in harmony with and dependent upon preceding work. While only a correspondingly small number pass to the summit, all the people enjoy the advantages of the broad fundamentals and generalizations which lie at the base of their educational system and equip very well for the common walks and vocations of life. In our discussion we shall separate the work of the three sections and consider them one at a time. It seems advisable to handle them in this way, and we believe that a more adequate conception of the work as a whole will be obtained by offering first the part affecting all the people and dealing with the primary schools.

II. THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS

The primary schools are of two kinds,--those specially designed for the rural sections of the country and others provided for the towns and cities, the latter being somewhat richer in curricula, more complete in organization, and more thorough in operation than the former. Considering the fact that such uniformity characterizes the courses of study in the various schools, it will be necessary to present but one outline for each class of schools. An effort has been made to select courses that are representative and which clearly set forth typical conditions. Table VIII gives the program of work offered in one of the rural communes, and shows the number of hours per week devoted to each branch of study for the seven years in the course. Just after the legislative act of 1889, the Department sent out a "normal plan" which served as a guide in arranging the time-tables for rural municipalities. As a result great uniformity exists.

TABLE VIII

Table Showing the Number of Hours per Week for Each Branch of Instruction in the Course of Study in Fredrikvaern Commune.[21]

Year I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Total Religion 7 7 5 6 6 6 6 43 Norwegian 10 8 8 8 8 6 6 54 Mathematics 6 5 4 6 4 6 6 37 Geography 2 2 3 3 3 13 History 2 2 3 3 3 13 Nature Study 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 14 Writing 5 5 4 4 2 2 2 24 Drawing 1 2 2 2 2 9 Vocal Music 2 1 2 2 2 2 11 Manual Training 2 2 4 6 6 20 Gymnastics 2 2 2 2 8 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --- Total 30 30 30 38 38 40 40 246

The program just above is normal and typical in every respect. The schools are very uniform in their work and, as previously stated, no further tables are necessary in order to give a concise idea of the work generally presented in the rural districts of the entire country.

The second program selected is the one used in the primary schools of Christiania.[22] The schools of this city are among the best and are taken as models for a number in other cities and towns.

TABLE IX

Course of study showing weekly hours in Christiania Primary Schools.

Division First Second Third Year I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Total Sex[A] B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G -------------------------------------------------------------------------- Religion 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-2 4 3 4 3 4 4 3 3 24 22 Norwegian 12 11 10 8 8 7 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 50 44 Mathematics 5 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 26 23 Geography 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 8 History 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 8 8 Nature Study 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 7 7 Writing 4 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 16 14 Drawing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 6 Vocal Music 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 Manual Training 2 4 4 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 6 26 Gymnastics 2-2 0 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 9 5 Total 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 168 168

[Note: Year 1910-1911.]

[Note A: _B_ refers to boys, _G_ to girls.]

The comparative table on page 106 clearly evidences the similarities already referred to and, at the same time, serves to indicate all variations. However, in the making of comparisons, difference in the number and distribution of hours is more a matter of method or correlation between branches than an indication of actual difference in accomplishment. For example, a large number of hours for writing _may_ mean exclusively work in practice writing, but it is very probable that it will include a considerable amount of work in the mother-tongue or a definite correlation with nature study, history, or religion. The fundamental standard by which work is judged or measured is whether it prepares the pupil fully for work in the middle school.

TABLE X

Comparative table of Courses of Study in ten cities.

Religion | Norwegian | | Mathematics | | | Geography | | | | History | | | | | Nature Study | | | | | | Writing | | | | | | | Drawing | | | | | | | | Vocal Music | | | | | | | | | Manual Training | | | | | | | | | | Gymnastics | | | | | | | | | | | |Total -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- City Sex(A) B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Christiania 24 22 50 44 26 23 9 8 8 8 7 7 16 14 8 6 5 5 6 26 9 5 168 168 Bergen 21 21 55 53 29 28 8 8 9 9 8 7 10 8 9 8 5 5 8 24 10 7 172 178 Trondhjem 23 22 57 51 31 27 12 11 11 11 8 8 18 15 7 4 4 5 8 29 9 7 188 190 Stavanger 22 22 63 57 30 30 8 8 11 11 7 7 12 10 4 4 5 5 10 23 8 5 180 182 Drammen 24 24 52 47 29 25 8 8 8 8 6 5 17 13 5 3 5 5 6 25 8 5 168 168 Kristiansand 22 22 49 49 25 25 10 10 11 11 8 7 13 13 5 5 5 5 6 8 8 6 162 161 Aalesund 27 27 46 44 26 22 6 6 11 11 6 5 16 15 4 3 5 5 6 21 9 5 162 164 Fredrikshald 21 22 52 44 25 23 10 9 9 7 5 6 14 11 5 6 6 6 8 24 7 4 162 162 Skien 21 21 47 44 25 24 10 8 9 8 7 5 16 14 4 4 5 5 10 24 8 5 162 162 Kristiansund 24 24 50 47 27 26 8 8 9 8 8 7 18 15 3 3 5 5 6 20 10 5 168 168

[Note A: _B_ refers to boys, _G_ to girls.]

