Chapter X: Part 10

Of the critical days, some terminate the disease frequently, faithfully, well, completely, clearly, decidedly; and others contrariwise to these. But the 13th has been shown to possess an intermediate character. Some of these are such as to prove critical if they experience even the most moderate impetus of nature, such as the 7th and 14th; whilst most of them prove critical in violent commotions of the system, but not otherwise. Neither are the favorable all equally favorable, nor the unfavorable all equally unfavorable; nor is their favorableness and unfavorableness according to any order. Those in the first rank of favorable days may be arranged thus: the best of all are the 7th and 14th, next to them the 9th, and 11th, and 20th; and near to them the 17th and 5th, after these the 4th, after it the 3d and 18th. Opposed to them, of the second rank, are these: the worst, which proves obscurely critical with danger, and is, as it were, diametrically opposed to the 7th, is the 6th: near to it are the 8th and 10th, after these the 12th, 16th, and 19th. Intermediate between these is the 13th, being neither so objectionable as those of the second rank, nor so powerful in freeing from diseases as those of the first. The critical days then are thus arranged according to their degree by Galen. Numerically thus: the favorable are the 3d, 4th, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, 14th, 17th, 18th, 20th; the unfavorable, the 6th, 8th, 10th, 12th, 16th, 19th; the intermediate, the 13th. Some of the critical days give information concerning the others, and are hence called indicatory by Hippocrates, because they indicate the crisis that is to happen on another critical day. Thus the 4th indicates a crisis on the 7th, by inducing sweats, perspirations, or some such particular evacuation, or by displaying certain signs which had not formerly taken place, or some symptoms of concoction. Galen says that the 4th is indicatory of the 6th, although it be unfavorable, as the 11th is of the 14th, and the 17th of the 20th. Until the 14th day the crises are the most decided, next to these until the 20th; from the 20th to the 40th they gradually lose their decided character. Of these, the first in degree are the 27th, 34th, and 40th, after which are the 24th and 32d. The other numbers intermediate between the 20th and 40th are indeterminate, and those after the 40th are not properly critical, as they terminate diseases by concoctions and abscesses rather than by crises. Hippocrates seems entirely to disregard all those after the 40th day, yet he enumerates the 60th, 80th, and 100th. After these, he says that some diseases prove critical in seven months, some in seven years, and others, as it would appear, in twice or thrice seven years.

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COMMENTARY. The Father of Medicine who was profoundly skilled in Semeiology, appears to have attached great importance to the observance of the critical days. At first, as Galen remarks, he seems to have been undecided respecting certain days, and, accordingly, he gives a somewhat different list of them in his ‘Prognostics’ and ‘Aphorisms,’ from what he has given in his ‘Epidemics.’ His latter list of critical days differs little or nothing from that of Galen.

Galen reposes such confidence in the doctrine of critical days, that he affirms that, by a proper observance of them, the physician may be able to prognosticate the very hour when a fever will terminate. The following is his list: The 7th is particularly favorable; next, the 14th; next to these, the 9th, 11th, and 20th; then the 17th and 5th; afterwards the 4th, 3d, and 18th. The 6th is very doubtful and unfavorable; the 8th and 10th, like the 6th; the 12th, 16th, and 19th, like the 8th and 10th. Intermediate between these two lists of favorable and unfavorable days is the 13th. He informs us that Diocles and Archigenes held the 21st to be particularly favorable, but he agrees with Hippocrates in rejecting it and adopting the 20th.

Celsus follows the system of Archigenes. He says, “κρίσιμοι dies erant, dies tertius, quintus, septimus, nonus, undecimus, quartus-decimus, unus et vicesimus; ita ut summa potentia septimo, deinde quarto-decimo, deinde uni et vicesimo daretur.” But he does not hesitate, afterwards, to express his distrust in the whole system; for, he adds, “verum in his quidem antiquos tunc celebres Pythagorici numeri fefellerunt; cum hic quoque medicus non numerare dies debeat, sed ipsas accessiones intueri.”

The Greek writers subsequent to Galen adopt his system, with little or no alteration. Aëtius arranges the critical days thus: First in order, the 7th and 14th; then the 9th and 11th; next to them the 17th and 5th; then, the 4th; and afterwards the 3d and 20th. The 6th is usually bad.

The last of the ancient authorities, Actuarius, is very full and confident in laying down the received doctrines, with regard to the critical days. He follows Galen.

The Arabians, with scarce one exception, adopt the Galenic system. Avicenna, who treats of the critical days very fully, mentions the list of them given by Hippocrates and Galen, and also that by Archigenes, but decides in favour of the former.

Rhases mentions the critical days in the following terms: The 3d is critical in very acute fevers; the 4th is indicative of the 7th and 6th; the 5th is favorable; the 6th generally unfavorable; the 7th is a particularly favorable or unfavorable crisis; the 8th rarely critical, but if it be, unfavorable; the 11th critical and indicative of the 14th; the 12th rarely critical, and like the 8th; the 13th rarely critical; the 14th, critical and favorable; the 15th like the 13th; the 16th like the 12th; the 17th like the 9th, and indicative of the 20th; the 18th rarely critical, or unfavorable; the 19th rarely critical, or, if so, not bad; the 20th next to the 14th, and favorable; the 21st sometimes critical, but less frequently so than the 20th; the 24th resembling the 20th; after these the 27th, 31st, 37th, and 40th are critical. Averrhoes remarks, that great deference is due to Rhases’ opinion upon this subject, since it was confirmed by experience, in more than ten thousand cases, in an infirmary (in infirmaria Relenson). His list is very little different from that of Galen. In his ‘Continens,’ he gives an account of the system of Archigenes, but prefers that of Hippocrates. (xxxii.)

