Chapter XIII: Snakes in Relation to Man (4)

_Head-Shields._--Rostral as deep as broad, a little broader than deep, or slightly deeper than broad, reaching or nearly reaching the upper surface of the snout, and in contact with two or three apical shields. Upper surface of head covered with small subimbricate scales, which are all more or less distinctly keeled, or, rarely, smooth on the snout and forehead; seven to twelve longitudinal series of scales between the eyes (supraoculars included); two to four canthal shields, of which the anterior is the largest, and may be regarded as a supranasal. Supraocular narrow, usually broken up into two or more small shields. Twelve to eighteen scales round the eye; two or three series of scales between the eye and the labials; two or three vertical series of scales separate the preoculars from the nasal, which is single and often strongly hollowed out, and usually partially fused with the naso-rostral. Upper labials nine to twelve, usually fourth and fifth below the eye. Temporal scales keeled. Four or five lower labials in contact with the single pair of chin-shields.

_Scales_ in twenty-three to twenty-seven rows, usually twenty-five, with two apical pits, strongly keeled, those of the outer row smooth or feebly keeled. Ventral shields 151 to 177 in males, 153 to 180 in females; anal entire; subcaudals 42 to 51 in males, 38 to 49 in females.

_Coloration._--Very variable. The typical form, which alone is represented in Europe, and was originally described from Cyprus, is grey, greyish-buff, or pale brown, above, with two dorsal series of darker spots, which may stand in pairs, alternate, or unite to form cross-bars, and a lateral series of large dark spots or bars. A more or less distinct dark band on each side of the head, passing through the eye and often extending to the neck; a dark bar or triangular spot below the eye, and usually another below the nostril. Lower parts pinkish-white, powdered with grey-brown, with or without dark brown spots; end of tail yellow. The ground colour of the young is pink or flesh-colour. In specimens from desert sandy regions in Asia and North Africa the markings may be very indistinct, the snake being of a nearly uniform pale buff.

In the var. _mauritanica_, Guichenot, from Morocco and Algeria, the back has three series of very large dark brown or reddish-brown spots, separated by a network of the yellowish ground colour, or the middle series may be transformed into a wavy or zigzag band. The scales in this variety are usually in twenty-seven rows, instead of twenty-five (rarely twenty-three) as in the typical form.

_Size._--This species, the largest of European Vipers, grows to a length of 4-1/2 feet.

_Distribution._--The European habitat of _V. lebetina_ is restricted to the Cyclades, where it is not uncommon on the island of Tinos, and appears to be found also on Kimoli. It is common on Cyprus, where it is called _Kufi_, or Deaf Snake, and extends from Syria and Asia Minor through Transcaucasia, Mesopotamia, Persia, Northern Baluchistan, to Afghanistan and Cashmere. It is further found on the Atlas of Morocco and Algeria, near Oran and Bona, and in Tunisia. Its reported occurrence in Egypt has not been confirmed by recent investigations.

_Habits._--According to M. Doumergue--who has had ample opportunities of observing this Viper near Oran, where it is common--it is a nocturnal reptile, rarely moving about in the daytime. It inhabits rocky localities, where there is brushwood, and vineyards. During the day it remains sluggish under large stones. It is most frequently met with in April and May.

On Milos, Dr. de Bedriaga observed this much-dreaded snake, the bite of which is probably as bad as that of its Indian ally, the Daboia, _V. russelli_, to occur frequently in gardens, and to crawl about near houses in villages after sunset. The same observer has noted a sort of valvular closing of the nostril through raising of the posterior part of the nasal shield when the snake prepares to strike.

The food consists principally of mammals up to the size of a rabbit.

_Reproduction._--According to Doumergue's observations in Algeria, the young, up to thirteen in number, are born in May and June.

GENUS ANCISTRODON, PALISOT DE BEAUVOIS

Head distinct from neck, its upper surface covered with large shields, as in the normal _Colubridæ_; a loreal pit; eye moderate or small, with vertical pupil. Body moderately elongate or short. Scales keeled (or smooth), with apical pits. Tail moderate or short.

This genus is distributed over nearly the whole of Asia, the eastern parts of the United States of America, and Mexico and Central America. One of the Asiatic species just penetrates into South-Eastern Europe, and is the sole representative of the Crotalinæ in this part of the world.

