Chapter III: Courses of Study in State Schools (2)

The stories are presented orally and are so detailed that the children get clear pictures of persons and incidents. The material of instruction is centered about particular and important persons and incidents in order to give them greater fixity. The pupils rehearse the stories they have been taught. Historic poems and songs of the fatherland which refer especially to people or incidents are studied in connection with the history. The material received through instruction in geography during the former year is utilized as groundwork in building up and enriching the historical ideas of the fatherland. The more important phases of social institutions are presented in a way suited to the capacity of the pupils. As the stories proceed, an attempt is made to awaken a degree of appreciation of their historical sequence.

_Second Division_

_Class IV._ (Two hours weekly.) Stories and descriptions regarding general history centering about the following points or topics: Ancient world kingdoms, Greeks, Romans, Germans, Norse, Papacy, great discoveries and inventions. Treatment here is similar to that given in Class III. Stories, anecdotes and pictures add life to regular routine. Stories of the fatherland are presented in very brief form and are given in order to effect connection with general events in world history. Here again geography is made the groundwork of history.

_Class V._ (One hour weekly.) Work carried on as previously. Narratives of events chiefly during the time from the Reformation to the French Revolution.

Central features studied: Luther and the time of the Reformation (Luther's childhood and youth, Karl V., extension of the Reformation, and the Thirty Years' War), the period of absolute monarchy, the time preceding the Revolution, science and discovery. Presentation of topics the same as previously given. Here is included also a considerable amount of culture history, descriptions from which are given in such a way that life among the higher classes, as well as among the oppressed, may be presented and appreciated.

_Third Division_

_Class VI._ (One hour weekly.) Work continued as heretofore. Stories from the time of the Revolution down to modern times. Among the materials used are the following topics: time of the Revolution, 1789-1800; Napoleon, 1800-1815; July and February Revolutions, Napoleon III., Germany's consolidation, discoveries and inventions, delineations of the history of civilization, and the advance of modern times in industries and means for communication.

_Class VII._ (Two hours weekly.) The history of the fatherland gone through in great detail and in a definitely connected manner. All work based upon what has been learned in former classes. The following are among the more important points considered: Norway in ancient times, Norway organized into a Christian kingdom, Norway's time of prosperity, Norway under internal wars, Norway under later kings of Swedish family and descent, Norway in union with Sweden and Denmark, Norway united to Denmark until 1661, time of absolute monarchy (1661-1814), Norway in 1814, Norway since 1814. In addition, the chief features of social institutions, the condition of the state, rights and obligations of citizens, state administration, communal affairs, and similar topics are discussed at some length.

By the assistance of a suitable text the presentation should impart to the pupils a moderately connected knowledge of the historical development of the fatherland up to the present time. The children should obtain clear insight into the inner historic situations; persons, events, and specific dates standing as contributors in the background. Historic sagas and related selections are used in connection. While attention centers in the history of the fatherland, important contemporary events in general history are kept constantly before the eyes, frequent reference being made to the studies in Classes IV-VI.

The stated aims, enumerated means, and outlined methods of presentation afford a fairly good idea of the work done in the study of history throughout the primary schools. It has been observed, perhaps by many, that instruction in history has been preceded by one year's study of geography, that the geography of the several countries precedes the history of the peoples inhabiting them, and that geographical appreciation is utilized as a foundation for instruction in history.

The main purposes of instruction in history are: development of patriotic and loyal citizens, intellectual training, and cultural information. The prized traits of citizenship are read, sung, and drilled into the daily life of every child in the entire country, and these impressions are fixed so definitely that they live through generations, even when the subjects are transplanted to foreign soils.

Story telling in the beginnings of history instruction affords an immediate appeal both to the children's interest in personal activities and to their liking for that form of instruction. The characters whose biographies are delineated are the men around whom national activities have centered. The bits of history related are of epoch-making incidents from the earliest times down to the present. Being presented through biography they have a personal touch and flavor which secure vital and immediate responses from the children.

There are still other features worthy of consideration. Incidents of historic interest are not only pointed out and studied but the scenes of these are actually visited. Here again we see the definite way in which history and geography are correlated. Too, since Norway has been favored by the gift of many literary geniuses, most historic characters and events have found place in literary classics. All along the way, songs, poems, and dramas having relation to national history are brought into the instruction in a living, real way. The children are given abundant opportunity to attain proficiency in relating historic events with information gained from the fields of geography, language, and literature.

_Nature Study_

_Aim._ Instruction in nature study attempts to awaken the children's interest in and regard for nature in all its expressions, and to exercise their thought powers and judgment so as to enable them to find or make connections between cause and effect. In order that their attention be centered upon the suitability to purpose, conformity to law, harmony and beauty, the children should have their thought directed to nature's creation and maintenance. Finally, the children through this instruction should obtain a conception of how mankind attempts to control nature and to utilize its strength in the promotion of human welfare.

_Materials for instruction._ Our bodily structure in the large or whole, as necessary to an understanding of the general conditions in man's physical life and as fundamental to instruction in health. The more important native and foreign animals and plants; their growth and life, together with their importance in nature's economy. The natural forces which have greatest significance for organic life and for man's efficiency.

_Methods of instruction._ Natural objects or representations of them in model or drawing, and operations of natural forces illustrated by experiments observed and written up. The accuracy of observations are tested by the pupil's oral or written accounts of what they see. Conditions and things familiar to the children in common life are the ones to be used above all others.

_Class IV._ (One hour weekly.) Short synopsis over our bodily structure (four hours). Present by oral instruction and through illustrative materials the skeleton, muscles, digestive organs, skin, circulation, respiratory organs. The same points may also be studied as they appear in the lower animals.