RELIGION READING RECKONING RITING

The four R's in Norway's educational system form the center of their educational endeavors. Only a superficial glance at the tables presented is necessary in order to notice their prominence throughout the course of study. While the amount of time devoted to them is in itself a sufficiently strong indication of their predominance, we must also carry in mind an allowance for closest possible correlation between them as constant and additional factors along the same line. Bearing these things in mind we enter at once upon the discussion of the course of study or school plan. Though the programs presented and digest of plans following or accompanying are taken from particular schools, the discussion throughout will be general unless otherwise specified. For varied reasons, but chiefly because they are typical, specific, and concrete, the courses of study used in Christiania--primary and secondary--are chosen as illustrations. The following is not a verbatim translation of Christiania's plan of instruction but an abbreviated statement of the work as outlined in their published school plan (_Skoleplan_). I have endeavored to select the more vital points throughout and to represent them as exactly as a condensed version renders possible. Where inaccuracies or omissions occur they are due to a demand for economy--the things omitted not being regarded as absolute essentials to a correct representation of the intent and spirit of the work as carried on.

OUTLINE OF SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION

_Religion_

_Aim._ The aims of instruction in religion are to develop the religious instincts of the children and to instill in them a recognition of Christianity, out of which may grow a healthy Christian life and a clear conception of the church.

To attain these, an effort is made to impart the following fund of information:

Definite acquaintance with the more important parts of Bible history, with the chief events in church history, and with the catechism according to the Evangelical Lutheran creed.

_First Division_

_Class I._ (Six half hour periods weekly.) Instruction during the beginning weeks consists in simple stories, songs, hymns, prayers, and conversations designed to impart a knowledge of Christianity, ethics, and morals; to effect definite connections with previous home training; and to awaken and develop religious and moral attitudes in the children preparatory to the more direct instruction to follow.

The real instruction in Christianity or religion begins with Bible stories selected from the Old and New Testaments and specially adapted to the understanding of the children and their ability to master the same. The following stories are among the ones used: The Story of Joseph, Samuel and Hannah, David and Goliath, The Birth of Jesus, The Three Wise Men, Jesus in the Temple, Jesus Feeding the Five Thousand, Jesus Raising the Widow's Son, Jesus Blessing the Children, Jesus Teaching the Disciples How to Pray. The stories are presented orally and explained and elucidated in such a way that the children may receive clear and vivid pictures of the persons and events referred to, appreciate their connections with the Holy Scriptures, and be able to rehearse the narratives in an intelligent manner. Whenever possible the religious or moral content of the conversation should be brought to a climax in a simple passage of Scripture, a response from the catechism, or a verse of some hymn, which should be memorized.

_Class II._ (Six half hour periods weekly.) Bible stories from Old and New Testaments taken mainly from the time of the patriarchs and Moses. Among them are the following:

_From Old Testament_: The Creation and Eden, The Fall, Cain and Abel, The Flood, The Call of Abraham, Abraham and Lot, The Birth and Offering of Isaac, The Marriage of Isaac, Esau and Jacob, Isaac Blessing His Sons, Jacob's Flight, The Birth and Rearing of Moses, The Call of Moses, Moses Before Pharaoh, The Exodus from Egypt.

_From New Testament_: The Birth of Jesus, Jesus' Entry into Jerusalem, Jesus Suffering in the Garden of Gethsemane, Jesus' Death on the Cross, The Burial of Jesus, The Resurrection of Jesus, The Outpouring of the Holy Ghost. Instruction is exclusively oral. Historical references are disregarded. Historical situations are frequently clarified by references to the history of civilization and geography. New phases of God's dealings with men and their attitudes toward Him are singled out and presented for consideration. Passages of Scripture and others from the catechism or hymns are treated in connection with the Bible stories as they are told.