28. ANCISTRODON HALYS, Pallas
Pallas's Pit-Viper

_Form._--Moderately elongate. Head subtriangular, flat or slightly concave above, swollen in the temporal region, very distinct from neck; snout rounded or obtusely pointed, slightly turned up at the end, with obtuse canthus and vertical or slightly oblique loreal region; eye rather small. Tail seven to eight and a half times in the total length.

_Head-Shields._--Rostral as deep as broad or slightly broader than deep, just visible from above. A pair of internasals and a pair of larger prefrontals. Frontal as broad as the supraocular, as long as or a little longer than its distance from the end of the snout, as long as or a little shorter than the rather short parietals. Supraocular extending beyond the vertical of the posterior border of the eye. Loreal pit between three shields, separated from the labials. Nostril between two nasals, the posterior of which is separated from the upper preocular by a loreal. Two preoculars, one or two postoculars, and a subocular. Three large lower temporals, anterior largest. Upper labials seven or eight, third and fourth largest, third entering the eye. A pair of small chin-shields.

_Scales_ sharply keeled, with two apical pits, in twenty-three rows. Ventral shields 149 to 174; anal entire; subcaudals 31 to 44 pairs.

_Coloration._--Pale yellowish-grey, greyish-brown, or reddish, sometimes greenish in young specimens, with transverse series of darker spots or with more or less regular dark bars with serrated edges across the back (Plate XIV.); these bars may be narrower than the interspaces between them, or so large as to cause the back to appear brown with light cross-bars; the bars sometimes broken up on the vertebral line, and the two halves alternating. The sides usually paler and bearing two alternating longitudinal series of small spots, the lower of which are usually darker, and sometimes extend on the outer ends of the ventral shields. Head pale above, with a dark spot on the middle of the snout, a cross-bar or a pair of spots between the eyes, a spot or short band on each side of the parietal region, and a horseshoe-shaped band on the occiput, the branches of which are more or less produced on the nape; all these markings sometimes confluent. A broad, dark, light-edged band on the temple. Lips whitish, speckled with brown. Lower parts whitish, more or less profusely speckled with grey or brown. The horny shield terminating the tail usually dark brown or black at the end.

_Size._--This species rarely reaches a length of 29 inches. The largest specimen in the British Museum measures only 19 inches.

_Distribution._--From the north and east coasts of the Caspian Sea, across Central Asia to the Upper Yenissei, as far north as 51°. In Europe it is only known from two arid tracts between the Volga and the Ural, near the Caspian Sea, viz., the Saltan-Murat desert and the Induski hills.

_Habits._--Nothing has been published on the habits of this snake, but they are probably similar to those of its near and more eastern relative, _A. blomhoffi_, Schlegel, which inhabits China and Japan. _A. blomhoffi_ is said to be more or less nocturnal, although showing a predilection for localities well exposed to the sun. It is ovoviviparous. The symptoms of its bite, which is rarely fatal to man, are the same as in the Vipers.

All the species of _Ancistrodon_, so far as they have been observed, are in the habit of raising and vibrating the tail, like the Rattlesnakes, when coiling themselves up in a defensive attitude.

