Chapter III: Part 3

The long [ɔ] in _law_, _laud_, _lord_ is rather tensely articulated, certainly not so laxly as the short [ɔ].[49] Before voiceless sounds the vowel is somewhat shortened, as in _short_ (compare _shawl_ and _shot_). It is in standard English the only sound of stressed _or_ (or _oar_) before a consonant;[50] there is no difference in sound between _laud_ and _lord_, _fought_ and _fort_, _stalk_ and _stork_, _cawed_ and _cord_. It is true that some speakers try to make a distinction. The long [ɔː] is not a simple long vowel, but really a diphthong of which the second element is [ə][51]; and in words containing a written _r_, these precise speakers somewhat lengthen the [ə] element. Thus they will say [lɔːᵊd] for _laud_, and [lɔːəd] for _lord_. It may be added that they generally do so only if the distinction has been spoken about, and they have expressed their firm belief in its existence; then, for a while, the [ɔːə] may be heard. A simple test, which the student should apply to his friends, is that of asking them to write down the word he utters. If he says [fɔːt], meaning _fought_, most people will write down _fort_, because the sound gives them no guidance, and the substantive is likely to occur to them first. Similarly, if he says [lɔːd], meaning _laud_, they will write down _lord_.[52]

The word _lore_, which hardly occurs in ordinary speech, is often pronounced [lɔːə] in order to distinguish it from _law_, the [ə] sound being much more distinct than in _law_, _more_, _bore_, etc. Consider the value of _-ore-_ in _more water_, and in _more ink_.

* * * * *

There is much variation in the pronunciation of the words _daunt_, _flaunt_, _gaunt_, _gauntlet_, _haunch_, _haunt_, _jaundice_, _jaunt_, _launch_, _laundry_, _paunch_, _saunter_, _staunch_, _taunt_, _vaunt_. The general tendency seems to be in favour of [ɔː], not [ɑː].

* * * * *

When unstressed, the sound is often shortened to [ɔ] or [ö][53]; thus _autumnal_ becomes [ɔ´tʌmnəl] or [ö´tʌmnəl]; _or_ when stressed is [ɔː], unstressed [ɔ] or [ö] or [ə].

* * * * *

A variety of the open [ɔ], not equally open in all speakers of standard English, is the first element in the diphthong found in _boy_ [bɔi]. The pronunciation [böi[53]] is also heard.

In vulgar speech [ɔi] sometimes becomes [ɑi]; thus _boil_ is pronounced [bɑil]. Only in _choir_ (also written _quire_) is this pronunciation current in good speech.

=44.= Utter the sound usually called "long _o_" and found in _bode_, _boat_, etc,; you will observe that the sound is not uniform, as the tongue rises a little before the consonant is reached.[54] Indeed the action of the tongue is quite similar to what we noticed in the case of [ei] in § 41; and also to [iːj] or [Iːi] in § 42, where, however, it is less obvious to the ear. The diphthongal character of the "long _o_" is so essential, that when a stranger merely says [oːnoː] for _oh no!_ we at once recognise that he is not English.

The first element of this diphthong is a middle [_o_], sometimes a fairly close [o]; in standard English the [o] is never so close as in French [o] or in German [ɔː].[55] (Watch foreigners when they utter these sounds; notice how tensely they articulate, and how much more they round their lips than we do.) In cockney speech the first element is pronounced with the tongue lower and raised in front.--The second is a _u_ sound; place a finger against the interval between the upper and lower teeth, and notice how they are brought a little closer towards the end of the diphthong. Observe also the action of the lips. The diphthong is longer before voiced than before voiceless continuants; verify this statement by saying, or getting others to say, _bode_ and _boat_, _goad_ and _goat_, _robe_ and _rope_, _brogue_ and _broke_.

In syllables that are weakly stressed, the first part of the diphthong becomes [_o_], [ö][56] or even [ə], the second part disappearing altogether. Thus _fellow_ is in precise speech [feloːu], but in ordinary speech [fel_o_, felö], and in careless (but not necessarily vulgar) speech [felə].[57] In "ladies' speech" the [öü] occurs even in stressed syllables, and may then be confidently described as a sign of affectation.

The prefix _pro-_, when stressed, is generally pronounced [prou]. In _process_ and _progress_ [prɔ] is sometimes heard; in the substantives _project_ and _produce_ it is the rule.

=45.= The _u_ sounds are clearly parallel to the _i_ sounds. In both cases we have a laxly articulated short sound, and a diphthong in which the tongue rises towards the end.

* * * * *

The short sound in _would_, _book_, etc., is open, and the sign for it is [ᴜ]. Do you notice any difference in the length of the vowel sound in the words _should_ and _put_, _pull_ and _cook_? Observe others, if you are uncertain in your own case. (You will sometimes find it hard to determine what is your natural, instinctive way of pronouncing a word, when once you have grown accustomed to watching your own speech.)

When this [ᴜ] is unstressed it becomes [ü][58] or [ə], or is dropped altogether. Thus _helpful_ becomes [helpfül, helpfəl], and _should_ becomes [ʃüd, ʃəd, ʃd, ʃt].