_Class III._ (Six half hour periods weekly.) Biblical history up to and including the time of Solomon, characteristic stories from the prophetic period, and selections of Scripture from the New Testament designated officially for study in reference to certain church holidays. Among the topics included we find: The Tower of Babel, God's Covenant with Abraham, The Visit of the Three Men, The Lord Visits Sodom and Gomorrah, Jacob Serving Laban, Jacob's Return, The Travel to Sinai, The Giving of the Law, The Unfaithfulness of the People, The Travels from Sinai to Jordan, The Death of Moses, Joshua Leading the People into Canaan, Gideon, Ruth, Samuel, Saul Becomes King, Saul Rejected, God Chooses David to be King, David and Jonathan, Saul Pursuing David, The Death of Saul, David Chosen to be King by the People, The Fall and Restitution of David, Absalom, The Last Days of David's Life, Solomon, Elias, Jonah, Daniel. The matter covered in Classes I and II is again taken up, to which the above is added in historical connection. To this material Biblical geography and cultural history are added as needed, while hymns, passages of Scripture, or selections from the catechism are continually used. Through constant reviews the moral and religious contents from the various sources are connected into successive groups, each group centering around the life of some prominent Biblical character. Instruction is chiefly oral, though some reading from text is a privilege which may be indulged in as an aid. A certain amount of catechismal work may be assigned as home lessons.

_Second Division_

_Class IV._ (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) New Testament history centering in the stories of Jesus' childhood, His miracles, and His easier parables. New stories taken up: The Birth of John the Baptist Foretold, The Birth of Jesus Foretold, The Birth of John the Baptist, Jesus Presented in the Temple, The Flight into Egypt, Appearance of John the Baptist, The Baptism of Jesus, Jesus is Tempted, The First Disciples Come to Jesus, The Marriage in Cana, Jesus Visits Nazareth, Jesus Choosing the Twelve Apostles, Jesus Heals the Centurion's Servant, The Death of John the Baptist, Jesus Healing the Palsied, Jesus Raising Jairus' Daughter, The Woman of Canaan, Parable of the Unmerciful Servant, The Good Samaritan, Jesus at the House of Martha and Mary, Parables of the Lost Sheep and the Lost Coin, Parable of the Prodigal Son, Dives and Lazarus, Healing of the Ten Lepers, Parable of the Publican and Pharisee, Parable of the Marriage of the King's Son, Easter, Pentecost. The extent to which details of stories, Biblical geography, cultural history, and passages of Scripture or catechism are included is governed by the maturity and education of the children. In this class considerable attention is given to the reading of hymns and New Testament Scriptures from the four Gospels (elucidating obscure passages and difficult sentences), to connections between Bible stories and history, and to chronological sequence.

_Class V._ (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) Continued instruction in New Testament history, especially the parables of Jesus and the story of his passion and resurrection. To this is added the account of the founding of the first Christian church and its spread by the efforts of the chief apostles. The work includes the following new stories: Jesus and Nichodemus, Jesus and the Samaritan Woman, Jesus Commences to Speak in Parables, The Transfiguration of Jesus, Peter's Confession, The Man Born Blind, Jesus the Good Shepherd, The Raising of Lazarus, Jesus in the House of Zacchaeus, Jesus in Bethany, Parable of the Labourers in the Vineyard, Parable of the Ten Virgins, Washing of Feet, The Lord's Supper, Jesus in Gethsemane, Jesus Before the High Priest and the Sanhedrin, Jesus Before Pilate and Herod, Crucifixion of Jesus, Christ's Burial, The Resurrection, Jesus Appears to the Two Disciples on the Way to Emmaus, He Appears to the Disciples in Jerusalem, He Appears at the Sea of Tiberias, The Great Commission to the Disciples, His Ascension, The Outpouring of the Holy Ghost on Pentecost, The First Miracle and First Persecution, Stephen, The Ethiopian Eunuch, Saul, Cornelius, Paul Preaching the Gospel to the Gentiles.

Bible reading, the catechism, Bible history, and hymns are studied as in former classes, but more intensively. Besides the catechism, passages of Scripture, containing great Christian and moral truths are to be impressed and memorized verbatim. Continuous reviews through the years enable the children to connect several stories into groups, and to acquire complete information regarding the life and work of Christ. A small instruction book is used. First part and Article I of the second part are studied.

_Third Division_

_Class VI._ (Four hours weekly.) Bible history and Old Testament taken up simultaneously--Bible reading and ecclesiastical history alternating. A deeper knowledge of sacred history is sought. Striking illustrations of God's plan of salvation operating among the Jews are given, designed to enable the children to appreciate the redemptive meaning of Old Testament history. Emphasis is placed on the period just preceding the time of Christ. New stories introduced: The Division of the Kingdom, Elisha, The Downfall of the Kingdom of Israel, Isaiah, Jeremiah, The Fall of the Kingdom of Judah, The Jews under Babylonian Captivity, Their Return from Captivity, The Last Four Hundred Years.

Familiarity with Old Testament Scriptures and history, Biblical geography, and cultural history is to be gained. Articles II and III of the second part, and the third, fourth, and fifth parts of the instruction book are taken up.