Averrhoes states that the medical world was divided between the systems of Archigenes and Galen, but he inclines to the side of the latter in this case, although on most occasions given to dispute his authority.

Avenzoar, upon the whole, nearly agrees with Rhases, but expresses himself undecided with regard to the 20th and 21st days. His authority must also be allowed to be of great weight upon this subject, if we may believe Averrhoes, that he lived to the age of one hundred and thirty-five, and practised medicine from his fortieth year.

To the first class of critical days, according to Haly Abbas, belong the 7th and 14th; to the second, the 11th and 20th; to the third, the 4th, 17th, and 21st; and to the fourth, the 3d, 5th, 9th, and 18th.

Alsaharavius gives a similar list to Haly’s. He inclines rather to the 20th than the 21st day.

Galen, and most of the ancient authorities, believed that the critical days are influenced by the moon. Actuarius, in particular, attributes much to the influence of the sun and moon in influencing the course of fevers.

Prosper Alpinus gives a correct summary of the ancient doctrines respecting the critical days. (De præs. Vita et Morte ægrot. vi, 4.)

SECT. VIII.—THAT CRITICAL SYMPTOMS APPEARING IN THE COMMENCEMENT ARE UNFAVORABLE.

The signs of concoction are never unfavorable, for concoction always take place when nature prevails, and therefore the signs of it are always favorable. But the critical signs may sometimes appear unfavorably, owing to the crisis partaking of a double character (as was said with regard to the critical days), being sometimes favorable and sometimes unfavorable. They ought not therefore to appear at the commencement, nor during the increase of the disease, but after its acme, at which time nature is prevailing over the disease.

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COMMENTARY. The opinion here delivered is derived originally from Galen, but is maintained also by Oribasius, and the other authorities. It requires no comment.

SECT. IX.—HOW TO JUDGE BEFOREHAND OF A FUTURE CRISIS.

If the paroxysms increase in violence, occur earlier, and become much stronger; if they invade on the third day; and if symptoms of concoction appear in the urine, alvine discharges, and sputa, the disease will certainly soon come to a crisis. If the attack is slow, and if the paroxysms occur at the same hour every day, you may expect that the crisis will not take place till after a longer time. And those fevers which make their attack with rigors cannot terminate until the rigor abate; for until that occur it is impossible for the disease to have attained its acme, and therefore much less is it reasonable to expect that it is upon the decline.

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COMMENTARY. This Section is copied from Oribasius. (Synops. vi, 3.) The subject is fully treated of by Galen (de Crisibus.) Rhases describes very accurately the symptoms of an approaching crisis, such as, confusion of the understanding, vertigo, headach, inquietude, involuntary flow of tears, pain of the stomach, &c. He warns the inexperienced not to be alarmed at the violence of the precursory symptoms. (x, 26.) Avicenna, Averrhoes, Haly Abbas, and Alsaharavius, though they treat of the subject very fully, supply no original views.

See an ample account of the ancient opinions in Prosper Alpinus. (De Præs. Vita et Morte ægrot. vi.)

SECT. X.—HOW TO RECOGNIZE A PRESENT CRISIS.

Restlessness precedes every crisis, and if the crisis be to take place by day, it will occur by night; or if the crisis be to take place during the night, it will occur by day; and then certain symptoms supervene, such as headach not previously occurring, sympathetic pain of the neck, retraction of the hypochondrium, sudden difficulty of breathing, and other dangerous symptoms which did not manifest themselves before then take place. And if, when these occur, the pulse, instead of sinking, is increased in magnitude and becomes stronger, and the critical day approaches, and if it be one of the favorable, you may not only anticipate a crisis, but also a good one. And be not then alarmed if you see the patient become delirious and disturbed, for these are indications of the humours being carried upwards; in like manner as certain other symptoms indicate their being determined downwards, such as pain of the belly, gripes about the navel, pain in the loins, borborygmi, and other similar symptoms, when they occur. In addition to these, if the patient was accustomed to have a hemorrhoidal discharge, and if the period of it be at hand, and in like manner with respect to the menstrual discharge (if the patient be a woman), it is not unlikely that the crisis may take place by such an evacuation. And a critical sweat is recognized by a precursory moistness of the skin (especially if occurring upon one of the days called indicatory), and by openness of the pores. From these you may recognize crises by evacuations upwards; for, in addition to the aforesaid, you ought to examine the face of the patients, and whether there be palpitation in any part, or throbbing of the temporal arteries; or if the cheek, nose, or eye be redder than usual, you ought the rather to anticipate the coming crisis. But if they shed tears involuntarily, or fancy that they see sparks of light, and constantly carry their hands to their nose as if to rub it, then indeed you may see not only an approaching but a present flow of blood; for when they rub it once or twice the blood straightway breaks forth. Pungent pain at the stomach, and trembling of the under-lip often indicate a crisis by vomiting. These considerations are sufficient, but to them may be joined the age and constitution of the patient, as strengthening the anticipation; to which may be added, the season of the year and the present constitution. For if the patient be a child, or otherwise by nature warm and full of blood, you may still more form this anticipation; or if formerly, when in health or disease, as we remarked before, an evacuation of blood appeared, this circumstance alone may be sufficient to make you expect a hemorrhagy. And if the season of the year be summer, or, if not summer, if the present state of the weather be hot, and if the patient had often experienced a crisis at that season by hemorrhage, if the body be plethoric, if there is retention of the customary evacuations, all these things ought to strengthen your expectations. In like manner you ought to judge of the other evacuations; or, if none of these symptoms should appear, but if there be uneasiness occurring on one of the critical days after the 20th; or if, when the disease is at its acme, pains should seize certain joints, or near the ears, or in other parts; or if not pains, but local sweats should occur unceasingly in any part of the body, then indeed you may expect a crisis to take place by abscess, and in that part where the sweats, pains, or swelling occurred.