_Mammals._ (Twenty hours.) Horse, ass, cow, sheep, goat, reindeer, deer, elk, camel, cat, wild-cat, lion, tiger, dog, wolf, fox, marten, bear, swine, elephant, seal, whale, hare, rabbit, squirrel, rat, beaver, anteater, bat, monkey.

_Fowls._ (Ten hours.) Tame chickens, woodcock, sparrow, yellow hammer, bullfinch, lark, swallow, starling, dove, cuckoo, parrot, hawk, falcon, eagle, owl, heron, stork, duck, goose, swan, gull, ostrich, and others.

Instruction begins with typical animal forms which are illustrated by charts or drawings when the stuffed or mounted specimens are not at hand. The children are required to depend upon themselves as much as possible in finding out individual characteristics in the bodily structures of the chosen forms. Then bodily structure and habits are related, as are also their homes, food, color, and environment. Finally, the animal's meaning in the economy of nature and its value to man are the points studied. Along with the careful study of a typical form, related animals are examined in a more general and cursory manner. The children are taught to remember that while they have dominion over the animals they are at the same time under obligations to them. Disregard of these duties is looked upon as rudeness. Animal stories form a part of the instruction. After studying the chosen types a review takes notice of common characters and separates animals into classes. Instruction is based on a text.

_Class V._ (Two hours weekly.) _Plants._ (Forty hours.) _Dicotyledonous plants._ Bluebells, buttercups, strawberry, apple trees, pea, clover, beans, cherry, plum, dandelion, blueberry, heather, potato, tobacco, willow, birch, hazel, and others, studied under their regular headings or in their special families.

_Monocotyledonous plants._ Rye, barley, wheat, oats, timothy, lily of the valley, pine, fir, juniper, in connection with respective families.

_Flowerless plants._ Ferns, moss, mushrooms.

_Foreign useful plants._ Coffee, tea, cotton, sugar cane, rice, maize, orange, palms, spices. All plants are studied carefully under their respective subdivisions. As in the consideration of animals, the growth, vital organs, habitat, and use of plants are studied, as are also their grouping, fruit, etc. About fifty plants are studied carefully and others are related to them. The children are taught not to injure plants or trees.

_Animals._ (Twenty hours.) Adder, lizard, crocodile, turtle, frog, toad, mackerel, pike, salmon, trout, herring, haddock, flounder, eel, shark, cabbage butterfly, silk worm, moth, bee, bumble-bee, wasp, ant, fly, gnat, grasshopper, spider, lobster, crab, angleworm, leech, trichina, snail, mussel, star-fish, sea urchin, coral, sponge, etc. Instruction along same line as in Class IV.

_Physics._ (Sixteen hours.) Based on a text. Instruction to be accompanied by experiments whenever possible--otherwise illustrated by drawings and models.

_Solids._ Resistance to change in form: hardness, elasticity. Resistance to change of extensity: compressibility, porosity, adhesion, cohesion.

_Liquids._ No fixed form, apparent unchangeability of extensity, adhesion to solids, solution of solids, mixing of liquids, endosmose.

_Gases._ No definite form, attraction, diffusion, absorption.

_Gravitation._ Weight, units of weight, weighing, relation between weight and size, force of weight as a cause of movement, hindrances to movement, forces in equilibrium.

_The lever._ Balance, hand presses, on the principle of the lever.

_Class VI._ (Two hours weekly.) _Liquids._ (Eight hours.) Distribution of pressure, Archimedes' law, specific gravity, communicating shaft.

_Properties of air._ (Eight hours.) Archimedes' law, the atmosphere and its pressure, barometer, pumps and lifters, Mariotte's law.

_Heat._ (Twelve hours.) Different temperatures, effects of heat, expansion of bodies, the thermometer, maximum density of water, melting and freezing, evaporation and condensation, boiling, degree of pressure at the boiling point.

Transmission of heat by radiation and by conduction, good and poor conductors, temperature and humidity of the air, downward pressure, circulation of water, atmospheric currents, sources of heat, heat as force, steam pressure.

_Sound._ (Eight hours.) Origin of sound, its transmission, rate of transmission, the ear, tones, reflection of sound.

_Light._ (Ten hours.) Self-illuminating and dark bodies, transparent and opaque, straight path of light, shade, rate of transmission, reflection, refraction, diffusion of color, convex and concave lenses, microscope, telescope, camera, the eye, spectacles.

_Magnetism._ (Five hours.) The magnet and its poles, their reciprocal relations, magnetizing, difference magnetically in iron and steel, horseshoe magnet, compass.

_Electricity._ (Fifteen hours.) Electricity of friction, two kinds of electrical condition, conductors and insulators, communicating and distributing, electrical machines, lightning and thunder, lightning rods, electrical current, battery, electric light, electro-magnetism, telegraph, telephone, electricity which generates power.

_Equilibrium and Motion._ (Ten hours.) Motion with uniform, increasing, or decreasing rapidity; combination of motion and force (the parallelogram of power, center of gravity, the three conditions of balance, the beam, the inclined plane); work and vital force; experiment with the pendulum.

_Class VII._ (Two hours weekly.) _Physics._ (Sixteen hours.) Machines, block, tackle, windlass, the curved pivot, various driving forces (water wheel, steam engines, dynamos), application of machinery in the industries, railways and steamboats.

_Chemistry._ (Sixteen hours.) Ingredients of water and air, coal, carbonic acid, burning and oxidation. Fundamental elements as material in all bodies. Examples of elements: oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus, aluminum, iron, silver, and gold. Examples for combinations: water, ammonia, sulphuric acid, rust, soda, cooking salt, lime, chalk, clay, quartz, ores. Examples of organic matter: starch, sugar, albumen, alchohol, fats. Instruction in chemistry consists in illustrations and descriptions of materials and experiments.