_Class VII._ (Three hours weekly.) One Gospel--Matthew--is read connectedly and followed by a treatment of selected parts from the Acts of the Apostles in connection with the work of Biblical history in the fourth and fifth grades. All materials previously gathered from the various sources are again taken up, applied, and centered.

Narratives relating to important periods of the church. Among them:--The Persecutions (under Nero, Polycarpus), The Victory of Christianity (Constantine), The Christian Ceremonies, Augustine, Hermits and Monks, The Spread of Christianity, The Popes, The Crusades, The Preparation for the Reformation, The Lutheran Reformation (Luther, the Jesuits, the Catholic Mission), The Lutheran Church in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, The Mission, Bible Societies.

The aim in this division is to give information regarding the development of the church in general, and of the Lutheran church in particular. Narratives are grouped around great central characters--Christian personages. A realization of the lofty aims of Christianity on the part of the children together with an appreciation of their duties and responsibilities as members of the Christian church is the intent. By means of an instruction book the main divisions of church history, general history, and the history of Norway are correlated. Information contained in the hymn book acquaints the children with the ceremonial order of the ecclesiastical year as well as with the contents and order of the book itself. The study of previously memorized hymns and verses is emphasized and enlarged upon.

It is to be remembered that in Norway church and state are united. Religious and scholastic interests are under the direction of the Department of Ecclesiastical and Educational affairs. The minister of this department of State is one of the King's cabinet. Here we find one of the numerous attempts at the solution of the vexing question of moral instruction, or, to be more exact, religious instruction in the public schools. While the provisions for this teaching are not faultless, and though their course of instruction could not be adopted for use in America with its medley of religious prejudices, yet we must acknowledge that they are well adapted to the needs and desires of the people served. The citizenship of the country is homogenous religiously, almost universally Lutheran, and their traditions militate against any change in religious creed. The teaching of religion in the schools has been the practice for generations, the instruction is taken as a matter of course, and it exerts its beneficient influences upon all.

There are a number of important features of this moral instruction which press their claims for special mention, but we cannot discuss them all. A few, however, demand some attention. The statement of the proverb, that as the twig is bent so will the tree be inclined, has been borne out in practice times without number. Here, it seems to me, is one more illustration. Throughout their whole school life--that receptive, appropriating, formative period--the children have constantly before them ideals that are elevating, examples that are inspiring, and admonitions that tend to create and develop within them an ambition to excel in beauty of character. That the morals of society are not kept more nearly pure by this procedure seems a psychological impossibility. Again a rather successful attempt is made to have the home and school cooperate along the lines of personal purity. In fact the home, the school, and the church join hands and supplement each other in all efforts in religious and moral training. True it is that striking examples of nobility of character, high ideals, and moral worth abound in profane history as well as in sacred, in secular life as well as in religious, in living characters as truly as in those of past ages, but the school system of Norway provides ample opportunity for presenting all of these things in connection with their regular instruction in the various subjects taught, and, in addition, furnishes particularized instruction which makes a specialty of moral and religious development. It seems imperative that, when these ennobling lessons are thus vividly presented, the powers of imitation and habit should combine in the creation of stronger and nobler characters.

Nevertheless, when religious instruction is made a requirement, it too frequently becomes formal and literal rather than spiritual and lifegiving. That this great misfortune is the case in some of the secondary schools of Norway is an indictment which cannot be denied. However, in the primary schools the instruction is fruitful and important. As a consequence of these conditions the statement is common among many that in looking back over the years of religious instruction they recall numerous happy instances of earnest, heartfelt prayer and Bible stories accompanied by intense feeling on the part of the teacher. Other experiences reveal the fact that some of the teaching profession had not the sincerity and feeling back of their instruction required in order to give vitality and meaning to the lessons presented.

The entire question of instruction in morals in our public schools is one of pressing importance. It is being agitated in many lands today and a solution is sorely needed. Were all classes of society united as to what should be included in this instruction the matter would adjust itself very readily. However, social conditions in a single nation are more or less diverse, and between different nations still greater breaks are to be found. In fact the ideals and conceptions of society are so varied that no one present system would suffice for all. Could a code of ethics be formulated which would meet universal approval then its adoption and use might be hoped for. Until then each nation must necessarily follow the plan which seems best adapted to its social requirements. As already stated, the people of Norway are nearly all adherents to the Lutheran creed so there are very few dissenters from the common rule. Provision is made in the law that those who do not adhere to the state church and object to receiving instruction in this particular line may, upon request of parent or guardian, be excused from such instruction.[23]

_Norwegian_

_Aim._ It is the aim of the instruction in Norwegian to further the mental development of children, especially their linguistic ability. In this course of activity they should acquire:

(1) Efficiency in apprehending and assimilating what they hear or read, confident readiness in reading, plain articulation, and correct and natural accentuation.