* * * * *

The vowel sound in _who_ is not uniform. (See what was said about the corresponding _i_ sound in § 42). It may begin as close [u][59], in which case the further rising towards the end reduces the passage so much that we have [w]; _who_ in this case is [huːw]. Or the vowel may begin fairly open and rise to the close position; then _who_ is [hUːu]. When the diphthong is followed by a voiceless sound, it is somewhat shortened; _hoot_ is [huwt] or [hᴜut]; compare _root_ with _rude_. A half-long vowel is now generally heard in _room_; some speakers make it quite short.

In unstressed syllables the first element is shortened and often becomes [ü]; thus _July_ is [dʒüw´lai].

Before [ə] the diphthong loses its second element; _cruel_ is [kruəl]. When the [ə] represents a written _r_, the first element often changes to a vowel with lower tongue position. Thus _poor_ is pronounced [pᴜə, poə], and some educated speakers of southern English even say [pɔː], riming with _door_, _floor_; but this can hardly be considered standard English. Notice also the various pronunciations of _your_, _sure_. Before spoken [r], as in _poorest_, _enduring_, the [ə] becomes very faint or disappears.

* * * * *

The so-called "long u" in such words as _due_, _dew_, _dude_ consists of three parts. The second and third are the vowel sounds in _do_, which have just been discussed; the first is [j], which after voiceless sounds tends to become the voiceless [ç] and even [ʃ], as was mentioned in § 34. Thus _tune_ is in ordinary speech [tjuwn], and often [tçuwn]; in careless speech it may even become [tʃuwn].

The _-ture_ in _nature_, _creature_, _forfeiture_, etc., is generally pronounced [tʃə][60]; the pronunciation [tjə] or [tjü] sounds affected in ordinary speech. _Venture_ is usually [ventʃə], sometimes [venʃə], [ventjə], or [ventjü]. _Censure_ is always [senʃə].

In _allude_, *_allusion_, _lute_, _lucent_, _luminous_, *_flute_, _salute_,*_absolute_, *_absolution_, _dissolute_, *_dissolution_, *_superstition_, *_Susan_ both [uw] and [juw] may be heard; [uw] is probably more common in the words marked with an asterisk. Precise speakers prefer [juw] in all the words given. In _assume_, _presume_ [juw] is regularly heard. As a rule [j] is not inserted after [r], [ʃ], [ʒ], or consonant plus [l].

Notice the pronunciation of _casual_ [kæʒuəl] or [kæʒwəl], _sensual_ [senʃuəl], _usual_ [juwʒuəl] or [juwʒəl], _visual_ [vizjuəl]. _Educate_ is [edjukeit] or [edʒukeit]; careful speakers prefer the former.

As the "long _u_" begins with a consonantal sound it is correct to say _a uniform_, _a university_, _a union_, _a European_, _a eulogy_. To write _an_ before such words is a gross mistake.

We find the [u] element changed in unstressed syllables; thus _value_ becomes [væljü], _regular_ becomes [regjülə, regjələ], and, very colloquially, [reglə].

* * * * *

We are now able to give the whole series of vowels from [u] to [ɑ] occurring in standard English:

ü close u (diagram, p. 124)
/
open ᴜ
/
close o (diagram, p. 124)
/
ö middle _o_
/
open ɔ (diagram, p. 125)
/
dark ɑ

Practise this series, as was suggested in § 42, in connection with the [i] to [ɑ] series.

FOOTNOTES:

[14] For the sake of convenience the nasal sounds, in producing which the breath does not also pass out through the mouth, _i.e._ which are not nasal vowels (see § 8), are included under "stops."

[15] Sounds in phonetic transcript are enclosed in square brackets.

[16] Also called labial.

[17] Also called dental.

[18] Also called palatal.

[19] Also called velar (from velum, for which see § 8) and more usually, but less accurately, guttural.

[20] An oral stop followed by [h] is called an aspirate. Aspirates are common in German, but practically unknown in standard French.

[21] Examples in the conventional spelling are printed in _italics_.

[22] _i.e._ at the end of a word, before a pause.

[23] When the aspiration is strongly marked, it forms a characteristic of the speech of the lower middle class in London and some home counties.

[24] The point stops are also called teeth or dental stops.

[25] On the other hand, in Somerset _clean, clod_ are sometimes pronounced with [tl-].

[26] See footnote 8 on page 29.

[27] See footnote 8 on page 29.

[28] In standard English; in certain dialects the ending-_ing_ is always pronounced [iŋg].

[29] The educated commonly say [buloun]; [bulɔin] is also heard.

[30] The hushing and hissing sounds are also called sibilants.

[31] See also § 45.

[32] Some speakers say [ə´souʃieit] but [ə´sousieiʃən], [i´nʌnʃieit] but [i´nʌnsieiʃən].

[33] In a great many cases lisping is due to an over-long tongue; or the tongue may be "tied," in which case the ligature is easily cut.

[34] The back of the tongue may also be raised to some extent; how does this explain the substitution of [w] for [r] which is sometimes heard?

[35] The rule may also be stated thus: _r_ is only heard when a vowel follows in the same or the next word. "Vowel" must here be taken to include [j].

[36] The term "dark" here implies a deep and obscure resonance, with little friction.

[37] Contrast the [l] of _will_ and _willing_ (where its position between front vowels leads to forward formation).

[38] Some pronounce this word [sælv].

[39] