Chapter XIII: Snakes in Relation to Man (2)

_Distribution._--From the Atlantic coast of Europe to South-Western Asia. The typical form, in its narrowest sense, inhabits the Southern Tyrol, the north-eastern corner of Italy, and the countries to the east of the Adriatic, as far as Greece and Crete. The specimens from France, Switzerland, Italy, Giglio, Montecristo, Elba, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and Malta, are mostly referable to the form known as _Z. viridiflavus_. Farther to the east the species is represented by the vars. _caspius_ and _asianus_, of which the distribution has been mentioned above. From Spain, this snake is only on record from Catalonia, not far from the French frontier.

Rare or local in the north of its range (Maine-et-Loire, Vienne, Indre, Sarthe, Haute-Saône, Yonne, Aube, in France, Switzerland north of the Alps), it is one of the commonest snakes in Italy and on the borders and islands of the Adriatic, as well as on practically all the islands of the Mediterranean east of the Baleares. The highest altitudes at which it has been met with are 3,900 feet in the Alps, 4,500 feet in the Balkan Peninsula.

_Habits._--The name "Whip-snake," under which an American representative of this genus (_Z. flagelliformis_) is known, like that of "Fouet" and "Loucinglant," which have been bestowed on it in some parts of France, expresses the quick movements with which, when captured, this snake lashes its long, slender tail, at the same time furiously biting the hand that has seized it. The generic term _Zamenis_, of Greek derivation, alludes to its viciousness, which also accounts for its German name, "Zornnatter." This snake, occurring in Malta, may well have been the "Viper" which fastened on the hand of St. Paul. Some specimens have been kept for months in captivity without losing their savage temper, hissing and flying with open mouth at anyone approaching the glass walls of their prison; others, on the other hand, become quite tame in a very short time, such as one which I kept for nearly two years. Except when sunning itself on a cold early morning in the spring, this snake is always on the alert, and difficult to capture, uncoiling itself and darting away like an arrow at the least disturbance. It lives in preference among shrubs or on the edges of woods, avoiding damp localities, and females at least appear to have sedentary tastes. Lataste tells us of one, near Bordeaux, which he repeatedly met for over two years within 20 yards of the same spot, a bush between a wood and a meadow, without ever being able to capture it.

_PLATE V_

_After Sordelli_]

_After Sordelli_]

_After Sordelli_]

The food of this snake is very varied, consisting of voles and mice, young birds which it takes from the nests, being a good climber on bushes and low trees, occasionally of frogs, but above all of other reptiles: lizards, slow-worms, and snakes, which it does not attempt to crush before deglutition. It has even been observed in Istria to eat locusts (_Acridium ægyptium_) and sphyngid moths.

_Reproduction._--Eggs, laid at the end of June or beginning of July in a well-sheltered hole, are a little over twice as long as broad, and measure 1·2 to 1·4 inches in length. The number of eggs is eight to fifteen according to Fatio, about a dozen according to Tomasini, five according to Werner. The pairing was observed by Schreiber at the end of May, the male and female seizing each other reciprocally by the neck with their jaws; this mode of pairing must not, however, be regarded as the rule in this species, for in other cases observed by Schreiber and by Honnorat the pairs were simply entwined by their coils.

7. ZAMENIS DAHLII, Fitzinger
Dahl's Whip-Snake

_Form._--Very slender; head narrow, snout moderately prominent, obtuse. Tail about one-third of the total length.

_Head-Shields._--Rostral a little broader than deep, just visible from above. Frontal not or but little broader than the supraocular, once and two-thirds to once and three-fourths as long as broad, as long as or longer than its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals. Loreal longer than deep. One preocular, usually in contact with the frontal, with a subocular below it; two postoculars. Temporals 2 + 2 or 2 + 3 (rarely 1 + 2). Upper labials eight or nine, fourth and fifth or fifth and sixth entering the eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are shorter than the posterior.

_Scales_ with a single apical pit, very narrow, in nineteen rows. Ventral shields very distinctly angulate laterally, 205 to 218; anal divided; subcaudals 98 to 132.

_Coloration._--Olive in front, with a few large black, white- or yellow-edged spots on each side, the anterior of which is sometimes confluent with its fellow and forms a nuchal collar, as in the specimen figured on Plate V.; the greater part of the body and tail uniform pale olive, yellowish, or reddish above, yellowish-white beneath. Head uniform olive-brown above, the labial, preocular, and postocular shields yellowish-white.

_Total Length._--3 feet, rarely nearly 4 feet.

_Distribution._--Southern Europe east of the Adriatic, as far north as Dalmatia, Asia Minor, Cis- and Trans-Caucasia, North-Western Persia, Cyprus, and Syria. Has also been recorded from Lower Egypt.

_Habits._--This snake is even more lively than _Z. gemonensis_, and does not stand captivity long. It seeks dry, bushy localities, and feeds on small lizards, occasionally on locusts. It does not seem to be very common anywhere in Europe, except perhaps in Dalmatia, whence most of the specimens sold by dealers are imported.

_Reproduction._--The pairing has been observed at the end of May. According to Werner, the eggs number usually three only, measuring 1-1/2 inches by 1/2 inch.

8. ZAMENIS HIPPOCREPIS, Linnæus
The Horseshoe Whip-Snake

_Form._--Slender; snout obtuse, feebly prominent. Tail one-fifth to one-fourth of the total length.

_Head-Shields._--Rostral once and one-third to once and a half as broad as deep, the portion visible from above measuring about one-fourth to one-third its distance from the frontal. Frontal bell-shaped, considerably broader in front than the supraocular, once and one-fourth to once and a half as long as broad, as long as or a little longer than its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals. Loreal longer than deep, sometimes divided into two. One preocular (sometimes divided into two), in contact with the frontal; two postoculars; a series of three or four suboculars, usually completely separating the eye from the labials. Temporals 2 + 3 or 3 + 3. Eight or nine (rarely ten) upper labials, fifth or sixth very rarely entering the eye. Four lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are shorter than the posterior.