(2) Efficiency in expressing themselves orally and in writing without making any serious errors in the common usage of language or the rules of composition.

(3) Efficiency in the use of the grammar of the mother-tongue which is necessary for the above measure of attainments.

_First Division_

_Class I._ (Boys twelve hours, girls eleven hours, weekly.) A suitable number (twelve or fifteen) of interesting children's stories are told and utilized for the special purposes of widening the circle of the children's imagination and developing in them ability in observation, conception, and expression. An effort is made to render the general contents of the stories lucid through explanations, while the features arousing special interest in the minds of the pupils are made the objects of more detailed conversation. An effort is made to train the children in correct, free, and easy expression in connected sentences, and to develop in them the ability to rehearse their stories freely and connectedly.

_Reading._ The aim is ability to read the primer (_ABC-en_) with assurance and in a clear tone, properly articulating and accenting each word and syllable.

_Written exercises._ The object of the written work is to teach the children to write words and simple sentences which have just been read orally or have been seen in the primer or on the blackboard.

_Class II._ (Boys ten hours, girls eight hours, weekly.) Twenty or thirty of the most interesting and valuable selections (prose and poetry) contained in the reader are made the objects of special and thorough treatment. Comments, questions, elucidating explanations, and conversations are means employed in securing a vivid appreciation of the contents and in developing ability in their easy rehearsal. The other pieces are treated in a more cursory manner, only the larger views and the more general understanding of them being attempted.

Special attention is given to having all readings slow with loud, plain, and correct articulation and proper accentuation. Habitual mistakes are carefully eliminated. Story telling is also a feature of the year's work.

_Written exercises_, made up of sentences and short parts of readings, conversations, or stories are given frequently and for short periods. Here the names of letters and spelling are attended to with great care.

_Class III._ (Boys eight hours, girls seven hours, weekly.) Twenty or thirty paragraphs from the reader are given special attention--the remainder cursory. The plan of work is about the same as for Class II. Considerable attention is given to the rehearsing of the reading lesson by the pupils. Some reproductions are to be quite detailed and exact though they are not to be given in the exact words of the text. Still other selections receive more general treatment. A few of the most pleasing poems should be memorized. Greater readiness in slow and even reading with loud and clear expression and proper natural accentuation should be sought.

_Written exercises._ Selections from the language work giving special and rather extended attention to spelling, punctuation, and grammatical constructions and forms. The teacher sets examples of correct punctuation, etc.

_Second Division_

_Class IV._ (Five hours weekly.) A select number (20-30) of pieces from the reader treated as in the former classes, though more exhaustively; and, in addition, quite a wide range of selections chosen for more cursory reading. A considerable amount of information regarding the topics treated and explanations of literary expressions should form important parts of the instruction in this class. Here, as in both preceding and succeeding classes, it should be the aim to have the children make their meanings plain when conversing upon the selections read, at least to the degree of their ability and development. Parts of former conversations on various topics should also be recalled and woven into their discussions.

_Written exercises._ These shall include features previously studied, and introduce more detailed and finer discriminations in grammatical usages and forms.

_Class V._ (Boys four hours, girls five hours, weekly.) Exhaustive study of a few selections and cursory reading in large quantities as before. Careful and abundant training in oral expression. Specific and detailed rehearsal of topics discussed in which an increasing amount of knowledge gained through study, experience, and thought is utilized. Short stories are read. Poems are memorized. Progress in clear and distinct articulation and easy and natural emphasis in harmony with refined speech is continuously a requirement.

_Written exercises._ A continuation of former exercises and a considerable amount of copying, or the writing of abstracts of lesson content, especially during the second half year. Orthographic, grammatical, and rhetorical forms are entered into more exhaustively and their niceties urged. Through continued practice in preparing and writing compositions, extra work in copying, and special study of orthography and punctuation, the children, by the close of this their fifth year of schooling, should be quite capable in punctuation as well as spelling, though they should not be expected to spell and punctuate independently with accuracy.

_Third Division_

_Class VI._ (Boys five hours, girls six hours, weekly.) Reading from a selected portion of the reader. Conversations, information, explanations, and linguistic elucidations are to be entered into according to necessity. Increasing stress is here laid on the work of drawing out the thoughts, ideas, and knowledge of the pupils, and of inciting them to more independent, intellectual effort.

_Written exercises._ Continued as previously though introducing larger amounts of independently selected forms of expression and insisting on greater accuracy in punctuation. Letter writing is added.

_Class VII._ (Five hours weekly.) Selections from the reader and supplementary reading from recommended books calculated to awaken, develop, and educate. Special attention given to the most important authors.