_Structure and life of the human body. Study of health._ (Thirty hours.) Based on text. Study of skeleton, muscles, nervous system, work and rest, sense organs and their use, digestive organs and processes, use of teeth, blood and circulation, breathing pure and impure air, kidneys, meaning of bodily exercise, structure and use of the skin, bathing, clothing, dwellings, foods and pleasures (under this intoxicating drinks, tobacco, etc.) Something regarding contagious diseases and help in times of accidents. Inject instruction on health when convenient in connection with the study of the organs of the body. Illustrate by experiment when possible. General review, especially the points concerning the nourishment and respiration of plants and animals.

The outline in nature study impresses one with the inclusiveness of the course. The elementary phases of animal life, plant life, physics, chemistry, and human physiology and health are made the objects of careful consideration. True this study in some cases is stiff, formal, meaningless, and without spirit because of not being connected with the vital interests of the pupils, but on the whole the work is brought very close home to their daily life. Through it the children are able to see the contributions to life and human welfare made by the innumerable things in man's environment.

Throughout the primary grades the work is mostly devoted to descriptive studies. Considerable attention is given also to the intrinsic value to man of animals, plants, and natural forces, and the means he has found for utilizing them in his struggle forward. The nature lessons throughout the grades are enriched and enlivened by the use of well selected and carefully prepared appliances and models for demonstration. Whenever possible the living animals and plants in their natural habitat, forces as applied in the machinery of neighboring institutions, and minerals in their successive processes of development and refinement are studied at first hand. Every school where the financial stringency is not too keen is provided with a liberal amount of apparatus for demonstrational purposes (_anskuelsesmidler_). As an instance, every primary school in the city of Christiania has at least one room of considerable size devoted exclusively to the storing of this material. Maps, charts, mounted specimens, plates, preserved articles, and accessory materials are there in abundance, and provide minute representations for most any point one might wish to make typical for illustration or study. The more genuine phases of laboratory work are not provided, though a considerable amount of crude experimentation is done in the grades.

The teacher presenting this course must be capable for he is the authority and guide back of all work done. Text books (good ones though condensed) play a part, but a much smaller part than would be the case in our American schools were similar instruction approached in a formal way. In other words, their teachers furnish the course and _teach_ the subject, while too many of ours merely present the course provided in the adopted text book.

Writing, drawing, vocal music, manual training, and gymnastics are also in the curriculum and each receives careful attention. Perhaps extended outlining of these courses and long discussions concerning them are unnecessary. Their importance and value are recognized. Their presentation in the schools of Norway is commendable, but some things must be passed without exhaustive treatment. Only general statements will be given.

The results in some lines--writing and drawing in particular--do not justify the amount of time devoted to them. The writing is mechanical throughout, and in the lower grade the requirements are altogether too exacting. Drawing is required of all alike. Those who have ability in this line of work perhaps receive too little instruction; others, without talent or liking for it, regard it as a drudgery and, in the minds of some of their teachers, hinder the progress of the gifted. The finer coordinations required in both writing and drawing are frequently in advance of the development of the pupils and work injury rather than benefit.

Vocal music is required of all and injures none. Probably each one reaps considerable benefit from the instruction. The class of music used in their teaching is very different from what is in vogue in our American schools. The church has exercised a great deal of influence in this respect. Since church and state are united the music of the church forms a predominating portion of the music of the state schools. Psalms, chants, and songs of stately dignity constitute the bulk of their selections, while those of lighter strain are interspersed at intervals not too close together. In America our children's songs are more attractive from the "jingle" point of view. Our children like them better and are more anxious to sing them. The little Norwegians, too, are delighted when permitted to swing into the lighter strains of music. They love to sing. Their faces fairly glow as their mellow voices swell out whether they sing in a jingle or in the rich harmonies of their psalms. Common use of the better quality of music cultivates their ability to appreciate and to render works of higher order than one usually finds in the schools of our own country.

Manual and industrial training has had an important place in their schools for many years. Every hour spent at the bench is a delight to the boys, while the girls enjoy equally well the privilege of sewing or cooking. These activities are certainly valuable in the training of the young, and their influences extend into the homes of all the pupils.

Gymnastics is the regular order for all pupils. A Swedish system of exercises is used which requires little apparatus but yields large returns. Abundant well-directed exercises of various kinds are provided for every pupil at stated periods and are entered into with zest. The regularity with which the gymnastic exercises are given doubtless has much to do in preserving the health of the children. As a class they are not only free from weaknesses but are vigorous and robust. Another part of their gymnastic work is the outdoor exercise which is required of all the pupils between the class periods. This doubtless adds much life and animation to the entire school program.

The course as a whole includes the fundamentals and chief essentials to educational activity. Those who pass through the primary schools obtain an intelligent appreciation of life and its meanings. They are able to meet common needs successfully and to attend to general affairs in an approved manner. The masses feel the necessity of the fuller life thus provided and in turn the school is admirably fitted to the task of developing loyal and capable citizens. Furthermore, those who are so favorably situated that they may continue in school longer than seven years and desire fitness for entrance upon the work of higher education find in the primary schools every opportunity to gratify their desires.

The connection between the lower and higher schools was not at all satisfactory until 1896, when the Storthing readjusted the system. Since then pupils may pass regularly from the fifth grade of the primary school into the four year middle school, or after the completion of the seven grades of the primary school they may enter either a three or a four year middle school and finish in three years. Since the number desiring entrance to the middle school from the fifth grade is larger than can be accommodated, those of highest ranking educationally are admitted. While the secondary school men claim perfect right to choose the fittest for entrance into their schools, the primary school men feel that their work in the sixth and seventh grades suffers injustice as a result of this selective process. The connection between the schools is not yet perfect and some unrest is evidenced in reference to the matter. The chief need seems to be an increase in the number of middle schools.