_Scales_ with two apical pits, in twenty-five to twenty-nine rows, usually twenty-seven. Ventral shields very distinctly angulate laterally, 222 to 258; anal divided (rarely entire); subcaudals 77 to 107.

_Coloration._--Brown, pale olive, reddish, yellow, or orange above, with a dorsal series of large dark brown, black-edged rhomboidal spots, often bordered with yellow, on each side of which is a series of smaller, alternating spots (Plate V.); these spots may become entirely black in the adult, and so large as to reduce the ground colour to a mere network or series of X-shaped pale lines. A dark cross-band between the eyes, and a [V]- or horseshoe-shaped band on the back of the head, which may be confluent with an elongate spot on the nape; a light circle often present in the middle between the parietal shields. The spots often more or less confluent into three longitudinal streaks on the tail. Yellow, orange, or red beneath, with or without black dots, but constantly with a lateral series of black spots, which may be very large or unite with the spots higher up on the sides to form vertical bars.

_Size._--Examples 5 feet long are on record; the largest examined by me measures 4 feet 3 inches.

_Distribution._--Spain and Portugal, Sardinia, Pantellaria, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia. Does not reach the North of Spain nor penetrate into the Sahara.

_Habits._--This very handsome snake is as a rule as irascible as its European congeners. In Spain as well as in Algeria it is often found about the dwellings of man, occasionally entering houses in search of mice, on which it principally feeds; it is also fond of birds, and, climbing with great facility, plunders the nests of sparrows in towns and villages. It must be regarded as a useful commensal of man, and deserving of protection.

_Reproduction._--F. Doumergue found in a hole in a rock near Oran, in September, the recently-laid eggs, five in number and as large as pigeons'.

GENUS COLUBER, LINNÆUS

Maxillary teeth equal or nearly equal in length. Head elongate, distinct from neck; eye moderately large, with round pupil. Body more or less elongate; scales smooth or feebly keeled, with apical pits. Tail moderate or long.

This large genus, embracing close upon fifty species, is represented in Europe, Asia, and North and tropical America. Five species in Europe. Very nearly allied to _Zamenis_, but distinguished principally by the posterior teeth of the upper jaw not being at all enlarged, and, further, in being, like _Coronella_, constrictors.

9. COLUBER QUATUORLINEATUS, Lacepède
(_Elaphis cervone_, Aldrovandi; _Coluber quatuorradiatus_,
Gmelin)
Aldrovandi's Snake

_Form._--Moderately slender. Snout obtuse, scarcely prominent. Tail one-sixth to one-fourth of the total length.

_Head-Shields._--Rostral broader than deep, just visible from above. Frontal once and one-fourth to once and a half as long as broad, as long as its distance from the rostral, shorter than the parietals. Loreal nearly as long as deep, with one or two small shields below it. One preocular, rarely divided, with a subocular below it; two or three postoculars. Temporals 2 + 3 or 3 + 4. Upper labials eight (exceptionally nine), fourth and fifth (or fifth and sixth) entering the eye. Four or five (rarely three) lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are longer than the posterior.

_PLATE VI_

_Young, after Sordelli_]

_After Werner_]

_After Sordelli_]

_After Sordelli_]

_Scales_ feebly but distinctly keeled, except on the outer rows, with two apical pits, in twenty-five (rarely twenty-three or twenty-seven) rows. Ventral shields not or but very obtusely angulate laterally, 195 to 234; anal divided; subcaudals 56 to 90.

_Coloration._--Young (Plate VI., top) with three or five alternating longitudinal series of dark brown, black-edged spots on a yellowish, grey, or pale brown ground, the spots of the median series largest, transversely elliptical or rhomboidal; a dark streak across the forehead, black bars on the labial shields, and a black oblique streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth. In specimens from Italy and the countries bordering the Adriatic (the typical _C. quatuorlineatus_) the markings very gradually disappear with age, with the exception of the temporal streak, whilst a pair of black streaks appear along each side of the body, at a short distance from the head, the lower corresponding to the postocular streak, the adult being brown without spots, but four-lined (Plate VI., second figure). In more eastern specimens (_C. sauromates_, Pallas), which may be regarded as representing the original form, the markings of the young persist throughout life, or, if they disappear, they are not replaced by dark streaks (Plate VI., third figure). Lower parts pale yellow, closely spotted or marbled with brown, these markings usually disappearing in the adult, except on the tail. Iris dark brown.

_Size._--The largest European snake, stated to reach a length of 8 feet. The largest specimen examined by me measures, however, only 4-1/2 feet.

_Distribution._--Aldrovandi's Snake inhabits Southern Italy and Sicily, Istria, Croatia, Dalmatia, Herzegovina, Greece, and eastwards to Southern Russia, Transcaucasia, Asia Minor, and Persia. It has been observed at an altitude of 2,600 feet in Herzegovina.

All the specimens from Roumania, Bulgaria, Turkey, and eastwards, belong to the var. _sauromates_, which is regarded by some authors as worthy of specific rank. The reported occurrence of _C. quatuorlineatus_ in various parts of France is certainly due to confusion with _C. scalaris_ and _C. longissimus_.

_Habits._--Dry as well as marshy localities are the abode of this large and handsome snake, which often approaches the dwellings of man, attracted by the poultry. Comparatively slow in its movements, it is more easily captured than any of the other large Colubrids of Europe, and does well in captivity, where it should be provided with a tank, in which it will remain for hours under water. It is as good at swimming as at climbing. Biting readily when captured, it becomes of gentle disposition after a short period of captivity. In consequence of its slow, phlegmatic temperament, it often allows itself to be picked up when surprised in liberty, but as soon as it feels the grasp it turns round and defends itself. It appears to feed exclusively on mammals and birds, up to the size of a rat or dove, and will readily take dead food. It has a predilection for eggs, and has often been observed to swallow hens' eggs.

_Reproduction._--In Herzegovina pairing takes place from the middle of June to the middle of July, and the eggs are laid soon after, to hatch in September or beginning of October. The eggs number six to sixteen, and measure 2 inches by 1-1/3 inches. The young measure 8 to 14 inches at birth.