INDEX

Acanthocephala, 110

_Acrochordinæ_, 5

Adder, 230

Æsculapian Snake, 187

_æsculapii_ (_Coluber_), 187

_Aglypha_, 4, 151

_Ailurophis vivax_, 217

Albinism, 39

Aldrovandi's Snake, 182

Altitudinal range, 118, 123

_Amblycephalidæ_, 5

_ammodytes_ (_Vipera_), 249

Anal pockets, 83

Anal shield, 17

_Ancistrodon_, 261

_Ancistrodon halys_, 262

Antitoxic serums, 66

Apical pits, 15, 75

Arteries, 77

Ascariasis, 111

_asianus_ (_Zamenis gemonensis_, var.), 173

Asp Viper, 239

_aspis_ (_Vipera_), 239

_astreptophorus_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 154

_ater_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 156

_atrovirens_ (_Coluber_), 170

_aurolineatus_ (_Coluber_), 167

_austriaca_ (_Coronella_), 197

Bacteria, 113

_berus_ (_Pelias_), 221

_berus_ (_Vipera_), 230

Bezoar stones, 141

_bilineatus_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 154

Blind Snake, 144

Blood-supply, 77

Blunt-nosed Viper, 257

Body, 8

_Boidæ_, 4, 146

_Boinæ_, 4, 146

_bosniensis_ (_Vipera berus_, var.), 236

Brain, 73

Burrowing Snakes, 91

_cæruleus_ (_Coluber_), 233

Canker, 113

Canthus rostralis, 13

Captivity, 100

_carbonarius_ (_Zamenis_), 172

_caspius_ (_Zamenis gemonensis_, var.), 172

Cat-Snake, 217

Caucasian Cat-Snake, 219

_cervone_ (_Elaphis_), 182

Cestoda, 112

_cettii_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 155

_chersoides_ (_Tropidonotus_), 167

Classification, 2

Cobra di capello, 9

_Coelopeltis_, 207

_Coelopeltis monspessulana_, 208

_collaris_ (_Contia_), 207

Coloration, 29

Colour, 29

_Coluber_, 181

_Coluber æsculapii_, 187

_Coluber atrovirens_, 170

_Coluber aurolineatus_, 167

_Coluber cæruleus_, 233

_Coluber dione_, 185

_Coluber dumfriesiensis_, 200

_Coluber flavescens_, 187

_Coluber hydrus_, 160

_Coluber insignitus_, 208

_Coluber leopardinus_, 191

_Coluber longissimus_, 187

_Coluber quadrilineatus_, 191

_Coluber quatuorradiatus_, 182

_Coluber quatuorlineatus_, 182

_Coluber riccioli_, 202

_Coluber rubens_, 204

_Coluber sauromates_, 183

_Coluber scalaris_, 194

_Coluber torquatus_, 152

_Coluber viridiflavus_, 170

_Colubridæ_, 4, 150

_Colubrinæ_, 4, 151

_concolor_ (_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, var.), 162

_concolor_ (_Vipera berus_, var.), 234

_Coniophis_, 7

Constriction, 96

_Contia_, 205

_Contia modesta_, 205

Coral-Snakes, 32, 34, 35

_Coronella_, 196

_Coronella austriaca_, 197

_Coronella girondica_, 202

_Coronella italica_, 197

Coryphodonts, 58

_Crotalinæ_, 5, 220

Crotalon, 20

_Crotalus_, 21

_cucullatus_ (_Macroprotodon_), 213

Dahl's Whip-Snake, 177

_dahlii_ (_Zamenis_), 177

_Dasypeltinæ_, 5

Defecation, 99

Definition, 1

Deglutition, 98

Dentition, 53

Desert Snakes, 36

Development, 88

Diacranterians, 58

Dicephalous young, 89

Digestion, 99

_dione_ (_Coluber_), 185

Dione Snake, 185

_Dipsadomorphinæ_, 5, 151

Disgorging, 99

Distribution, 118

_Dolichosauria_, 1

_dorsalis_ (_Pelias_), 234

Drinking, 101

_dumfriesiensis_ (_Coluber_), 200

Dwarf Snake, 205

Economic value, 138

Eggs, 85

Egg-eating Snakes, 53, 80

Egg-tooth, 89

_Elachistodontinæ_, 5

_Elaphis cervone_, 182

_Elapinæ_, 5

_Elaps_, 35

_elsneri_ (_Coluber leopardinus_, var.), 193

Embryo, 88

Epiglottis, 79

_Eryx_, 147

_Eryx jaculus_, 147

European Whip-Snake, 170

External characters, 8

Exuviæ, 20

Exuviation, 105

Eyes, 11, 73

False Smooth Snake, 213

_fallax_ (_Tarbophis_), 217

Fangs, 55

Fascination, 104

Fat-bodies, 81

Faunistic works, 130

Feigning death, 104

_fitzingeri_ (_Coronella_), 197

_flavescens_ (_Coluber_), 187

_flavescens_ (_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, var.), 163

Flukes, 112

Flying Snakes, 94

Food, 95

Form, 8

Fossils, 6

Gape, 11