III. THE MIDDLE SCHOOL

The Storthing, in 1896, passed a law defining the limits and work of the middle school. According to the enactment this school builds upon the foundation laid in the primary school and secures to the pupils a thorough general education suited to the needs and receptivity of childhood. The course of study offered may be of varied length, but in no case shall it exceed four years in duration. The four year course aims at a very natural connection with the work done during the first five years in the common school. Where the connection can be made with the work of later grades in the primary school, the course of the middle school may be correspondingly shorter. The aim and methods are in general similar to those in the lower school; though, of course, higher, more thorough and inclusive, and such as give deeper insight into all subjects of instruction. It is required that instruction be given in religion, Norwegian, German, English, history, geography, natural science, mathematics, writing, drawing, manual training, and vocal music. Instruction in domestic economy may be provided for the girls.

Formerly all of these schools charged tuition; but, as the conditions in the commune gradually improved, provisions were made in some of them for the issuance of a certain number of free scholarships. These were usually governed in such a way that those most in need were the first to receive the benefits. From time to time scholarship funds were increased until now some communes provide free scholarships to all resident children. The city of Christiania has a three-year middle school building upon the foundation of seven years of primary work and charging no tuition whatsoever. This provision together with the building up of scholarship funds are forerunners of free entrance, probably, to all of the state's middle schools. As already stated, the work of the middle school overlaps in part that of the primary school. The course of study for Classes I and II is in a large measure a duplication of that provided for Classes VI and VII in the lower school. However, to present the work of the middle school adequately, it is essential that the course for the entire four years be here included. The state adopts a curriculum which is used in all of its secondary schools. Minor details such as texts vary in the different schools. The following is an outline of the curriculum used in the Christiania Cathedral School.

_Religion_

_Class I._ (Two hours.) Vogt's Bible History to the fall of the Kingdom of Judah. J. Sverdrup's Commentary to Article 2. Verses of hymns once each week.

_Class II._ (Two hours.) Vogt's Bible History from "The Exile" to "The Story of the Passion." Commentary from Article 2 to "The Sacraments." Verses from hymns.

_Class III._ (Two hours.) Bible History and Commentary completed and reviewed. Verses from hymns. Bible reading.

_Class IV._ (One hour.) Y. Brun and Th. Caspari's Church History gone through and reviewed. Cursory study of the ecclesiastical year and the order of divine service.

Here we note the beginnings of a more formal consideration of religion. A large part of the work is historical. Texts and lectures covering practically identical grounds form the basis of the work in this branch of study. The change to the more formal study of religion strikes the writer as a distinctive turn or transfer from moderately successful to useless endeavor. The personal touch and human flavor attending the informal telling of Bible stories afford some genuine inspiration. Life touches life. When character is exemplified in a living person or is shown through story once to have had expression in a fellow mortal, interest is awakened and the child instinctively imitates the vision before him. He transforms it into life. He enters into the spirit of the theme and the spirit giveth life.

On the other hand, when religion is presented in a formal way, when an abstract view is taken, when the core of the subject is in the cold pages of texts,--then the letter killeth. Through force of habit the children retain some respect for the wishes of the teacher and do go through the motions of study and recitation, but the life of the subject is very soon extinguished and even respect for it vanishes in large measure. However, in rare instances good results are obtained through the efforts of teachers who are especially well qualified for this work.

_The Mother-Tongue and Old Norse_

_Class I._ (Five hours.) Pauss and Lassen's Reader II. 2. Some of the Songs of the Fatherland learned by heart. Oral and written analysis. Hofgaard's Norwegian School Grammar, Paragraphs 1-31, 34-38, 41, 45, 48-59, 61, 65, 76-79. The more important part of Hougen's Rules for Correct Writing. Written work (dictation and composition) each week.

_Class II._ (Four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's Reader II. 3. Poems--among them some of the Songs of the Fatherland learned by heart. Hofgaard's Grammar continued, also analyses. One written exercise each week (dictation and easy composition.)

_Class III._ (Alternately three and four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's Reader III. Poems learned by heart--partly from Lassen's Poems for Middle Schools, partly from Songs of the Fatherland. Certain parts of the grammar reviewed. Analyses now and then. About twenty written exercises, among them some dictations.

_Class IV._ (alternating three and four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's Reader III. That portion from which the examination is taken, gone through and partly reviewed. Several poems committed to memory. Fourteen written exercises. Among the topics used the following are typical: The summer vacation, the location of our city, Denmark, past and present lighting systems, animal life in our forests, reminiscences from my earlier school days, birds and why we protect them, the Norsemen as seamen, Christiania in winter garb, Europe's natural conditions in preference to those of other continents.

In harmony with the indications of the plan of instruction, the early part of the work in the study of the mother-tongue is devoted to reading from selected texts. Simultaneously, grammar and rhetoric are carried along and put into use in written compositions which are frequent. Here, as in the primary schools, exact spelling, correct grammatical and rhetorical forms, and approved literary style are constant requirements. The child is expected not only to read intelligently, but to express himself orally and in writing in a comprehensive manner and in such form as to appeal to the intelligence of others. Thus both in oral speech and through written composition the pupil is privileged to put his attainments into continuous use. They acquire the tools of thought and skill in handling them.

_German_

_Class I._ (Six hours.) Knudsen and Kristiansen's Reader from the beginning to the "Subjunctive." Written exercises.

_Class II._ (Five hours.) Knudsen and Kristiansen's Reader from "Subjunctive" to close of book. Voss' Reader in section A, seventy-six pages, in section B, fifty pages; one-half of these shall be learned by heart. Hofgaard's Short German Grammar the most important forms. Written exercises. Rehearsals. Retroversions.