_Written exercises._ Compositions on topics of interest, letter writing, business correspondence including applications, invoices, advertisements, and telegrams.

The methods employed in presenting the mother-tongue are quite plainly set forth in the foregoing outline. Though the content is not so specifically defined, the general lines are indicated in such a way as to give very adequate insight thereinto. Some of the methods of presentation seem somewhat cumbersome and rather antiquated. This impression is due chiefly to terminology. The actual work in the schoolrooms is flexible, free, and, as a rule, attractive. The latitude granted to the teachers in all their work admits of almost unlimited individual initiative. Many of their teachers are quite expert in the most modern methods.

The utilitarian idea which pervades every phase of their school work is especially noticeable in the teaching of their own language. In harmony with this idea, let me call attention to the fact that, from the first, constant use is made of every attainment in both oral and written form. The oral work embraces the reading of the text, reading from the blackboard, and conversational exercises on the special topics being considered. Written work on the same lessons include copying of certain selections or parts of them and original expressions in regard to the contents of lessons read. In the advanced grades these written exercises become more and more extended and complicated until they amount to complete essays. Special attention is given to correct forms of expression and to the acquirement of habits of clear and distinct enunciation. The child, who from his earliest school days becomes habituated to exact pronunciations, is very liable--almost sure--to spell correctly; and, when constant use is made of the language in written exercises, the accepted and approved forms of expression become the fixed usages.

Now their treatment of the mother-tongue is a combination of our reading, spelling, language lessons, grammar, rhetoric, and literature, all taught in their natural order as they arise through actual use. Incidentally, vast amounts of biography, history, geography, and natural science as well as writing are included. The richness of content and thoroughness of treatment deserve careful consideration in the writing of courses and still more in their application. Specialization in phases of a single subject in lower schools nearly always means waste of energy, scattering of forces, and disappointment in the end. On the contrary, unification and close correlation result in economy of time and effort, and issue in more worthy attainments. The several fields of thought are already too much isolated from each other, and unless some guards are erected the individual fields also will be broken up and their distinctive phases so divorced from one another that their cooperative tendencies and values will become void and their relationships will be lost sight of. Norwegian is easily the preponderant study in Norway's schools, but, since it is so inclusive, it probably deserves the large amount of time devoted to it.

The long lists of supplementary readings now provided in our American schools exert a wholesome influence. Their constant revision and extension furnish materials which in the hands of skilled teachers, guarantee to the pupils sure knowledge and ability in the use of the mother-tongue. The limitless resources in English literature, America's lavish provision for higher education and professional training, and the freedom granted to our teaching profession leave the teachers of our language without excuse. The pupils studying English in America have a right to expect the best. One condition which frequently militates against first class work in this line is that school boards all too frequently fail to realize that being a teacher of English means more than merely hearing lessons so many times a week. A very large part of the most important work must be done aside from class exercises. If there be any teacher justified in asking a reduction in hours of instruction it is the teacher of the mother-tongue.

_Mathematics_

_Aim._ Readiness in the four mathematical operations in whole numbers, decimal numbers, and simple fractions, written and oral. Ability to independently solve various examples in the forms in which they generally appear in practical life, also examples in proportion and examples in percentage, together with problems of planes and solids. Course and mode of its execution as given in a text--Instruction in Mathematics (_Regneundervisningen_)--followed in all essentials.

_First Division_

_Class I._ (Boys five hours, girls four hours, weekly.) Through constant use of illustrative material (objects about the room, wooden pins, cubes, the children's fingers, etc.) the children are taught to gradually become acquainted with the numbers to ten, twenty, thirty, and on up to one hundred; and they are afforded continuous practice in reading, writing, and explaining the numbers, as well as in performing simple solutions in the four arithmetical operations. At the close of the year the children should be able to count to one hundred forward and backward. They must know how to manipulate the numbers from one to ten in adding to or subtracting from any number less than one hundred, and be able, by the assistance of the tables, to answer questions in multiplication (two's to five's). and some questions in division. Chief importance attaches to the ability of the children to use the numbers from one to thirty.

_Class II._ (Four hours weekly.) Acquaintance with and ability to read and write any number up to one million.

_Mental arithmetic._ Continuation of operations begun in Class I. When proficient in adding and subtracting units to and from one hundred, tens and units are taken up in the same way. Examples in easy multiplication, with occasional use of division, carried on throughout the year.

_Tablet work._ Addition and subtraction of numbers up to one million. In the operations coin, measure, and weight denominations are used, and are illustrated by coins, measures, and weights.

_Class III._ (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) Acquaintance with the numeral system up to and including millions. Continuous practice in reading, writing, and using numbers.