10. COLUBER DIONE, Pallas
The Dione Snake

_Form._--Similar to the preceding. Head more convex, a little narrower; snout obtuse, scarcely prominent. Tail about one-fifth of the total length.

_Head-Shields._--Rostral broader than deep, just visible from above. Frontal once and one-fourth to once and a half as long as broad, as long as its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals. Loreal as long as deep, or a little longer than deep. A large preocular, with a subocular below it, the latter very exceptionally absent; two or three postoculars. Temporals 2 + 3 or 3 + 3. Upper labials eight or nine (very rarely seven), fourth and fifth or fifth and sixth entering the eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are nearly as long as the posterior.

_Scales_ smooth or faintly keeled, with two apical pits, in twenty-five or twenty-seven (rarely twenty-three) rows. Ventral shields not or but very obtusely angulate laterally, 172 to 214; anal divided; subcaudals 50 to 80.

_Coloration._--Pale brown or greyish-olive above, with blackish cross-lines or dark brown or reddish, black-edged spots, and usually two or three more or less distinct pale longitudinal bands; two dark longitudinal stripes on the nape, usually united on the head and terminating on the frontal shield; a curved dark cross-band from eye to eye, and another, oblique, from the eye to the angle of the mouth. Lower parts yellowish, usually dotted or spotted with blackish.

_Size._--Seldom exceeds a length of 3 feet. The largest specimen examined by me measures 37 inches.

_Distribution._--Across temperate Asia from Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, and the southern border of the Caspian Sea, to the Amur, Corea, and China. In Europe the habitat of this snake is restricted to the steppes of Southern Russia, between the Caucasus and the Lower Ural. The specimen figured on Plate VI. is from Sarepta, on the Volga.

_Habits._--This snake frequents arid, sandy localities, and is only exceptionally found in small woods. Nothing more is known of its habits.

11. COLUBER LONGISSIMUS, Laurenti
(_Coluber æsculapii_, Lacepède; _C. flavescens_, Gmelin)
The Æsculapian Snake

_Form._--Slender. Snout obtuse, scarcely prominent; head narrow. Tail about one-fifth to one-fourth of the total length.

_Head-Shields._--Rostral broader than deep, just visible from above. Frontal once and one-fourth to once and one-third as long as broad, as long as its distance from the rostral or the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals. Loreal as long as deep or longer than deep. One pre- and two postoculars. Temporals 2 + 3. Upper labials eight or nine, fourth and fifth or fifth and sixth entering the eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are as long as or a little longer than the posterior.

_Scales_ smooth or feebly keeled on the posterior part of the body, with two apical pits, in twenty-three (rarely twenty-one) rows. Ventral shields distinctly angulate laterally, 212 to 248; anal divided; subcaudals 60 to 91.

_Coloration._--Yellowish-grey to dark olive-brown above, some of the scales with whitish lines on the margins occasionally forming a network; sometimes with a yellowish vertebral stripe or with four darker stripes along the body (var. _romanus_, Suckow); upper lip, and often also a triangular patch on each side behind the temple, pale yellow; a more or less distinct dark band on the temple, and a vertical dark bar below the eye (Plate VII., first figure). Lower parts uniform pale yellow. Young (second figure) with dark brown dorsal spots, forming four to seven longitudinal series, a [V]-shaped black marking on the nape behind the yellow nuchal blotches, which are brighter than in the adult, a dark brown bar across the forehead, and a black vertical line below the eye; belly greyish or yellowish-olive. Iris dark grey or brown. Tongue pinkish-brown.

_PLATE VII_

_Young, after Sordelli_]

_After Sordelli_]

_After Sordelli_]

Melanism is rare in this snake. Such specimens are entirely black above and beneath (var. _niger_, Nikolsky), or blackish-grey to black above, dark grey beneath (var. _subgriseus_, Werner), the angular line on each side of the belly often remaining light. An albino found near Vienna has been described as pale orange-yellow above, with small white spots; pupil and tongue red.

_Size._--Grows to 6 feet. Specimens over 4-1/2 feet are, however, very rarely met with.

_Distribution._--Generally distributed over the greater part of Austria, Italy, with Sardinia and Sicily, and the whole of South-Eastern Europe, this snake has a very broken range in France, Switzerland, Germany, and is found, quite isolated, as far north as Denmark and Poland. According to Segerus, quoted by Lacepède, it used to be quite common near Copenhagen at the end of the eighteenth century, but it is now much rarer. Its northern limit in France is in Southern Brittany, the Department Orne, and the Forest of Fontainebleau; in Germany, Schlangenbad, near Wiesbaden, perhaps also Baden-Baden and Treves. It is on record from Southern Spain. Its discontinuous distribution in Central Europe, and its presence in various localities near former Roman thermal stations, has been ascribed to its introduction from Italy as an inmate of the temples erected to Æsculapius; but I am more inclined to look upon its sporadic occurrence in the North as the indication of a once more widely distributed species now in process of extinction over part of its range.

In Asia the Æsculapian Snake is only found in Transcaucasia. It occurs in the mountains as well as in the plain, being recorded from 5,200 feet altitude in the Tyrol, 3,200 feet in the Apennines.

_Habits._--The Æsculapian Snake lives in woods; among shrubby vegetation; in meadows, where it is often found under haystacks; occasionally about old walls. It climbs well, and often ascends trees. Although a good swimmer, it seldom enters the water of its own accord. It feeds chiefly on small mammals, occasionally on birds and their eggs, and lizards. Specimens which I kept in confinement fed on mice only, refusing sparrows and lizards. Very savage when fresh caught, most individuals soon become tame, and like being handled by people to whom they are accustomed, although still resenting the intrusion of strangers. However, this snake never becomes so thoroughly domesticated as the Smooth Snake, and cannot be trained to take food from the hand, according to R. Rollinat, who has devoted many years to experiments on the taming of reptiles. This observer had no difficulty in feeding his Æsculapian Snakes on mice and voles placed dead in their cage.