Gastrosteges, 15

_gemonensis_ (_Zamenis_), 170

Genital organs, 82

_girondica_ (_Coronella_), 202

_Glauconiidæ_, 4

Glottis, 79

Grass Snake, 152

Greek Blind Snake, 144

Ground Snakes, 91

Habits, 91

Hæmogregarines, 112

_hagenbecki_ (_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, var.), 162

_halys_ (_Ancistrodon_), 261

Head, 10

Head-shields, 17

Hearing, 74

Heart, 77

_Helagras_, 7

Hemipenes, 82

Hibernation, 105

Hind limbs, 10

_hippocrepis_ (_Zamenis_), 179

Hissing, 102

_Homalopsinæ_, 5

Hood, 9

Horseshoe Whip-Snake, 179

_hugyi_ (_Vipera aspis_, var.), 244

Hybrids, 90

_Hydrophiinæ_, 5

_hydrus_ (_Coluber_), 160

Hyoid apparatus, 42

_iberus_ (_Tarbophis_), 219

_Iguanognathus_, 54

_Ilysiidæ_, 4

Immunity, 66, 71

_incertus_ (_Tropidonotus viperinus_, var.), 167

Incubation, 88

Intelligence, 101

_insignitus_ (_Coluber_), 208

Integument, 8

Intestines, 79

Iris, 37

Isodonts, 58

_italica_ (_Coronella_), 197

Jacobson's organ, 73

_jaculus_ (_Eryx_), 147

Javelin Sand-Boa, 147

Key to the identification, 22

Kidneys, 80

Kufi, 257

Labial pits, 76

_Lacertilia_, 1

_lacertina_ (_Natrix_), 208

Ladder Snake, 194

Largest Snakes, 21

Larynx, 79

Lataste's Viper, 247

_latastii_ (_Vipera_), 247

_lebetina_ (_Vipera_), 257

Leopard Snake, 191

_leopardinus_ (_Coluber_), 191

_lineaticollis_ (_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, var.), 162

Liver, 81

Livery of the young, 38

Locomotion, 93

Long-nosed Viper, 249

_longissimus_ (_Coluber_), 187

Loreal pit, 75

Loreal region, 12

Lungs, 78

Lycodonts, 58

Lymph-hearts, 78

_Macroprotodon_, 212

_Macroprotodon cucullatus_, 213

_macrops_ (_Vipera_), 224

Marine Snakes, 92, 95

Markings, 29

_mauritanica_ (_Vipera lebetina_, var.), 259

Melanism, 39

Mental groove, 13

_meridionalis_ (_Vipera ammodytes_, var.), 253

Mimicry, 35

_modesta_ (_Contia_), 205

_monspessulana_ (_Coelopeltis_), 208

_montandoni_ (_Vipera ammodytes_, var.), 252

Montpellier Snake, 208

Mortality from Snake-bite, 133

_Mosasauria_, 1

_murorum_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 154

_Natrix lacertina_, 208

_Natrix vulgaris_, 152

_natrix_ (_Tropidonotus_), 152

Neck, 9

Nematoda, 111

_Nerodia_, 152

Nervous system, 73

_neumayeri_ (_Coelopeltis monspessulana_, var.), 210

_niger_ (_Coluber longissimus_, var.), 188

_nigrescens_ (_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, var.), 162

Nocturnal Snakes, 93

Northern Viper, 230

Nostrils, 13, 74

Oesophagus, 79

Olfactory organ, 73

_Ophidia_, 1

_Opisthoglypha_, 4, 151

Organs of a sixth sense, 75

Orsini's Viper, 221

Oviparous Snakes, 86

Oviposition, 85

Ovoviviparous Snakes, 85

Pairing, 84

Pallas's Pit-Viper, 262

Parasites, 107

_Pelias berus_, 221

_Pelias dorsalis_, 234

Pelvic arch, 52

_persa_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 154

_persicus_ (_Zamenis gemonensis_, var.), 172

_picturatus_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 155

Pit-Vipers, 75, 262

Poison apparatus, 62

Poison fangs, 55, 62

Poison glands, 62

Poisons, 66

_prester_ (_Vipera_), 235

_Proteroglypha_, 4, 151

Protozoa, 112

_pseudaspis_ (_Vipera berus_, var.), 236

Pupil, 12

_Pythoninæ_, 4

_quadrilineatus_ (_Coluber_), 191

_quatuorradiatus_ (_Coluber_), 182

_quatuorlineatus_ (_Coluber_), 182

Rattle, 20

Rattlesnakes, 20, 103

Rattling, 103

Reflex movements, 106

Relation to man, 133

Renard's Viper, 227

_renardi_ (_Vipera_), 227

Replacement teeth, 55

Reproduction, 82

Reptation, 93

_Reptilia_, 1

_Rhiptoglossa_, 1

_riccioli_ (_Coluber_), 202

Ring-Snake, 152

_romanus_ (_Coluber longissimus_, var.), 188

_rubens_ (_Coluber_), 204

_rubro-maculosus_ (_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, var.), 162

Rustling, 102

Sand-Boa, 147

Sand-Snakes, 91

Sand-Viper, 249

_sardus_ (_Zamenis_), 172

_sauromates_ (_Coluber_), 183

_scalaris_ (_Coluber_), 194

_scalaris_ (_Coronella austriaca_, var.), 199

Scales, 14

_schwoederi_ (_Coluber leopardinus_, var.), 193

_scutatus_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 155

_semimaculata_ (_Contia modesta_, var.), 207

Sense organs, 73

_seoanei_ (_Vipera berus_, var.), 235

Serotherapy, 66, 134

Serum treatment, 67

Shedding of the epidermis, 20

Shields, 14

Sixth sense, 75

Skeleton, 40

Skull, 40

Smallest Snakes, 21

Smooth Snake, 197

Snake-charmers, 139

Snake-stones, 141

Snake swallowing her young, 88

Snake-worship, 139

Snout, 12

Solenoglyphs, 56

Southern Smooth Snake, 202

_Squamata_, 1

_steindachneri_ (_Vipera ammodytes_, var.), 252

Stomach, 79

Subcaudal shields, 15

_subfasciatus_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 155

_subgriseus_ (_Coluber longissimus_, var.), 189

_Symoliophis_, 7

Syncranterians, 58

Tail, 9

_Tarbophis_, 216

_Tarbophis fallax_, 217

_Tarbophis iberus_, 219

Teeth, 53

Tessellated Water-Snake, 160

_tessellatus_ (_Tropidonotus_), 160

Thymus gland, 78

Ticks, 108

Tongue, 74

Tongue-worms, 108

_torquatus_ (_Coluber_), 152

_trabalis_ (_Zamenis gemonensis_, var.), 172

Trachea, 78

_transcaucasiana_ (_Vipera ammodytes_, var.), 256

Tree-Snakes, 36, 92, 94

Trematoda, 112

_Tropidonotus_, 152

_Tropidonotus chersoides_, 167

_Tropidonotus natrix_, 152

_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, 160

_Tropidonotus viperinus_, 165

_Typhlopidæ_, 4, 143

_Typhlops_, 144

_Typhlops vermicularis_, 144

Ureters, 81

_Uropeltidæ_, 5

Urosteges, 15

_ursinii_ (_Vipera_), 221

Veins, 77

_veithi_ (_Coronella austriaca_, var.), 199

Ventral shields, 15

_vermicularis_ (_Typhlops_), 144

Vertebræ, 50

Vertebral column, 50

_Vipera_, 221

_Vipera ammodytes_, 249

_Vipera aspis_, 239

_Vipera berus_, 230

_Vipera latastii_, 247

_Vipera lebetina_, 257

_Vipera macrops_, 224

_Vipera prester_, 235

_Vipera renardi_, 227

_Vipera ursinii_, 221

_Viperidæ_, 5, 220

_Viperinæ_, 5, 220

Viperine Water-Snake, 165

_viperinus_ (_Tropidonotus_), 165

_viridiflavus_ (_Coluber_), 170

Viscera, 77

_vivax_ (_Ailurophis_), 217

_vosseleri_ (_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, var.), 162

_vulgaris_ (_Natrix_), 152

Warning coloration, 35, 36

Water-Snakes, 92, 94, 160

Whip-Snake, 170

Worms, 110

_Xenopeltidæ_, 5

_Zamenis_, 170

_Zamenis carbonarius_, 172

_Zamenis dahlii_, 177

_Zamenis gemonensis_, 170

_Zamenis hippocrepis_, 179

_Zamenis sardus_, 172

Zoogeographical Regions, 119

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Footnote A:

For a key to the identification of the species, see above, p. 22.

Footnote B:

The only specimen with twenty-one rows I have examined is a male from
Albano, near Rome (Genoa Museum).