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COMMENTARY. This is taken with very slight alterations from Galen (Therap. ad Glauc. i: see also, de Crisibus, iii, 2.) The critical evacuations enumerated by Galen are, those by vomiting, by the belly, by urine, by sweats, by hemorrhage from the nose, by hemorrhoids, by the menses in women, by abscesses of the parotid glands, and by determination to the knees, feet, or some other parts not vital. He says there are three ways in which a fever may terminate favorably, namely, by an evacuation, by an imperfect crisis without an evacuation, and by resolution, that is to say, when the febrile symptoms go off gradually. There are likewise three unfortunate terminations; for the patient may die suddenly with much agitation, or in consequence of a metastasis, or he may be slowly wasted by a marasmus.

Averrhoes enumerates the same kinds of critical evacuation as Galen, and otherwise treats of them very judiciously. (Collig. iv, 39.) Avicenna gives a long account of all the circumstances attending the crisis, but he copies closely from Galen and Hippocrates. (iv, 2, 1.) Haly Abbas, in like manner, is sensible and correct, but borrows from the Greeks. (Theor. x, 10.) The account given by Rhases is excellent, but it differs little from our author’s. (Ad Mansor. x, 27.) In his ‘Continens,’ he gives a full exposition of the Galenic doctrines, with his own Commentaries. He states, that a crisis may take place in six ways: by hemorrhage at the nose, by an alvine evacuation, by vomiting, by a discharge of urine, by a sweat, or by an aposteme. (xxxi.)

SECT. XI.—HOW TO DETERMINE WHETHER A PAST CRISIS BE FAVORABLE.

If a proper evacuation takes place after the concoction, and the fever is resolved by the critical evacuation; if the patient is freed from all other symptoms; if his colour has improved in proportion to the evacuation; if his pulse has become more regular, and his strength better in rising out of bed; and, what is the most salutary symptom of all, if these are accompanied by repose of the constitution, this may be pronounced to be the best possible crisis. If any of these be wanting, the goodness of the crisis will diminish proportionally to the force of the diminution.

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COMMENTARY. This requires no Commentary. See, however, more fully, Galen and Rhases (l. c.)

SECT. XII.—ON THE PULSE, FROM THE WORKS OF GALEN.

The pulse is a movement of the heart and arteries, taking place by a diastole and systole. Its object is twofold; for, by the diastole, which is, as it were, an unfolding and expansion of the artery, the cold air enters, ventilating and resuscitating the animal vigour, and hence the formation of the vital spirits; and by the systole, which is, as it were, a falling down and contraction of the circumference of the artery towards the centre, the evacuation of the fuliginous superfluities is effected. The arteries themselves are oblong hollow vessels like the veins, but consist of two coats, in order to fit them for the afore-mentioned motion, and because they have to contain blood and spirits. They arise from the heart, and are distributed to all parts of the body; and, therefore, all the arteries pulsate in a similar manner, and like the heart, so that from one of them you may judge concerning all the rest. But the movement of all cannot be equally well observed; for those which are situated in parts not fleshy may be more conveniently felt, whereas those that are in fleshy parts are more indistinct. Nor is any one more conveniently situated for being felt than the one at the wrist. The first kind of pulses is in regard to the time of their motion, as observed in systole and diastole. Its differences are, the _quick_, _slow_, and _moderate_; because every body which is moved must be moved quickly, slowly, or intermediately, as to time; that is quick which is moved over a great distance in a short time; that is slow which is moved over a short distance in a long time; and that is moderate which is intermediate as to motion. The second kind of pulses is in regard to the extent of the diastole. For, since every body has three dimensions, length, breadth, and depth, and an artery is a body, it follows, that an artery must have these dimensions. When, therefore, an animal is in its natural state, you will find its arteries dilated moderately every way; but when not in its natural state, its dilatation will be deficient, or exceed according to some one of its dimensions. In calculating this, you must remember the natural state of the pulse; and if it is found to exceed in breadth, you must call it _broad_; if in length, _long_; and if in depth, _high_ or _deep_. It is clear that the opposites to these, or those that are deficient, are to be named the _narrow_, the _short_, and the _low_. And with regard to those which are altered from the natural state in all their dimensions, that which is every way diminished is called _small_, and that which is every way increased, _great_. The third kind of pulses is with regard to the tone of the vital strength. The varieties are three, the _strong_, the _weak_, and the _moderate_. The strong is that which strikes the finger of the physician strongly, and the weak, feebly and faintly; while the moderate is intermediate between them, and is held by some to be the natural one; for that the pulse is rendered stronger by passion and baths, not being naturally so. In reply to which, Galen contends that a pulse rendered stronger by non-natural causes soon undergoes a change; and that, therefore, a strong pulse, which does not readily change, may be natural and moderate. The fourth kind is in regard to the consistence of the instrument, I mean the body of the artery. In this respect there are three differences; for the artery is either harder than natural, and is called a _hard_ pulse; or softer, and is called a _soft_, or intermediate, and is called in this respect _moderate_. The fifth kind is in regard to the contents of the artery; and their differences are, the _full_, the _empty_, and the _moderate_, since every vessel must be full, empty, or moderately full of liquids. A full pulse, then, as Archigenes defines it, is one which indicates an artery that is completely full, and the impression of which is, that it is distended with fluids; and an empty one conveys an impression as if its contents were full of bubbles of air, so that the finger, when pressed upon it, seems to fall into an empty space. These five kinds of pulses regard one motion of the artery. And since the quality of the heat in the heart may be more developed than usual in the artery, some have hence reckoned a sixth kind of pulses. Of the other kinds, whether they are in regard to one or more pulsations, they derive their character either from the time of rest, or the rhythm, or their equality and inequality, or their regularity and irregularity. The kind, then, in regard to the time of rest, which is the seventh in order, is divided into the _dense_, the _rare_, and the _moderate_. And, since an artery has a double motion, composed of two opposite movements, it must of necessity have two seasons of rest: the one after the diastole before the systole, the other after the systole before the diastole, which to most people appears imperceptible; and, therefore, the interval of rest between two motions has been chosen. When, therefore, there is a long interval of rest, the pulse is called _rare_; when short, _dense_; and when intermediate, _moderate_. The eighth kind is in respect to rhythm. Rhythm, then, in general, is the ratio and proportion of one time to another. In regard to the pulse, it is, according to some, the ratio of the time of motion to the time of rest, as of the systole and diastole, to the intermediate time of rest; but, according to others, it is the ratio of a time of motion and rest to another time of motion and rest, or of motion to motion.

Of rhythm, then, there are two varieties, the rhythmic and the arhythmic. Of the arhythmic, there is a threefold difference: first, when there is a slight departure from rhythm; second, when there is a greater; and third, when there is no rhythm at all. Thus, for example; in a child, if his pulse has the rhythm of childhood, it is called its proper rhythm; if it has that of an adult, it is said to be an improper rhythm; or if it preserve no ratio at all, it is said to be devoid of rhythm.

The ninth kind of pulses is found in all the other kinds already mentioned; namely, that which regards equality and inequality, which may be remarked either in one pulse, or in many, which last is called the systematic, of which we must speak first, as being more clear. An _equal_ pulse, then, is that which is alike in order, as regards magnitude, strength, frequency, and certain other, or indeed all its other, characters. The _unequal_ pulse is that which is unlike in order. For, if all are alike, as, for example, all deficient in magnitude, such a pulse is called equal. But if the first, second, and third appear alike, but the fourth unlike, it is clear that such a pulse is _unequal_ as to magnitude. Of this kind are the _intermitting_ and the _intercurrent_. For not only after one or more great pulsations may one smaller occur; but sometimes this motion is wholly lost, and one pulsation is said to be wanting. The other kind, the intercurrent, is the opposite to this; for when we are expecting an interval of rest, a supernumerary pulsation, as it were, occurs. When the second is a little smaller than the first, and the third than the second, and the fourth than the third in like manner, and so onwards, such pulses are called _sharp-tailed_ or _myuri_, deriving their names from figures terminating in a sharp point. Such as are altogether diminished, and never cease from this state, terminate in a total loss of motion, and are called _failing_ or _fainting myuri_. There are two varieties in respect to those which fail, for some of them persevere in that state of smallness in which they terminated, whilst others attain again their original magnitude, or less or more, and these are called _recurrent myuri_. Pulses also are called myuri, from their inequality in regard to one pulsation, concerning which we will speak presently. And this is the nature of that inequality of pulse, called systematic. But it takes place with regard to one pulse, or one part of an artery, or more, as perhaps with regard to motion, for the inequality is observed on one part of the artery, when the motion of the artery upon the finger begins one way and terminates another, beginning quicker, and terminating slower, or reversely. This happens in a threefold manner, the motion either remaining constant, or being interrupted, or recurring and beating double, as it were. If, then, remaining constant and uninterrupted, it should change from quickness to slowness, or conversely, such a pulse is said to be, and is of unequal velocity. But if, after being interrupted by an interval of rest, it again appear quicker, it is called the _goat-leap_ or _dorcadissans_, the term being derived from the animal _dorcas_, which, in jumping aloft, stops in the air, and then, unexpectedly, takes another and a swifter spring than the former. But if after the diastole it recur, and before a complete systole take place, strike the finger a second time, such a pulse is called a _reverberating_ one, or _dicrotos_, from its beating twice. You may see such a thing take place upon a stithy, when a hammer, swung by the hand, first strikes the stithy, and afterwards, recoiling from the reaction of the stithy, strikes of itself a second or third time. And not only may an inequality in the time of motion take place as to one pulsation in one part of an artery, but also in regard to the strength of the power; not so, however, in regard to the extent of dilatation (for it is impossible that the same pulse in the same place should be great and small at the same time), nor in regard to the other kinds of pulses. But in different places different parts of an artery may exhibit a double inequality in one pulsation. For the motion may continue constant, and be swifter at one finger and slower at another; or it may intermit, and one finger may perceive it, and another not. And also, in regard to the extent of the diastole, the same inequality becomes apparent in different places. Of this kind are the myuri, diminishing once and again at one pulsation; for, if at the inner finger the pulse should be great and swelled up, but under the external at the thumb of the patient it appear smaller, such a pulse is called myurus, from its resemblance to the tail of a mouse; or meiurus, from its being diminished like a tail. But if the pulse appear great, and swelled under the middle finger, but smaller on each side, Archigenes called this impulse _innuens et circumnuens_, i.e. _the declining, and the declining on both hands_, wishing to mark the smallness of the diastole, with the declination, as it were, of the two extremities; for these parts do not appear as if they were cut short, but as if they were bent in, and a little contracted on each side, and hence the pulse is curtailed (myurus) on both sides.