This snake is particularly sensitive to cold, and does not emerge until late in the spring from the vole galleries and hollow trees which constitute its winter-quarters. It also avoids excessive heat, never showing itself in the daytime during the hotter months in the South of Europe.

_Reproduction._--Pairing takes place between the middle of May and the middle of June. The eggs are laid towards the end of June or in July, in holes in walls or hollow trees, under moss, sometimes even in the dung-heaps of farms, and hatch in September. According to trustworthy observers, the eggs, which measure 1-1/2 to 2 inches in length, and less than 1 inch in width, number only five or six, rarely up to eight.

The young on emerging are highly suggestive of young Grass-snakes in colour and markings, as well as in their much less slender shape as compared with the adult. They measure about 5 inches, and are at once most ready to bite.

12. COLUBER LEOPARDINUS, Bonaparte
(_Coluber quadrilineatus_, Pallas)
The Leopard Snake

_Form._--Slender. Snout obtuse, scarcely prominent. Tail about one-fifth of the total length.

_Head-Shields._--Rostral broader than deep, just visible from above. Frontal once and one-third to once and a half as long as broad, as long as its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals. Loreal longer than deep. One pre- and two postoculars. Temporals 1 + 2 or 2 + 3. Upper labials eight (rarely seven), fourth and fifth (rarely third and fourth) entering the eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are longer than the posterior.

_Scales_ smooth, with two apical pits, in twenty-five or twenty-seven rows. Ventral shields rounded, not angulate laterally, 222 to 260; anal divided; subcaudals 68-90.

_Coloration._--Typical form (Plate VII., third figure) greyish or pale brown above, with one dorsal series of dark brown, reddish-brown, or bright red, black-edged transverse spots and a lateral alternating series of smaller black spots with or without lighter centres; usually a [Y]-shaped dark marking on the occiput and nape; a crescentic black band from eye to eye across the prefrontal shields, an oblique black band from behind the eye to the angle of the mouth, and a black spot or vertical bar below the eye. Lower parts white, checkered with black, or nearly entirely black. Iris reddish-golden.

In some specimens (var. _quadrilineatus_) the dorsal spots are replaced by two brown or red, black-edged stripes bordering a pale greyish or yellowish vertebral stripe (Plate VII., fourth figure); such specimens are so coloured from birth. This colour variety, which is so strikingly different from the typical form, is connected with the latter by the var. _schwoederi_, Werner, in which the spots form two vertebral series, and the var. _elsneri_, Werner, in which the light vertebral band is broken up by dark transverse bars, producing a ladder-like pattern.

_Size._--Rarely exceeding a length of 3 feet.

_Distribution._--Southern Italy, Sicily, Malta, Istria, Dalmatia, and other parts of the Balkan Peninsula, Grecian islands, Crimea, Asia Minor. The altitudinal range does not extend beyond 1,600 feet.

_Habits._--This is not only the prettiest European snake as regards its markings, whether in the form of spots or of stripes, but also the most graceful in its movements. Unless compelled to fly for safety, there is something slow and deliberate in its behaviour which is more suggestive of _Coronella_ than of most other species of _Coluber_. It is fond of climbing, and if the terrarium in which it is kept be provided with a bush or small tree, it will spend most of the time gracefully coiled round the branches. Usually very savage when fresh caught, some specimens become quite tame in captivity. In Dalmatia, where it is not uncommon, this snake is found principally among prickly shrubs, in hedges, or on old walls. It awakens from its winter slumber later than other South European snakes. Although occasionally taking lizards, its principal food consists of mammals and birds, which are killed before being devoured, the Leopard Snake being, like the other members of the genus _Coluber_, a constrictor.

_Reproduction._--According to Werner, the eggs, two to five in number, are deposited in midsummer; they are remarkably elongate: 2-1/2 inches long, 2/3 inch broad.

13. COLUBER SCALARIS, Schinz
The Ladder Snake

_Form._--Moderately slender. Snout pointed, strongly projecting beyond the mouth. Tail one-sixth to one-fifth of the total length.

_Head-Shields._--Rostral deeper than broad, forming an acute angle above, wedged in between the internasals, the portion visible from above nearly as long as its distance from the frontal. Frontal about once and one-third to once and a half as long as broad, as long as or shorter than its distance from the end of the snout, nearly as long as the parietals. Loreal longer than deep. One pre- and two or three post-oculars. Temporals 2 + 3 or 2 + 4. Upper labials seven or eight (rarely nine), fourth or fourth and fifth (or fifth and sixth) entering the eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which may be either longer or shorter than the posterior.

_PLATE VIII_

_After Sordelli_]

_Scales_ smooth, with two apical pits, in twenty-seven (rarely twenty-five or twenty-nine) rows. Ventral shields not angulate laterally, 201 to 220; anal divided, rarely entire; subcaudals 48 to 68.

_Coloration._--Young yellowish-grey, or pale brown, above, with a series of regular H-shaped black or blackish-brown markings along the back, forming a ladder-like pattern--whence the name _scalaris_--and small black spots on the sides; a V-shaped black marking on the snout, a black oblique streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth, and a black spot below the eye; belly yellow, spotted or checkered with black or nearly entirely black. These dorsal markings disappear in the adult, and are replaced by a pair of brown stripes running along the back (Plate VIII.); the belly loses the black markings, and becomes uniform yellow. Iris dark brown.

_Size._--Grows to a length of 3-1/2 feet, exceptionally 4-1/2 feet.

_Distribution._--The Mediterranean coast of France, Spain and Portugal, and Minorca. Its occurrence in Algeria is very doubtful.

_Habits._--Not uncommon near the coast in France, in hedges and vineyards, often climbing on shrubs. In the Spanish Peninsula, according to Boscá, it is common in forests and on the sheltered side of valleys, under stones or in holes in the ground. A specimen I kept alive for a short time showed a more furious temper than I have ever witnessed in any snake, repeatedly flying with open mouth against the glass of its cage whenever I entered the room in which it was kept. Other specimens are reported to have become quite tame after a certain time. It is one of the quickest of European snakes, one of the most difficult to catch; it is a good climber. The food consists of mice, birds, and lizards; the young are said to occasionally eat grasshoppers.

_Reproduction._--According to J. von Fischer, the eggs, nine in number, are deposited twenty-five days after the pairing, which takes place in May or June, and measure about 2 inches by 2/3 inch.

GENUS CORONELLA, LAURENTI

Maxillary teeth increasing in size posteriorly. Head not or but slightly distinct from neck; eye rather small, with round pupil. No subocular shields. Body moderately elongate; scales smooth, with apical pits. Tail moderate.

_PLATE IX_

_After Sordelli_]

This genus, embracing about twenty species, is represented in the different parts of the Northern Hemisphere, extending a little beyond the Equator in East Africa. Two species are European.

14. CORONELLA AUSTRIACA, Laurenti
(_Coluber lævis_, Lacepède)
The Smooth Snake

_Form._--Moderately slender; snout more or less prominent, sometimes decidedly pointed; tail one-fourth (males) to one-sixth (females) of the total length. The considerable differences to be observed in the shape of the snout are merely individual, specimens with more prominent snout and a corresponding development of the rostral shield (_C. italica_, Fitz., _fitzingeri_, Bonap.) occurring over the greater part of the range of the species.

_Head-Shields._--Rostral at least as deep as broad, more or less produced posteriorly between the internasals, the portion visible from above at least half as long (in some specimens quite as long) as its distance from the frontal, rarely separating the internasals. Frontal once and one-fourth to once and a half as long as broad, much broader than the supraocular, as long as or longer than its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals, widely separated from the preocular. Nasal rarely undivided; loreal longer than deep. One (very rarely two) pre- and two postoculars. Temporals 2 + 2 or 2 + 3 (very rarely 1 + 2). Upper labials seven (rarely eight), third and fourth (or fourth and fifth) entering the eye. Four lower labials (rarely three) in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are as long as or longer than the anterior.

_Scales_ with one or two apical pits, the pit usually single on the back and paired on the sides, in nineteen (rarely twenty-one) rows.[B] Ventral shields 153 to 199; anal divided (rarely entire); subcaudals 41 to 70.

_Coloration._--Grey, brown, or reddish above, with small blackish, dark brown, or brick-red spots usually disposed in pairs, sometimes forming cross-bars; sometimes with one or three lighter stripes; one or two black dots precede on each scale the single or paired apical pit; frequently two blackish, dark brown, or brick-red stripes on the nape, usually confluent with a large dark blotch on the occiput; the top of the head occasionally nearly entirely blackish, especially in the young; a dark streak on each side of the head, from the nostril to the angle of the mouth, passing through the eye, sometimes extending along the side of the neck or even of the whole body. Lower parts red, orange, brown, grey, or black, uniform or speckled or closely spotted with black and white, the sides often lighter (Plate IX.).

A colour variety, of which I have examined a single specimen from near Vienna, is pale brown above, with four black lines along the anterior part of the body, and two small, yellowish, dark-edged spots close together on the back of the head, separated by the suture between the parietal shields.

Werner has described another variety, also from near Vienna, which resembles _Coluber leopardinus_, having two series of large, brown, dark-edged spots along the back, some of the spots alternating, others uniting across the back. Apparently very similar to the last variety, and also said to be suggestive of _Coluber leopardinus_, is the var. _scalaris_, Sternfeld, from Lüneburg in Hanover, reddish-brown above, with two rows of bright red, black-edged spots, partly confluent and connected across the spine by transverse bars producing a ladder-like pattern. Specimens of a uniform greyish-brown, without any markings, are very rare. The var. _veithi_, Schreiber, established on a single specimen from Carinthia, represents a case of melanism: bluish-black, with the normal markings of an intense black. Two specimens of a "black variety" are said to have been found in this country, near Poole.

_Size._--Seldom exceeds a length of 2 feet, and in many districts, in England for instance, does not appear to often reach that size. The largest specimen, from Austria, examined by me, measures 25 inches; one from Hampshire measures 24 inches.

_Distribution._--The range of the Smooth Snake extends over nearly the whole of Europe, as far north as 63° in Norway; it becomes rare and more local in the south, being absent from part of Spain and the islands of the Mediterranean, with the exception of Sardinia. It is common in the hilly parts of Belgium, Northern and Central France, Germany, and Austria. In Sweden it appears to be restricted to the oak region. In Great Britain it has been found in four counties in the South of England: Surrey, Hampshire, Dorsetshire, and Berkshire, in some parts of which it is less uncommon than usually supposed. Its reported occurrence in Dumfriesshire is the result of an error; the snake figured as _Coluber dumfriesiensis_ represents an American species. In a very interesting article written for _Science Gossip_ in 1888, Mr. A. L. Beldy says that about 1868, when Bournemouth was but a very small village, surrounded by large expanses of moorland, _Coronella austriaca_ was extraordinarily abundant, and during a hot summer examples were to be seen literally in scores and great numbers were killed. Since then, however, their numbers have gradually decreased. About 1880 the snake was occasionally found near Wellington College, Berks, and as many as five were captured by one person in the course of one year; it is believed to be now extinct in that neighbourhood. From South-Eastern Europe the range of this species extends to South-Western Asia. The ascertained altitudinal range is 4,000 feet in the Alps, 6,000 feet in Bosnia, and 6,500 feet in the Caucasus.

_Habits._--The Smooth Snake lives on heathland, stony wastes, and wooded hills, showing a preference for dry localities. Although not infrequent on the Dorsetshire and Hampshire heaths, where it was first discovered in 1853, it was not recorded as a British reptile until 1859; it was discovered much later on the sandy heaths between Haslemere and Farnham, where it occurs in small numbers, and in Berkshire. These localities are likewise inhabited by the rarer British lizard, the Sand Lizard. Notwithstanding its gentle, timid appearance, this snake when fresh caught is usually very ready to bite; either it snaps angrily, or, without hissing or other warning, it suddenly fastens its jaws into the finger of its captor, even if it be gently handled. The food consists mostly of lizards, occasionally of slow-worms or small snakes, more rarely of voles or mice, even shrews, which are seized, constrictor-like, and crushed by the coils of the body. O. von Tomasini has observed one swallowing a _Coluber longissimus_ as large as itself.

In Central Europe this snake becomes active towards the end of March or beginning of April, and retires in September or October. It does well in captivity, and becomes very tame. It is one of the most intelligent of snakes, second to none in educability; it can be trained to feed in the hand of its master.

_Reproduction._--The Smooth Snake pairs in early spring, and is ovoviviparous. The young, two to fifteen in number, are born late in August or in September, enveloped by a thin membrane which they tear immediately; they measure 5 to 6 inches. Embryos 3-1/2 or 4 inches long have the scaling and the characteristic markings fully developed, but the scales and shields much abbreviated, the former broader than long. A dicephalous young is preserved in the Bosnian Museum at Sarajev, and another was caught near Karlsruhe, in Germany, in 1881, and kept alive for some time. According to Rollinat, a second autumnal pairing sometimes takes place in France.

15. CORONELLA GIRONDICA, Daudin
(_Coluber riccioli_, Metaxa)
The Southern Smooth Snake

Distinguished from the preceding by a somewhat more slender form, a more obtuse, scarcely prominent snout, a much lower rostral shield, which is considerably broader than deep and just visible from above, not penetrating between the internasals, constantly eight upper labials, fourth and fifth entering the eye, and the scales in twenty-one (rarely nineteen or twenty-three) rows. Ventrals 170 to 200; anal divided; subcaudals 49 to 72.

_PLATE X_

_After Sordelli_]

_After Sordelli_]

_Coloration._--Brown, greyish, yellowish, or reddish above, with dark brown or black spots or transverse bars, sometimes with four dark stripes in addition; dark dots in front of the apical pits as in the preceding species; a pair of elongate dark spots or a U-shaped marking on the nape; a dark streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth, and a dark cross-bar from eye to eye, across the prefrontal shields; a dark line below the eye. Lower parts yellow, orange, or coral red, with large, mostly quadrangular black spots, often arranged in chess-board fashion, or with two series of black spots (Plate X.), which may be confluent into two longitudinal bands.

_Total Length._--26 inches.

_Distribution._--South of France (as far north as the Charente-Inférieure to the west, the Dauphiné to the east), the whole of Spain and Portugal, Southern Tyrol, Italy, and Sicily. It has not been recorded from higher than 2,500 feet in the Alps. Rare in Northern Morocco and Algeria. In many localities in Europe it occurs alongside with _C. austriaca_.

_Habits._--All that is known to me of the habits of this close ally of the preceding species is derived from the works of Bonaparte, Gené, and Schreiber, and from a note by Gachet, who observed it near Bordeaux and described it under the name of _Coluber rubens_. According to these authors, it frequents dry and rocky localities as well as old walls, in which it finds a refuge and a good supply of the lizards on which it feeds. A large specimen from Albano, near Rome, preserved in the Genoa Museum, had swallowed a full-grown _Chalcides tridactylus_. This _Coronella_ is crepuscular, rarely showing itself in the daytime, leaving its retreat only after sunset, and has been observed to crawl about by moonlight. Its movements are slow, which accounts for crushed specimens being often met with on paths or roads. Contrary to the rule in _C. austriaca_, it is extremely gentle, seldom attempting to bite.

_Reproduction._--Whether this species is ovoviviparous, like its European congener, has not, I think, been ascertained. All we know on this matter is that a female found dead on a road near Bordeaux by M. Lataste at the end of June contained eggs which showed no trace of embryos. This does not, however, settle the question, as the young would not be born until at least two months later. According to Gené, pairing takes place in May, when specimens have been observed to congregate in considerable numbers.

GENUS CONTIA, BAIRD AND GIRARD

Maxillary teeth subequal. Head not or but slightly distinct from neck; eye moderate or rather small, with round pupil. Nasal single; no subocular shields. Body moderately elongate; scales smooth, with apical pits. Tail moderate.

This genus, with certain modifications in the above definition, is made to embrace about twenty-five species from South-Western Asia and Sind and North and Central America. One of the species inhabiting Asia extends into a very small part of Europe.

16. CONTIA MODESTA, Martin
The Dwarf Snake

_Form._--Moderately slender. Head small, quite flat above; snout obtuse, feebly prominent. Length of tail four to five times in the total length.

_Head-Shields._--Rostral a little broader than deep, visible from above. Suture between the internasals as long as or a little shorter than that between the prefrontals. Frontal once and a half to once and two-thirds as long as broad, as long as or longer than its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals, as broad as or a little broader than the supraocular, widely separated from the preocular. Nostril in the middle or upper part of the nasal. Loreal square or longer than deep. One (rarely two) pre- and two (rarely one) postoculars. Temporals 1 + 2; parietal sometimes nearly touching the fifth upper labial. Upper labials seven, third and fourth entering the eye. Four (rarely five) lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shield; posterior chin-shields smaller than the anterior, and separated from each other by one or two rows of scales.

_Scales_ with a single apical pit, in seventeen rows. Ventral shields 150 to 191; anal divided; subcaudals 53 to 78.

_Coloration._--Not unlike that of a young _Zamenis gemonensis_. Greyish-olive above, uniform or each scale lighter in the centre. The greater part of the upper surface of the head behind the snout, together with the nape, black in the young, with a yellow cross-bar or a pair of yellow spots between the eyes, the bar sometimes confluent with the yellow postoculars, and a horseshoe-shaped band of the same colour on the temples and across the occiput (Plate X.); the black of the nape again edged with yellow behind. More or less distinct traces of these markings are preserved in adult specimens. Upper lip yellowish, with black spots or bars on the sutures between the shields. Lower parts uniform white or yellowish.

In the var. _semimaculata_, Boettger, from Chios, small dark spots are scattered over the upper parts of the anterior half of the body.

_Size._--This snake rarely reaches a length of 19 inches. It is the smallest Colubrid of Europe.

_Distribution._--The Caucasus up to about 5,000 feet, Asia Minor, Chios, Cyprus, Syria, Mesopotamia, and North-Western Persia. The northern slope of the Caucasus appears to be the only part of Europe included in its habitat. The British Museum possesses two specimens labelled as from Constantinople, but the presence of this species in European Turkey requires confirmation.

A closely allied species, which has been confounded with _C. modesta_, _C. collaris_ (Ménétriès), and which also inhabits the Caucasus without having been recorded from the northern slope, is distinguished by having the scales in fifteen rows (very rarely seventeen), and the posterior chin-shields in contact with each other.

_Habits._--Nothing is known as regards this species, but the North American members of the genus _Contia_ are chiefly insectivorous and oviparous.

GENUS COELOPELTIS, WAGLER

Maxillary teeth small and subequal, followed after a short interspace by one or two very large grooved fangs situated below the posterior border of the eye; anterior mandibular teeth strongly enlarged. Head not very distinct from neck, with angular canthus rostralis and projecting supraocular; eye large, with round pupil; nostril a crescentic slit in a single or divided nasal. Body elongate; scales smooth, more or less distinctly grooved longitudinally in the adult, with apical pits. Tail moderately long.

The range of this genus, which comprises only two species, extends over Southern Europe, South-Western Asia, and North Africa.

17. COELOPELTIS MONSPESSULANA, Hermann
(_Natrix lacertina_, Wagler; _Coluber insignitus_, I. Geoffroy)
The Montpellier Snake

_Form._--Slender; head elongate, narrow, concave above on the snout and between the eyes; snout projecting, rounded, with raised canthus and concave loreal region. Tail about one-fifth to one-fourth of the total length.

_PLATE XI_

_After Sordelli_]

_After Sordelli_]

_Head-Shields._--Rostral nearly as deep as broad, just visible from above. Internasals much shorter than the prefrontals. Frontal very narrow, twice to twice and a half as long as broad, its width in the middle not more than half that of the supraocular, widening in front and extending beyond the supraoculars to join the preoculars, longer than its distance from the end of snout, as long as or a little longer than the parietals. Two loreals. One preocular, the upper portion of which is much enlarged, and encroaches upon the area occupied in other snakes by the prefrontal and the supraocular; two (rarely three) postoculars. Temporals 2 + 3 or 4. Upper labials eight (rarely nine), fourth and fifth (or fifth and sixth) entering the eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are as long as or shorter than the posterior.

_Scales_ with single apical pits, in seventeen or nineteen rows, longitudinally grooved in the adult, less distinctly in the young. Ventral shields 160 to 189; anal divided; subcaudals 68 to 102.

_Coloration._--The young is elegantly marked with dark brown and yellowish-white on a pale brown ground. On the head, the principal dark markings usually are an oblique band on the posterior half of the supraocular shield, and another, or a large spot, on the parietal, sometimes produced backwards, and forming with its fellow a [V]-shaped band, separated from a large occipital blotch by a yellowish space; anterior half of the frontal shield and shields on the snout edged with dark brown; a dark streak, sometimes broken up into small spots, on the temporal region; yellow spots on the pre- and post-oculars; lips brown, with large, yellow, black-edged spots, or yellow with brown spots; chin with three brown longitudinal streaks. Back with a vertebral series of large roundish dark spots or narrow cross-bars; small spots on the sides, these sometimes forming longitudinal series or accompanied by yellowish streaks or dots; these markings often confluent into three longitudinal streaks on the tail. Belly pale brownish, greyish, or reddish, with numerous pale spots, sometimes with a dark brown line on each side. The adult is greyish, reddish-brown, or olive above. Some specimens preserve more or less the markings of the young, and the dark dorsal markings (Plate XI.) may be edged with yellowish and ocellar in appearance (var. _insignitus_, Geoffroy); the belly is yellowish, with small dark spots which usually form longitudinal series, and may be confluent into streaks. A variety common in Dalmatia (_neumayeri_, Fitzinger) is brown or olive above, without spots, sides with a bluish-grey lateral band, the scales on which are edged with black, the belly uniform yellow. Other specimens are brown or reddish, with light edges to the scales on the sides, or with yellowish lateral lines, or dark olive or dark brown above and black on the sides, each scale with a yellowish central spot; in the last-mentioned the second third of the back may be almost entirely black, and the belly dark olive-grey in the middle and yellowish on the sides. Iris brown, with a golden or coppery circle round the pupil.

_Size._--This handsome snake grows to a length of 6-1/2 feet. Specimens 5 to 6 feet long are not uncommon.

_Distribution._--Mediterranean coast of France and Western Liguria, Spain and Portugal, Sicily, Lampedusa, eastern coast of the Adriatic, Greece and eastern islands of the Mediterranean, Mediterranean coast of Asia and Sinaitic Peninsula, eastwards to the Caucasus and Persia, North Africa from Egypt to Rio de Oro. It is not known to occur above 2,300 feet altitude in Europe.

_Habits._--A lively, swift snake, living on land and on low bushes, often found near human habitations. Some specimens are very vicious, whilst others show a gentle disposition after a short period of captivity. A specimen nearly 6 feet long, which I kept for some time, never attempted to bite when handled, and some have become so tame as to take food from the hand. The sense of sight appears to be better developed than in any other European snake. The food consists chiefly of mammals, even large rats and young rabbits, birds such as chickens, partridges, and quails, lizards, and other snakes, which, if of considerable size, are not swallowed until paralyzed or killed by the effect of the poison. In Eastern Europe, _Vipera ammodytes_ is said to be the principal enemy of _Coelopeltis_, and the two snakes are consequently seldom found together in the same locality.

Many experiments have been made on the action of the poison of this Opisthoglyph. Peracca and Deregibus, as well as, later, Phisalix, found a striking similarity with the symptoms of Cobra poison in their experiments on small animals, the suspension of the respiration occurring in a few minutes, the blood being otherwise unaffected. It has been stated by some authors that _Coelopeltis_ poison has little or no action on man, but a French zoologist, E. Taton-Baulmont, having been bitten in the index-finger by a four-foot-long specimen at Algiers, the swelling extended within thirty hours up to the shoulder, and was accompanied by fever and nervous troubles. As a rule, however, the bite of this snake has no poisonous effect on man, from the fact that the fangs conveying the venom are situated so far back in the mouth as not to come into action.