_Mental operations._ Addition and subtraction of numbers up to one hundred continued. Thereafter extend the numbers as far as the children can use them with certainty and rapidity. Multiplication of numbers up to one hundred by units.

_Tablet work._ More work in addition and subtraction going farther than to numbers with six ciphers. Multiplication of numbers with many ciphers by multipliers having one or more ciphers.

_Second Division_

_Class IV._ (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) Division with divisors having one or more ciphers. Separation of numbers into their individual factors. Finding of the least common multiple. After this a thorough drill in the four arithmetical operations with whole numbers--old and new exercises.

_Mental and tablet exercises_ in closest relation to each other. In all mental operations, here or later, rapid and positive use should be made of the easier examples before the harder ones are fumbled or handled with uncertainty.

_Class V._ (Two hours weekly.) After the necessary preparation, practice in the three operations with decimal numbers. In connection with the consideration of plane surfaces the children should be given practice in measuring parallelograms, triangles, irregular quadrangles and many-sided surfaces--triangles should predominate.

_Mental and tablet exercises_ parallel each other and are in intimate relation.

_Third Division_

_Class VI._ (Three hours weekly.) Preparatory practice in common fractions together with addition and subtraction of fractions having a common denominator and others which can easily be reduced to a common denominator. Multiplication and division using or including fractions. Further development with mental operations growing out of and in connection with tablet work.

_Class VII._ (Three hours weekly.) Percentage including interest, rebate, and discount. The calculating of cubes, prisms, pyramids, circles, cylinders, cones; also shortened pyramids, cones, and cylinders.

After this a general review so far as time admits.

Simple arithmetical operations occupy the entire field during the earlier years. The elementary algebraic forms and methods of solution are introduced relatively early, and minor geometric relations and operations are presented during the last (seventh) year of the lower schools. These latter features are radically different from our general procedure in the United States. We are in the habit of presenting the various mathematical subjects one at a time, completing one before another is considered to any extent whatever. For example, arithmetic is taken up and gone through, while parts of geometry and algebra which would be great aids in some of the arithmetical solutions are studiously avoided or excluded until the formal study of that particular subject is finally begun. The people of Norway, on the contrary, enter the larger field of mathematics and, in a more rational manner--a more psychological way--utilize available processes and forms at every opportunity. The phases of mathematics are not specialized into isolation but coordinated into a working unity. Instead of studying one subject throughout its intricacies and side issues before admitting consideration of other phases of mathematics, they make it the rule to utilize the elemental factors of the various mathematical subjects in every way possible. They give recognition to the simpler and more fundamental principles and operations regardless of the special phase of the subject to which they belong, and use the entire product as groundwork for succeeding steps in the science. In this way parts of algebra and geometry become valuable contributing preliminaries to higher arithmetical operations.

The texts used by the pupils are little more than a series of exercises. All teaching is done by the teacher and the texts are arranged in such a way that the children may have opportunity to become skilled in the principles evolved in class through application of them in the long lists of problems in their texts. Very little blackboard is provided for the pupils' use, hence but little blackboard work is accomplished. Each room has a small board on which the teacher of a pupil may go through solutions. Never have I seen more than one at a time working at the blackboard. While the limited use of blackboards generally calls for an increased amount of dependence upon intellectual activity and consequent increase in mental alertness, the free use of blackboards relieves the mind of unnecessary burdens which may as well be borne by crayon, and thus provides for the higher centers a freer activity in pushing on the quest for the unknown.

_Geography_

_Aim._ To obtain (1) A somewhat complete acquaintance with the fatherland; its conditions, commerce, manner of life. (2) Acquaintance with the geography of Europe, especially the countries to the north and the other longer civilized countries. (3) A view of the different continents and a closer acquaintance with lands and places which are of greatest importance to the fatherland. (4) Knowledge of the most important features of physical and mathematical geography.

_First Division_

_Class II._ (Boys three hours, girls two hours, weekly.) With continuous reference to local geography and places known to the children, the pupils are brought to understand geographical forms and relations in general. Special attention is given to charts and maps. Instruction begins with drawings (on blackboard and tablets) of the schoolroom; then extends to schoolgrounds, to the immediate surroundings with streets and some of the more important buildings; and then to the entire city with its environs, etc., etc. The children should become acquainted with the more important features of topography, soil, valleys, plains, ridges, mountains, seas, fjords, rivers, brooks, seasons, day and night, rising and setting of planets (sun, moon, and stars), flora and fauna, altitude, sea level, etc. From familiarity with the city and its surroundings the work extends to the entire fatherland which is considered in an elementary fashion. Herein are included elementary studies of coast line, principal systems of valleys, and location and size of cities.

Map drawing of small localities.