_Class III._ (Five hours.) Voss' Reader, in section A, seventy-five pages, in section B, fifty-eight. Hofgaard's Short German Grammar, inflections. In section B besides the above, paragraphs 140-148, 156, 169, 179-181. In addition section B shall have thirty-six pages of O. Kristiansen's oral exercises and thirty-two compositions according to O. Kristiansen's exercises in written work. In section A, written exercises, partly according to Kristiansen's outlines for written work and partly reviews of the lessons in the reading book.

_Class IV._ (Five hours.) Voss' Reader in section A, twenty pages, in section B, seventy-five. Repetition of the portion designated for minutest study. The grammar reviewed. One or two written exercises each week according to Kristiansen's outlines.

The instruction in German proceeds in a very natural manner. The earlier lessons are devoted very largely to oral instruction in which the teacher takes the lead. Words, phrases, and sentences are given by the teacher for translation and concert repetition. Repetition and concert work are prominent in many places in the schools, but nowhere stressed to the same extent as in their language instruction. Concert work seems to stimulate to freedom in pronunciation, while repetition affords the drill which is necessary to the required accuracy. Having had at least five years of thorough instruction in the mother-tongue the children are able to appreciate in a measure the meaning and importance of verb forms and other features of inflection so that they are ready to do consistent work in this phase of their study. In addition to the translations referred to, conversational exercises are soon introduced, and at the end of the second year some facility in easy conversation is evidenced. Toward the close of the middle school the children are able to read the language with ease and to converse in it quite fluently.

_English_

_Class II._ (Five hours.) Brekke's Elementary Reader to page seventy-four, studied and reviewed, besides the grammar in the back of the book. Conversational exercises and written work on the blackboard. During the last half year an occasional written exercise in a book.

_Class III._ (Five hours.) Brekke's Reader for the Middle School, sixty-five pages read and reviewed. Knap's Grammar. One narrative per week.

_Class IV._ (Five hours.) Brekke's Reader for the Middle School. Required portion read and reviewed, while the remainder of the book is gone through and in part read _ex tempore_. One narrative each week.

The study of English proceeds along lines parallel to those followed in the German. The learning of the language is accomplished chiefly through its use. Explanations are made by using the more familiar words of the tongue studied, by circumlocutions, and by other similar practices. Grammar is resorted to as a means rather than an end. It is used only in facilitating the acquisition of the language, not as an end in itself. However, at the close of the course each pupil has become quite proficient in the grammar as well as in reading the language and in conversing in it.

_History_

_Class I._ (Three hours.) Nissen's History of the World by Sehjoth, from the beginning until "Scandinavia in the Middle Ages."

_Class II._ (Two hours.) Text as in Class I. From "Scandinavia in the Middle Ages" to "Modern Times."

_Class III._ (Three hours.) Same Text. From "Charles V" to "The February Revolution." Review.

_Class IV._ (Three hours.) Same Text. Reviewed in its entirety.

The course in history is very rich and its study is entered into with animation. The teacher is usually a master in the subject and he makes the work of great profit. A considerable amount of the class period is devoted to a vivid and analytic introduction of the work to be done at the next meeting of the class, preparation for which shall be made in the meantime. Problems are presented and purposes are indicated so that the preparatory study may be done with some definite end in view.

All facts of history are placed in appropriate settings and perspective, correlated into a unity, and given vital meaning. Maps, charts, and pictorial illustrations are provided in abundance and used constantly. Frequently historic scenes near at hand or known to the pupils are pointed out, minutely described, and visited.

Teachers appeal to the sentiment of pupils with the aim of begetting loyalty for the fatherland in the hearts and minds of the young. I have heard instructors grow eloquent as they warmed up on phases of Norway's history, and have noted the flushed cheeks and snapping eyes of the children that bespoke the national pride of the young hearts as familiar words, slogans, and songs of their heroes were quoted.

When given an opportunity--a common occurrence--the pupils enter into the rehearsal of historic events with enthusiasm. Every mind in the room is active. They are awake to the situations and are familiar with the scenes and literature connected with the several stages of development. Replies given in response to questions from the teacher are nearly always in the form of narratives, sometimes occupying ten or fifteen minutes.

General history or history of any foreign country is entered into in a spirit similar to that characterizing the consideration of their own. On one occasion I listened to a review on American history. Among the characters taken up were Grant, Lee, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and Lincoln. The pupils discussed Uncle Tom's Cabin with familiarity, Lee was considered as "The Napoleon of America," but Lincoln was the one to whom most of the class period was devoted. At the close of the hour the teacher announced a lecture on "Abraham Lincoln" for the following Sunday evening in the Working-Men's College (_Arbeiderakademi_)[24] of which he was the director. This incident illustrates the way in which they correlate the work of different educational organizations, and shows their interest in the important events connected with the history of other nations.

_Geography_

_Class I._ (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. Norway and Sweden. Review.

_Class II._ (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. From "The Central European Mountains and Rivers" to "Asia." Studied and reviewed.

_Class III._ (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. The foreign continents. Studied and reviewed.

_Class IV._ (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. Repeated or reviewed in its entirety.

Two books are used in the study of this subject. One is made up entirely of well designed, carefully drawn, and thoroughly reliable maps, printed on a good quality of paper. The other is a text giving a good logical statement of what the course is calculated to include. The teacher must provide the major portion of the information by his own initiative and through cooperation of pupils. Illustrative material (_Anskuelsesmidler_) is provided in great abundance and in diversified variety.

An effort is made to impart to the pupils a satisfactory appreciation of the conditions prevailing in the countries considered. Their colonization, commerce, products, topography, political subdivisions, cities, population, river and mountain systems, climate, etc., are all carefully studied. The course begins with the geography of Norway. Next foreign lands and conditions are taken up and compared to situations at home. When the various countries on the globe have been kept for a time before the eyes, a thorough review is given which occupies the greater portion of the last year in the middle school course.

_Mathematics_

_Class I._ (Five hours.) Numbers resolved into factors. Fractions. Some Proportion.

_Class II._ (Five hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and Eliassen's text. From beginning to division. Geometry: Bonnevie and Eliassen's text. From beginning to right lines divided into equal parts. Arithmetic: Proportion and percentage.

_Class III._ (Five hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and Eliassen's text. From division to equations with two unknowns. Geometry: Bonnevie's text. From parallelograms to Book IV. Drill in percentage and interest.

_Class IV._ (Five hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and Eliassen's text. From equations with two unknowns to close of book. Geometry: Bonnevie's text. From Book IV to close of text. Review of entire text. Drill in computing solids and other miscellaneous problems. A few hours devoted to bookkeeping.

One of the most favorable features of their instruction in mathematics is the intimate connection they make between the several phases of the subject. Arithmetic, algebra, and geometry are never wholly separated from each other. They are in reality interwoven and so definitely correlated that each contributes to the others. By constant use the several processes become familiar tools in the mental activities of the pupils. Mastery of the principles of the science and ability in their use are the ends to be attained. The outline of the course indicates the extent of the field receiving attention. It is sufficient to say that the topics are all made to appear plain, definite, and vital; and that they are assimilated, and do become parts of the growing life.

_Nature Study (Natural Science)_

_Class I._ (Three hours.) Botany: Sorensen's text. Written descriptions of about twenty-five plant forms. Zoology: Vertebrates according to Sorensen's text.

_Class II._ (Two hours.) Botany: Sorensen's text. From "The Sunflower Family" to "Plant Structure." Plant analysis. Zoology: Sorensen's text. "Invertebrates." Review from treatise on insects to close of book.

_Class III._ (Two hours.) Zoology and botany reviewed. Plant analysis. Henrichsen's Physics. From beginning to "Properties of Air."

_Class IV._ (Three hours.) Henrichsen's Physics studied through and reviewed with related laboratory work. Knudsen and Falch's The Human Body I studied and reviewed.

The plan of work, as noted, includes botany, zoology, physics, and human physiology. Each subject is taken up and pursued in a consistent manner. In botany plant analysis and structure form the important part of the work. A herbarium is made by each pupil. The study is brought very definitely into the daily lives of the children with the intent of opening their eyes to the conditions in nature about them and of developing in them an appreciation of the almost unlimited provision made for man's welfare. Zoology and physiology are treated in a similar way. They are calculated to enrich the life of the individual by bringing him into more sympathetic relations with all living forms. In physics the child does some experimental work and thereby gets first hand experience to accompany, clarify, and assist in evaluating the elaborated instruction of the teacher regarding forces, phenomena, and laws.

It was interesting to note in a recitation chiefly devoted to experimental work that the language used in conversation was carefully scrutinized and that errors were corrected. Throughout the curriculum a very definite effort is made to utilize every phase of information possessed by the pupils.

IV. GYMNASIUM

_Religion_

_Class I._ (One hour.) Selected hymns, and chapters from the prophet Isaiah.

_Class II._ (One hour.) Short survey of church history. Brandrud's text used by some of the pupils.

_Class III._ (Two hours.) Short presentation of the Christian faith and ethics, without text. Survey of designated portions of John's Gospel, the Epistle to the Romans, and Revelations.

The instruction in religion is commonly given by the city pastors. While all of these men are highly educated, many of them lack the ability to awaken the minds of the pupils to an active interest in the subject. No examination in religion is required in the gymnasium. As a result of the formality in this teaching and the lack of incentives generally, the members of the classes are listless and inattentive. I insert a note that I made in reference to one class in which I was a visitor. "Most of the class was listless all of the time and all of them most of the time." I have on a few occasions heard short and irrelevant remarks made by pupils in response to direct questions by the instructor, and among the pupils it is accounted no reflection whatever if any of their number states that he knows nothing regarding the situation under discussion. The work appears altogether void of interest and without profit.

It seems almost pathetic that a subject of such importance should have its richness of content dissipated and wasted through lack of incentives or by reason of unsuccessful methods of presentation. My observation of the work from the beginning of the primary school through all the classes up to the completion of the gymnasium convinces me that the personal and concrete presentations in the lower grades are very successful but that the formal, authoritative work in the secondary schools is little more than failure.

_Norwegian_

_Class I._ A and B (Four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's Reader IV. 1. Njael's saga. Holberg's The Busybodies and Peter Paars. Part of Ohlenschlager's Aladdin. Baggesen's Noureddin to Aladdin. Hertz's Svend Dyring's House. Also in A, Ibsen's Vikings at Helgeland; in B, Ibsen's The Feast at Solhaug; Bjornson's Synnove Solbakken.

Landsmaal. Garborg and Mortensen's Reader for Higher Schools. About forty pages from Aasen, Janson, Sivle, etc.

Fourteen compositions in each class. Assigned exercises: Impressions from the summer vacations; what do we learn from Njaal's saga regarding life and customs in Iceland about the year one thousand; a characteristic of the "Busybodies" by Holberg; Christiania as a city of manufacture and industry; a comparison between the east and west of Norway with references to nature and commerce; a painting I like; Norway as a tourist land; do not put off until tomorrow what you can do today; why could not the Persians conquer the Greeks; the dark sides of city life; what circumstances have combined in giving the Norsemen high ranking as seamen?

_Class II._ R. G. (Five hours.) History of Literature through the literature of the North, folk songs, a collection of Danish and Norwegian ballads, selections from Asbjornsen, Moe, and Holberg. Romance poetry, some read minutely and the rest cursorily. Consideration of Aasen and the Landsmaal movement. Sixty pages of Garborg and Mortenson's Landsmaal. About twenty pages of Old Norse from Nygaard's beginner's book.