And when the inequality as to magnitude takes place at different times, such pulses become _undulatory_ and _vermicular_. And if irregularity of position be joined to them, they are called _spasmodic_ and _vibratory_. Let us begin with the undulatory, in which the whole artery is not dilated at the same time, according to the same inequality, but this part of it first, that second, that third, and that fourth, the motion continuing constant like the swelling of the waves. And some have the wave carried straight forward, some obliquely; some have a sufficient altitude in a short expansion as to length, and some conversely; some have a broad, and some a narrow, and they have the like inequality in regard to quickness and strength. When the undulatory is wholly diminished in size, it is called the vermicular, which resembles the motion of a worm. As the undulatory pulse, when it goes on diminishing, terminates in the vermicular, so in like manner does the vermicular in the _ant-like_, or _formicans_, when, most of its motions being lost, it terminates in one, and it a very small motion. It is called _formicans_ from its resemblance to the ant (_formica_), on account of its smallness and kind of motion. The _ant-like_ pulse (called formicans) is very small, there being none smaller than it; and, in like manner, it is of all others the most indistinct and dense, but is not quick, as Archigenes supposed. Nearly allied to it is the _hectic_. For as there is a hectic fever, so is there also a hectic pulse, which undergoes little or no variation, but remains always alike contracted as it first began, and never expanding, the whole habit being turned into disease. The _spasmodic_ pulses appear as if they were dragged, stretched, and drawn by the extremities, conveying the sensation of a stretched cord. But no such thing takes place in the _vibratory_; for in them the dilatation is greater, as if different parts of the artery were carried upwards at one and the same time. They may be resembled to darts, which, when thrown with force, are carried along with a vibratory motion. The pulse is _serrated_ when part of the artery seems to be dilated and part not; the artery itself also appearing to be harder than natural. This pulse has some of the characters of the vibratory, and is quick and dense, but not always great. In addition to those mentioned, there is a tenth kind of pulses arising from inequality, namely, that with regard to regularity and irregularity. The unequal pulses being divided into those which are alike as to periods, and those which are wholly unlike, the regular and irregular are formed according to each of these divisions; from the equality of periods the _regular_ is formed, and from the entire inequality the _irregular_. The equal pulse is also always regular (since consequently we call it alike); but the unequal is not altogether irregular; for, supposing it to have no equality, and yet to preserve a certain period, such, for example, as to extent of diastole, if there are two great and one small, then again two great and one small, and so on successively, such a pulse would be called anomalous, that is to say, unequal, but regular. But, if it not only had no equality, but likewise no order in its inequality, such a pulse would be not only unequal, but also irregular, and in like manner with regard to the other kinds. Of the irregular, some are altogether so, observing no period whatever; others are indeed regular as to periods, but, having no continued order, they may in this respect be called irregular, but in so far they observe a certain period regularly, they being regulated as to their periods. As if, for example, there were two great and two small, then three great and three small, and four great and an equal number small; and, returning again, two great and two small, three great and as many small, and so on in like manner. It is to be remarked that, of all the other opposite kinds, there is one intermediate between the two extremes, but that there is none between the equal and unequal, and the regular and irregular, unless you choose to call the one which is regular as to periods the medium between the regular and irregular. And the intermediate pulses of all the other kinds are the natural, except that which relates to strength and weakness, as we showed. But, in those we have been describing, the equal alone is the natural, and all the others are not natural, namely, the unequal, the regular, and the irregular. These are all the kinds of pulses and their generic differences. Some add two others to these, the one in regard to the position of the artery, according as it seems to be carried upwards or downwards, to the right or to the left, and the other in regard to the times of expansion. But these we treated of along with the undulatory and vibratory. And we, for the sake of brevity, have only delivered the simple varieties; but, from what has been said, one may easily connect them, and discover those which arise from their combinations.