_Reproduction._--According to Werner, the eggs, four to twelve in number, are laid in July, and measure 2 inches in length and 1/2 inch in width.

GENUS MACROPROTODON, GUICHENOT

Maxillary teeth few and very unequal in size, fourth and fifth or fifth and sixth enlarged and followed by an interspace, the two last teeth fang-like and grooved, situated just behind the eye; sixth mandibular tooth fang-like, and separated from the remainder by an interspace. Head slightly distinct from neck; eye rather small, the pupil vertically elliptic or subelliptic when contracted. Body moderately elongate; scales smooth, with apical pits. Tail moderate or rather short.

A single species.

18. MACROPROTODON CUCULLATUS, I. Geoffroy
The False Smooth Snake

_Form._--Very similar to the Smooth Snakes, with which it has been confounded, but snout broader and very strongly depressed. Tail five and a half to six and a half times in the total length.

_Head-Shields._--Rostral at least twice as broad as deep, not or but scarcely visible from above. Internasals as long as or a little shorter than the prefrontals. Frontal not much broader than the supraocular in the adult, once and a half to twice as long as broad, as long as or longer than its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals. Nasal usually semidivided. Loreal once and a half to twice as long as deep. One preocular, extending to the upper surface of the head, but not reaching the frontal; two (rarely one or three) postoculars. Temporals 1 + 2. Upper labials eight, fourth and fifth entering the eye, sixth usually in contact with the parietal. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are as long as or a little shorter than the posterior.

_Scales_ with mostly single apical pits, the pits sometimes paired on the sides of the body, in twenty-one or twenty-three rows (nineteen to twenty-five in North African specimens). Ventral shields 153 to 192; anal divided; subcaudals 40 to 54.

_Coloration._--Pale brown or greyish above, with small dark brown or blackish spots or with more or less distinct darker and lighter longitudinal streaks. Upper surface of head with dark brown vermiculations; a dark brown or black, often light-edged occipito-nuchal band, extending downwards to the gular region and produced forwards into a point to between the parietal shields; a dark brown or black streak on each side of the head from the end of the snout, through the eye, to the last lower labial shield, traversing the four last upper labials, which are yellowish above and below the streak (Plate XI.). Lower parts yellow or coral red, with black spots, which may form a tessellated pattern, two longitudinal series, or be so crowded as to fuse into a band along the middle of the belly and tail.

The above description is taken from Spanish specimens (Badajos, Algeciras, Andalucia), but the variations are very great when we take North Africa into consideration. The nuchal band may be narrow or broken up into spots, the median of which sometimes forms a longitudinal streak, or so much enlarged as to fuse with the dark markings on the upper surface of the head; in some specimens (from Morocco and Algeria) the upper surface of the head and the nape may be entirely ink black, or the whole head black above and beneath with the exception of a whitish streak bordering the upper lip. The dark streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth may be absent, or reduced to a short oblique streak below the eye. Irrespective of the variations in the markings of the upper parts, the lower parts may be more or less spotted with black, or immaculate.

Some specimens of this small snake bear a general resemblance to _Coronella girondica_, with which _Macroprotodon_ has sometimes been confounded. But a careful examination of its whole structure shows it to be more affine to _Coelopeltis_ and _Tarbophis_, the other European representatives of the Opisthoglyphous Colubrids.

_Size._--The largest European specimen examined measures 17-1/2 inches. Specimens up to 22 inches long occur in Algeria and Tunisia.

_Distribution._--In Europe this snake is only known from Spain (Estremadura, New Castille, Andalucia), Portugal (Alemtejo), the Balearic Islands (Majorca and Minorca), and the island of Lampedusa. In North Africa it is generally distributed from the north coast of Egypt to the Rio de Oro; in Algeria it penetrates into the northern parts of the Sahara. The specimen figured on Plate XI. is from Algeciras.

_Habits._--Appear to be similar to those of _Coronella girondica_. Crepuscular in its habits, it is usually found under stones or in burrows in the ground. Unless pursued, when it darts off with great rapidity, its movements are slow. It is very ready to bite, but no experiments have been made on the effects of its poison. The food consists chiefly of small lizards.

_Reproduction._--All that is known on this head is that, according to Doumergue, eggs are laid in July in Algeria.

GENUS TARBOPHIS, FLEISCHMANN

Maxillary teeth few, anterior longest, gradually decreasing in size posteriorly, and followed, after an interspace, by a pair of enlarged, grooved fangs, situated below the posterior border of the eye; anterior mandibular teeth strongly enlarged. Head distinct from neck; eye moderate or rather small, with vertically elliptic pupil. Body moderately elongate; scales smooth, oblique, with apical pits. Tail moderate or rather short.

The eight species of this genus inhabit South-Eastern Europe, South-Western Asia, and Africa. Two are dealt with here.

19. TARBOPHIS FALLAX, Fleischmann
(_Ailurophis vivax_, Bonaparte)
The Cat-Snake

_Form._--Moderately slender. Head much depressed. Tail five and a half to seven times in the total length.

_Head-Shields._--Rostral broader than deep, just visible from above. Internasals shorter than the prefrontals. Frontal much broader than the supraocular, once and one-fourth to once and a half as long as broad, as long as its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals. Nasal divided or semidivided. Loreal twice and a half to thrice as long as deep, entering the eye below the preocular, which is in contact with the frontal. Two (rarely three) postoculars. Temporals small, scale-like, 2 or 3 + 3 or 4. Upper labials eight (rarely seven or nine), third, fourth, and fifth (rarely fourth and fifth, or fourth, fifth, and sixth) entering the eye. Three or four lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields; posterior chin-shields very small and widely separated from each other by scales.

_Scales_ with single or paired apical pits, in nineteen or twenty-one rows, usually nineteen in European specimens. Ventral shields 186 to 222; anal divided; subcaudals 48 to 73.