Written exercises, frequently on topics of interest. Besides all this each pupil must give a discussion on a self-selected theme before the class.

_Class II._ L-H. (Six and five hours.) Holberg's Erasmus Montanus. Wessel's _Kjaerlighed uden Stromper_ (Love without Stockings.) History of literature to about one thousand, eight hundred. Shakespeare's Julius Caesar. In the Landsmaal selections from Garborg and Mortenson's Reader (excepting folk songs.) Old Norse: Nygaard's beginner's book. Some pages from Thor to Utgard. Twelve written exercises on important literary, historical, and industrial subjects.

_Class III._ R. G. (Four hours.) History of literature from Holberg down to the present. Read scrutinizingly selected writings of Holberg, Ohlenschlager, Wergeland, Welhaven, Asbjornsen and Ibsen. In the Landsmaal read from Garborg and Mortenson's Reader and the writings of Vinje. In the Old Norse read the remainder of Nygaard's beginner's book. History of language and history of literature. Many written exercises, largely literary and historical topics.

_Class III._ L-H. (Five and four hours.) Special study of selections specified as examination material including the writings of Holberg, Wergeland, and Welhaven. Landsmaal from Garborg and Mortenson's Reader. History of Literature. History of Language. Twelve written compositions on important topics.

The work in literature throughout the gymnasium deals with the masterpieces of the language in an analytic and critical way. The aims are to familiarize the pupils with the best productions in the language, to acquaint them with the lives and historical relations of their authors, and to develop literary appreciation and style. Accordingly many writers are included, translations of world classics are utilized, history of literature in its connections with general history receives attention, and ability in composition is encouraged and required.

Eddas, sagas, and the more important productions from successive periods are studied in minute detail. The Landsmaal is not neglected. When any piece of literature is under discussion, related historical events; references to other literary productions, characters, myths, etc.; the life of the author; and many other important points are considered exhaustively. The intricacies of the language are sought out in patience and made familiar. Every known device for completing the literary background is utilized. Since the literature of the country is a part of the life of its citizens, no effort is required to secure intense interest in the work.

In the linguistic-historical course more time is devoted to this branch of instruction than is given to it in the _real_ and Latin courses. The quality or class of work is essentially the same though the quantity is necessarily less in the two latter courses. A definite effort is made to place each pupil in possession of the culture represented in the national literature.

_German_

_Class I._ A and B (Three hours.) Gundersen's German for the Gymnasiums. A, sixty-seven pages, B, seventy-five pages, consisting of the following titles: _Die Sanger_, _Die Burgschaft_, _Der Ring des Polykrates_ _Der Handschuh_, _Die Sonne Bringt es an den Tag_, _Die Goldene Repetieruhr_, _Wie der Meisenseppe Gestorben ist_, _Umzingelt_, _Der Stumme Ratsherr_, _Zur Geschichte des 30-jahrigen Krieges_, _Landsknecht and Soldat_. In B review the more important features of syntax in O. Kristiansen's Grammatical Exercises.

Once every week a written review of a lesson read.

_Class II._ (Three hours.) Gundersen's German for Gymnasiums, about one hundred pages. Fifteen written exercises, partly reproductions of new matter and partly write-ups of what has been studied. In _real_ gymnasium some supplementary assignments in addition (_Das Schneeschuhlaufen_, _Die Lage Kristianias_, etc.)

_Class III._ (Alternating three and four hours.) Gundersen's German for Gymnasiums. Reading finished and the greater part of it reviewed. Every second week a written review covering two consecutive hours.

German is recognized as the language of a great neighbor nation and is assiduously studied. Much time has been spent in the middle school in acquiring the language and now three years are used in introducing the pupils into the thought-life and culture of the nation through the inner contact of its literature. Some of Germany's more important authors are studied rather exhaustively. An endeavor is also put forth to become familiar with the most remarkable events in the history of that Empire. Through this advanced treatment they perfect their knowledge of the language as such, and further their ability to converse in the foreign tongue.

_French_

_Class I._ A (Four hours.) After the more important parts of phonology, Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader in French for the Gymnasium I. pp. 18-108. The most essential parts of the grammar, together with many exercises in translation. While reviewing, special emphasis is placed upon reading exercises.

_Class I._ B (Four hours.) Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader I pp. 1-55 read and reviewed, together with the corresponding translations from Norwegian p. 109 ff. In addition pages 98-108 are read and reviewed and most of the remaining exercises are gone through cursorily. Wallem's Vocabulary Part I. 1 and Part V. 6-9 are studied.

_Class II._ R. G. (Two hours.) Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader II pp. 1-31 and 104-112. Grammar drill by references to synopses of grammar in the beginner's book. Wallem's Vocabulary Part I. 1 and V. 6-10 studied and reviewed.

_Class II._ Lang. (With Latin five hours, without Latin four hours.) Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader. Division without Latin about eighty pages, consisting of Part I., the last section and Part II selections for A, I-VI for B, III, IV, VII, XI. Division with Latin, the same amount excepting B, VII and XI. Wallem's Vocabulary, review V. 6-9.

_Class III._ R. G. (Two hours.) Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader, about eighty pages.

_Class III._ Lang. (Three hours.) Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader I, the last section and II for A, I-X and for B, I-XIII with the exception of a few selections such as X in A which is read only cursorily. As exercise in _ex tempore_ translation use Duruy's History of France.

About the same amount of French is taken in the Latin as in the _real_ course of study though it is carried but for two years in the former and three in the latter.[25] More time is provided for it in the linguistic-historical course then in either of the others. Reference to the table on page 171 will indicate exactly the amount of time used and its distribution throughout the years.

The French language is not as closely related to the Norwegian as are the German and English. Greater variations are noted both in pronunciation and in vocabulary. Almost universally the Norwegians regard it as the most difficult of the three foreign languages to acquire.