The causes affecting the pulses are next to be treated of, with which is connected the prognosis from them. We shall begin with those which respect magnitude, because it is more obvious than the others. A great pulse is produced either by some urgent necessity, such as an excess of heat in the heart requiring refrigeration, and, as it were, ventilation from without; or it may arise from leanness of the body, as we shall soon show. The excess of heat is occasioned either by natural causes, such as the ages of manhood and youth, or simply a hot season, place, or a warmer temperament; or by non-natural causes, such as the air which surrounds us being hotter than common, hot baths, exercises, food, wine, heating medicines; or by preternatural causes, such as a hot intemperament, putrefaction of the fluids, passion, or the like. You may judge of these classes of pulse from the following observations. Those which are natural are permanent and not very susceptible of change, whilst the others readily change, so that often while you examine them, or generally after a very short time, they will altogether alter. A pulse also which owes its greatness to a hot bath has softness for an accompaniment; and hardness is generally combined with greatness proceeding from a hot intemperament, especially when combined with dryness of the system. Those who have undergone moderate friction or exercise have a pulse intermediate between hardness and softness; but they have the parts about the chest warmer than natural, which is the case also with those in a passion. Those that are influenced by food, the use of wine, or rage, have vehemence joined to greatness. Those who wish to conceal anger, or something which they have done without permission of the physician, (such as if a person has taken a heating medicine, and wishes to conceal it from the physician, who inquires about it while he feels the pulse,) in such persons a manifest inequality is joined to greatness. To the discovery of this state other considerations may contribute, such as the habit of the patient, as if he appeared to be fond of taking medicines, or his disposition, as if it be bad, and cunning at concealments. A pulse which is great from putrefaction of the fluids has a contraction more hasty than natural joined to its greatness. To form a great pulse, an urgent necessity is not alone sufficient; but the vital powers must also contribute, and a condition of the instrument or artery intermediate between hardness and softness. When the heat, therefore, is increased in the heart by any of the above-mentioned causes, in the first place the pulse becomes great, and, the greatness not being able to supply the want, quickness is straightway joined to it; and if that is not sufficient, density is superadded. Small, slow, and rare pulses are formed by the opposite causes. But when a change first takes place from a great, quick, and dense pulse to their opposites, namely, when the necessity is at an end, the first character of the pulse is not the first that leaves it, but it loses first that which it last acquired, becoming first rare, then slow and last small. But if the slowness and smallness should go on increasing, the rarity will again change to density, in order that the necessary want may be supplied. Such are the causes of greatness, quickness, density, and their opposite pulses. To these we shall connect the alteration of the pulse in regard to one dimension only. Breadth alone then is increased, principally by a redundancy of humidity, either natural, or from external causes, as loftiness is occasioned by the softness of the instrument, assisted by the vital power; but length is rendered apparent by the dryness and melting of the surrounding flesh, the other dimensions being contracted. For an artery cannot, in fact, become longer than natural; and this ought more properly to be called _the lean_ pulse, as the opposite one, namely, that which is increased only in breadth and depth, should be called _the fat_. The pulse sometimes falls under the opposite characters to this, when it is restrained as to any of its dimensions, and appears low, narrow, and short, when it is not so in reality, but seems so, owing to the thickness of the fat, flesh, or membranes which press upon it. Sometimes, too, the whole seems small, when it is not so in reality; and feeble in like manner. And what do I say? Sometimes an asphyxy, or complete loss of pulsation, hath seemed to take place over the whole arteries, when there is no such thing in reality; and this has happened, more especially to those who have felt them carelessly, when the motion, being really indistinct, escapes notice, owing to the quantity of flesh; for it is impossible that a complete asphyxy could take place while the man is alive. In like manner again in the emaciated, small pulses appear great. When, therefore, the body is greatly wasted, the artery which runs along the spine has often been felt by persons touching the abdomen, and also the pulses in members which before used not to be felt. Wherefore we must attend to all circumstances, that we may not be mistaken in our diagnosis. A strong pulse is occasioned by the force of the natural faculty, when not counteracted by any other cause, such as the want failing, or from hardness of the instrument. But a feeble pulse may arise from weakness of the natural powers alone, although no other causes contribute. For a strong pulse stands in need of all the other causes for its formation; but the feeble is produced by weakness alone. The originally strong pulse accompanies moderate ages, seasons, places, and temperaments; but the feeble the immoderate. A pulse changing from feebleness to strength is formed by the vital faculty growing strong, from a preceding state of debility. It is strengthened either by things within the body, such as concoction of the fluids, or an excretion of them, or passion; or by externals, such as wines, food, exercises, and whatever will rectify the intemperament. The natural powers are weakened by want of food, watchfulness, immoderate evacuations, grief, cares, and more especially pains inducing syncope, and whatever forms an intemperament. Some inexperienced persons have thought a hard pulse strong, but a person of experienced understanding and touch will not mistake them; for a strong pulse, being mostly accompanied with greatness, is swelled up to loftiness and strikes the finger forcibly; but the hard does not admit of greatness, on account of the unyielding state of the artery. Wherefore a pulse becomes hard owing to the hardness of the artery. This is occasioned by immoderate cold, or dryness, or tension proceeding from inflammation, or spasm. To the hardness, moreover, are joined smallness, quickness, and sometimes density instead of greatness accompanying, owing to the exciting want. A soft pulse follows a humid state of the artery. An artery is rendered more humid by things not preternatural, such as more liquid food, immoderate baths, much sleep, a more abundant diet, and hilarity; and by preternatural causes, such as coma, lethargy, dropsy, and the other pituitous affections. A full pulse indicates an abundance of fluids, or plethora from food, or from drinking wine, as the empty, on the other hand, indicates deficiency of food or evacuation. When the body of the artery feels warmer under the finger, this indicates great heat in the heart, while the rest of the body is cold, or a certain spasmodic state of the arteries, which are warmed by the violent motion. Archigenes says that the place of the artery will particularly be found warmer in catochus and in those who are about to be affected with somnolency. With regard to rhythm, when the ratio of the times of motion and rest is equal, it indicates a proper temperament of the body, or no great departure from it, as in early age, and the otherwise well-regulated bodies. But when the time of rest is greater than that of motion, this indicates that heat prevails, as in adults and those of the adjoining ages; as, in aged bodies, which are entirely cold, the time of motion is greater than that of rest. It is to be remarked that inequality in regard to rhythm, being the measure of that as to quickness and density, this holds the place as it were of the _matériel_ to the rhythm.