_Class III._ (Two hours weekly.) The map of Europe. Beginning with the fatherland, including its location with reference to other lands and seas as well as its relations thereto, enter into a study of other European countries in the order in which they would naturally be entered if touring from the fatherland. Subdivisions of the sea and land, also cities, railways, canals, rivers, and mountains are to be studied. Pictures are to be used in illustration. By the use of globes and other illustrative material, the discussion may be extended to other parts of the world. Each of the several divisions of the earth is to be treated in an elementary manner. Everything is to be outlined or indicated on the maps and charts--first by the teacher and later by the pupils.

_Second Division_

_Class IV._ (One hour weekly.) On the foundation of what was done in Class III the work shall be extended to the outlying divisions of Europe--Norway, Sweden, Denmark, The British Isles, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Russia. The study of maps is emphasized both for review and new work. Every land is considered with reference to the fatherland, other known lands, the equator, and the poles. Attention confined to typical aspects: description of a typical city, a manufacturing center, etc., special variations in climate, flora and fauna, chief natural scenery, commercial activities, products and conditions of the citizens. Readings on geographical topics are correlated with picture illustrations. Details and illustrations utilized as in Class III.

_Class V._ (One hour weekly.) Holland, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, and the Balkan peninsula are considered after the plan used in Class IV. After these European countries, foreign countries are discussed. Study and instruction in this class is in accord with the outlines of work in previous classes though more exhaustive and minute. India, China, the large islands in the Pacific Ocean, North Africa with its Sahara, Central Africa, The United States of America, Australia, etc., are also considered.

_Third Division_

_Class VI._ (One hour weekly.) The geography of the fatherland is gone through thoroughly with the aim of imparting to the children a rather complete knowledge of their country's nature, commerce, and life in its various localities. The chief points considered are: coast line, surface, water channels, climate--east and west--boundaries, inhabitants, life of the people, political divisions. This is to be constantly correlated with what has been learned previously of other European countries. Map drawing in detail. Review of former work.

_Class VII._ (One hour weekly.) The more important features of mathematical and physical geography are presented, being continuously illustrated by charts, maps, globes, astronomical plates, etc. The horizon, earth formations, zones, yearly and daily rotations, geographical breadth and length; the moon, its phases; the planets, etc., are important topics for study. Others are positions of continents and oceans with reference to each other, climate and physical features of the earth, the air, winds, changes in temperature, movements of the sea, the more important ocean streams (Gulf and Polar streams), etc. Throughout the study constant connections should be made between what is known in geography, natural history, and nature study.

The outline indicates both thoroughness and a close correlation with related fields of work. Beginning with the well-known in geography they gradually widen their horizon and establish connections with the more remote parts of the earth until the children obtain a moderately accurate appreciation and knowledge of this branch of study and get a view of its intricate relations with life and human activity. While the work of the course is generally characterized by thoroughness, their study of localities outside of Europe is simply a skimming over or a skipping glance.

To be sure time is insufficient to enable them to exhaust all opportunities; but, it would seem more consistent with their general idea of concentrating on matters which directly concern the fatherland and its subjects, did they bring the young into a more intimate acquaintance with America and a fuller appreciation of what America really means to Norway and Norwegians. Very few Norsemen are without vital interests here. Nearly all, it seems, have immediate relatives or very dear friends who have migrated from the native land and have established homes in the United States. It appears that it would be important for them to follow the path of their migrating brethren and acquaint themselves more fully with the geography of America. Its life, topography, commerce, and other distinctive features would add to their geography a chapter of unsurpassed values.

The work which is done is commendable for many reasons. The many-sided views obtained by varied methods of attack are rich and meaningful. Every pupil is ready with a full discussion in response to a question relating to their own country. Furthermore, they are informed with reference to the relationships existing between each country studied and the fatherland. These have been clearly pointed out. The perspective obtained through the study of physical and mathematical geography affords richer meaning to every day of life as well as to all the phenomena of nature.

_History_

_Aim._ The chief aim of instruction in history is to inspire the children's historic instincts and love for their country and people. In an effort to obtain this the following information is imparted: (1) A somewhat connected knowledge of the history of the fatherland together with the fundamental tendencies of the social order. (2) Acquaintance with the most significant incidents in general history.

_First Division_

_Class III._ (Two hours weekly.) Selected narratives from the history of the fatherland. The collection of stories includes the following: Harald the Fair Haired, Haakon the Good, Haakon Jarl, Olaf Trygveson, Olaf the Holy, Sverre Sigurdson, Haaken the Aged, Margaret and Albert, Christian the Second, Christian the Fourth, Tordenskjold, The Years 1807-1814, The Time of Pirates, Kristian August, Norway in 1814, Kristian Fredrik, Eidsvold, 17th of May, Norway's decennial celebration.