The study of French is not begun until the pupils enter the gymnasium when they are fourteen or fifteen years old. English and German are begun three and four years before French. The teachers believe that a mistake is made in not beginning the study of French earlier. It is worthy of note that the Norwegian pedagogues who have tried beginning instruction in the languages at different times in the school course are definitely of the opinion that to begin the study of a foreign language early is a distinct advantage. It seems to the writer that American schools might profit by this experience and introduce the study of languages in the lower grades.

TABLE XI

Course of study showing weekly hours in Christiania Cathedral School (1910-1911).

GYMNASIUM Courses _Real_ Language-History Latin Middle School ----------------------------------------------------------------------- Classes 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 IV. III. II. I. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- Religion 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 Norwegian 4 5 4 5 6 4 4 5 4 3-1/2 3-1/2 4 5 German 3-1/2 3 3 3-1/2 3 3 3-1/2 3 3 5 5 5 6 French 2 2 4 3 4 4 0 5 4 English 2 2 4 7 7 4 2 2 4 5 5 5 Latin 11 7 History 3 3 3 5 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 Geography 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 Mathematics 6 6 4 2 2 4 2 2 4 5 5 5 5 Natural Science 5 5 4 1 1 4 1 1 4 3 2 2 3 Writing 1/2 1/2 1 2 Drawing 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Vocal Music 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Gymnastics 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 Manual Training 2 2 2 2 ------ -- -- ------ -- -- ------ -- -- -- -- -- -- Total 35-1/2 35 35 35-1/2 35 35 35-1/2 35 35 36 36 36 36

_English_

_Class I._ (Four hours.) Brekke and Western's Selections from English Authors for the First Gymnasium. The regulation sixty pages (matter from which examination is taken) is read and reviewed. Forty pages _ex tempore_. One synopsis or reproduction each second week. Knudsen's English Prepositions and Synonyms.

_Class II._ R. G. and Latin (Two hours.) Brekke and Western's Selections for Second and Third Classes in the _Real_ Gymnasium. Sixty-seven pages read and reviewed in part. _Ex tempore_: Called Back of Conwoy.

_Class II._ L-H. (Seven hours.) Brekke and Western's Selections from English Authors for Second and Third Linguistic-Historical Classes, one hundred and sixty pages. Merchant of Venice, Act I. Most of Brigadier Gerard by Conan Doyle. Western's English Institutions gone through. Otto Anderssen's History of Literature to "Bacon." Written exercises each week.

_Class III._ R. G. (Two hours.) Anderssen and Eitrem's Selection of English Classics, thirty-three pages. The portion from which selections are taken for the final examination (_Artium Examen_) reviewed in its entirety. _Ex tempore_: Called Back of Conwoy.

_Class III._ L-H. (Seven hours.) Brekke and Western's Reader. Obligatory, Selections 3, 4, 16, 17, 11, 19. From Otto Anderssen's English Literature the required amount: Swift, Byron, Thackeray, Merchant of Venice. O. Anderssen's History of English Literature. Western's English Institutions. Written work each week.

_Class III._ Latin (Two hours.) Anderssen and Eitrem's Selection of English Classics, forty-five pages. Review of selections from which examinations are taken.

The connections the Norwegians sustain with the English speaking world are, perhaps, stronger than those binding them to any other people. Norway has close commercial associations with both England and America, and rarely does one find a family in Norway without near relatives in one or both countries. As a consequence, more than usual interest attaches to the study of English. Strenuous efforts are now being made to introduce it into the curriculum of the elementary school, and such change will probably be effected at an early date.

According to the present plan those who graduate from the gymnasium have studied English six or seven years and have gained a fairly definite knowledge of it. They are able to read fluently and converse with ease. They have become familiar also with much of the best English literature, and through it have been brought into close touch with the life and culture of the English speaking peoples.

_Latin_

_Class II._ Latin (Seven hours.) Schreiner's Short Grammar. Inflection and some of the rules of syntax. Ording's elementary book. Ording's Latin Reading Selections, pp. 1-36. Written exercises each week.

_Class III._ Latin (Eleven hours.) Schreiner's Latin Reading Selections, pp. 30-67 and 73-88. Livy XXII., chapters 4, 9-15, 16-18, 19-28, 42-55. Cicero in Verrem IV., sections 1-14, 60-70, 72-81, 105-115. Schreiner's Short Grammar: Syntax. Forty written translations.

Latin is included in the curricula of only about one-half of the gymnasia of Norway.[26] It is taught by competent teachers who appeal to the interests of the pupils through related history and literature, and through promise of linguistic excellence. The work is gone into thoroughly, drill is constant, and readiness in response is demanded.

Despite the excellent quality of instruction there is a general feeling among the Norwegians that the study of Latin does not yield the immediate and substantial returns coming from other kinds of study. While they recognize that for advanced work in certain lines Latin is a prerequisite, they are convinced that, outside of those special lines of learning, contemporary tongues, history, biology, industrial chemistry, and other scientific subjects are more beneficial. As a consequence this branch of study is on the decline.

_History_

_Class I._ (Three hours.) Ancient history as treated in Raeder's text. History of the middle ages up to the second division from Schjoth and Lange's General History.

_Class II._ R. G. and Latin (Three hours.) Schjoth and Lange's General History. History of the Middle Ages and of Modern times until the Vienna Congress. History of Scandinavia until 1720. Survey of its more important portions--oral or written.

_Class II._ L-H. (Five hours.) History of the Middle ages down to the French Revolution from Schjoth and Lange's General History. History of Scandinavia to 1720. In addition use two hours per week in historical readings including such topics as the feudal system, medieval poetry, the university, Venice, craftsmen and merchants in the middle ages, Fredrik II., Hanseatics and aristocracy in the north, William Pitt.