The intermittent and intercurrent pulses take place when the powers are oppressed, and, as it were, borne down; but the intercurrent indicates a lesser, and the intermittent a greater injury. And, in general, that state in which the powers are oppressed and borne down, changes the pulses to inequality and irregularity in every other respect, and also in regard to strength and greatness. The pulses called myuri, being shown to be of two kinds, (for they are found either in that inequality called systematic, or in regard to one pulsation), the _failing_ or _fainting_ evince the last prostration of the powers; but, when they return, or are _recurrent_, they indicate that the powers are weak, but that they are struggling, contending, and have not yet submitted. As to the myuri, in regard to one pulsation, called _the failing_, and _the failing on both hands_ (innuentes et circumnuentes), these happen to persons who are gradually wasted by inflammations not yet resolved, and to those who are wasted from whatever cause, the bodies around the arteries being melted down. Pulses of unequal velocity, and those called _dorcadissantes_ or _goat-leap_, principally accompany febrile heat. But if the pulse render the commencement of the diastole feeble, and increase in velocity towards the end and beginning of the systole, this indicates that putrefaction is prevailing, nature hastening on the discharge of the fuliginous superfluities. But if, on the other hand, it render the commencement of the systole feeble, and rather make speed towards the diastole, you may be sure that the heat is prevailing, and longing for refrigeration. These in fever are, for the most part, accompanied by density, and sometimes greatness, if the powers be not restrained by the hardness of the instrument. When the hardness of the artery increases, and the powers are not weakened, the _double_ or _reverberating_ pulse is formed. The _undulatory_ pulse most commonly attends the more humid affections, such in particular as anasarcous swellings, lethargy, and peripneumony. When the powers of life are beginning to fail, but are still making a faint struggle, the undulatory pulse sinks into the _vermicular_; but when they decline to their lowest ebb, this last passes into the _ant-like_ or _formicans_. The hectic particularly attends those in consumption and marasmus. The spasmodic pulse takes place when the origin of the nerves is suffering from some inflammatory affection, as in frenzy and acute attacks of epilepsy, when those affected with them die while they are yet warm, contrariwise to those in syncope, for they are alive after they have become cold. The _clonodic_ or _vibratory_ pulse takes place when the wants of the system require a great diastole, and the vital powers are sufficient for that purpose, but are opposed by the body of the artery; which, from its hardness, cannot be expanded to a large diastole, as happens in great inflammations and chronic obstructions. The _serrated_ pulse is indicative of inflammation, and particularly in some tendinous parts. It is no less so of pleurisy, and when slight, indicates that the inflammation is gentle, and easily to be concocted; but when intense, that it is severe and of difficult concoction, and will be attended with urgent danger, if the powers be weak, or, if they be strong, that it will be slowly concocted, for it will either terminate in empyema, or a consumptive marasmus will supervene. One ought also to know that irregularity of the pulse commonly accompanies its inequalities; for you will rarely find an unequal pulse orderly. Wherefore, the lesser constitutional injuries occasion unequal and regular pulses, but the greater, unequal and irregular.

These are the simple causes of the pulses and their prognosis, and from them the compound, as we stated when treating of their differences, may easily be discovered.

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COMMENTARY. The ancient authorities on the pulse are the following: Celsus (iii, 6); Galen (Libel. de Pulsi. ad Tirones; de different. Puls., de Dignos. Puls., de Caus. Puls., de Præsag. ex Puls., Synopsis librorum de Puls.); Philaretus (de Pulsu); Theophilus Protospatharius (de Pulsibus ap. Ermerins Anecd. Med. Gr.); Actuarius (de Diagnosi); Avicenna (i, 2, 3); Averrhoes (Collig. iv, 16); Haly Abbas (Theor. vii); Alsaharavius (Theor. vii); Rhases (ad Mansor. x, 32; Contin. xxxi); Psellus (Opus Medicum apud Boissonade, Anecdota Græca.)

Prosper Alpinus gives an excellent exposition of the ancient doctrines on the pulse (de præs. Vit. et Morte ægrot. iv, 3); Le Clerc’s account is not so accurate (Hist. de la Méd.) Wetsch’s is tolerably correct (de Pulsu.)

Hippocrates, although Galen affirms that he was not entirely unacquainted with the pulse, does not appear to have attached much importance to the observation of it, for he generally neglects to mention its characters, where we would most expect to find them stated, as, for example, when he is detailing the symptoms of epidemical fevers. Celsus, too, expresses himself in doubtful terms respecting the indications furnished by the pulse: “Venis enim maxime credimus, fallacissimæ rei; quia sæpe istæ leniores, celerioresve sunt, et ætate, et sexu, et corporum naturâ; et plerumque satis sano corpore, si stomachus infirmus est, nonnunquam etiam incipiente febre, subeunt et quiescunt; ut imbecillus is videri possit, cui facile laturo gravis instat accessio. Contra sæpe eas concitat et resolvit sol, et balneum, et exercitatio, et metus, et ira, et quilibet alius animi affectus.” Aretæus and Cælius Aurelianus are indeed sufficiently minute and accurate in detailing the characters of the pulse, while describing the symptoms of various diseases, but neither of them has written expressly on the subject; and, as the works of Herophilus, Agathinus, Magnus, Athenæus, and Archigenes are entirely lost, Galen must be considered as our first and great authority on the pulse—we might almost have said our sole authority, for all subsequent writers were content to adopt his system, without the slightest alteration. As our author’s account of the subject is professedly taken from the elaborate treatises of Galen, it may, perhaps, appear unnecessary to attempt any further exposition of the system; but the importance of the subject, and, we may add, its novelty to modern readers, have induced us to make some detached observations upon it, in order to explain some parts of it which are confessedly obscure, and to answer certain objections which have been stated against it, by modern writers who have not properly understood its principles.

We shall first notice the objection stated to Galen’s Theory of Respiration by Van Helmont, who, although compelled to admit the ingenuity of Galen’s system, pretends to differ from him respecting the final cause of arterial action and respiration, which, he maintains, is not refrigeration, but the maintenance of animal heat. (Opera, p. 112.) But if he had read Galen’s work ‘de Usu Respirationis’ carefully, he would have found that this is the very sense which Galen attaches to the terms refrigeration and ventilation. Van Helmont states, as a new discovery, that a sort of concoction of the blood takes place in the left ventricle of the heart. But he might have found this doctrine also in the works of Galen.

According to Galen, the pulse consists of four parts: of a diastole and a systole with two intervals of rest, one after the diastole before the systole, and the other after the systole before the diastole. He maintains that by practice and attention all these parts can be distinguished. (De Dignos. Puls. iii, 3.)

The first distinctions of the pulse are derived from the extent of the diastole, according to its three dimensions, namely, length, breadth, and depth. These give rise to the characters _long_, _broad_, and _deep_ or _high_. Le Clerc renders the last by _élevé_. A long pulse, of course, refers solely to the impression on the finger, as in reality one pulse cannot properly be said to be longer than another; but when a person is lean a larger portion of the artery can be felt under the finger than when he is fat.

The character _deep_ or _high_ is easily understood, and is evidently produced by a free dilatation of the artery. It does not indeed appear evident how there can be a difference between a _deep_ and a _broad_ pulse, if the dilatation of an artery were equal on all sides; but Galen positively affirms that it is a fact ascertained by ample experience, that sometimes there is a free dilatation of the artery upwards with a contracted one laterally, constituting a _high_ and _narrow_ pulse; and, on the other hand, that there is often a free dilatation laterally with a contracted one upwards, constituting a _low_ and _broad_ pulse. He gives directions for detecting these peculiarities of the artery. (De Diff. Puls. iii, 2.)

The characters of _quick_ and _slow_ are derived from the length of time occupied in the actions of systole and diastole. They seem to be sufficiently well marked, and yet Fyens denied that there is any difference between _frequency_ and _quickness_. However, many of our late authorities in medicine acknowledge a distinction between these two characters, and they appear to us sufficiently obvious. In fact, Galen establishes the distinction in the most satisfactory manner. (De Dignos. ii.)

The distinctions of _strong_ and _feeble_ are derived from the force with which the artery strikes the finger. No one can possibly mistake them.

The relaxation and constriction of the arterial tube give rise to the characters of _soft_ and _hard_, which are so obvious that they cannot be misunderstood. The character of _hardness_ is called _tension_ by Galen, who states that it is characteristic of inflammation.

The next class of pulses derive their characters from the time which elapses between two diastoles or pulsations of the artery. They are called _dense_ and _rare_, in the ancient system, being used in the same sense that _frequent_ and _slow_ are in modern works.

The terms _equal_ and _unequal_ (or, as they might have been translated, _equable_ and _unequable_) arise from the constancy or inconstancy of any peculiar character of the arterial pulsation. The _regular_ and _irregular_ are distinguished from these, inasmuch as a series of pulsations, although unequal may be regular, when they observe a certain ratio, as when four strong pulsations are succeeded by a feeble one, and this series goes on successively.

An inequality may take place in respect to one pulsation; for the dilatation of the artery may be interrupted, and then completed, when it is called _dorcadissans_, _caprizans_ or _goat-leap_; or the stroke may be suddenly repeated, when it is called _dicrotos_, which may be translated the _double_, _reverberating_, or _rebounding_ pulse. The term _dorcadissans_ is derived from _dorcas_, an animal generally supposed to have been the goat, but it is now satisfactorily ascertained that it was the _antelope dorcas_ or _gazelle_; and, in the Latin translations of Avicenna and Haly Abbas, it is rendered _gazellans_. It is said that when this animal leaps upwards it at first takes a short spring, then seems to make a sudden stop, and afterwards takes a much larger and swifter bound. This character was applied to the pulse when an imperfect dilatation of the artery is succeeded by a fuller and a stronger one. (Galen, de diff. Puls. i, 28.) It is thus described by Haly Abbas: “Gazellans pulsus est qui cum a celeritate incipiat antequam percussiat stat, dehinc velociter movetur: vocatur autem hujusmodi gazelenus suâ ex similitudine caprioli saltu: quum capriolus quem Gazel Arabicè vocant cum saltum dederit pedes tollit et suspensus pauco videtur tempore atque sic ad terram velociùs redit.” The translator of Alsaharavius renders it by _fusalis_. It is correctly stated by Fouquet that the second pulsation is necessarily larger than the first. The _dicrotos_ consists of two pulsations, following upon one another so rapidly as to form, as it were, but one beat of the artery. In the translation of Alsaharavius it is called _mallearis_, and is thus defined: “Est autem pulsus mallearis qui percutit manum et recedit, deinde redit et percutit secundario.”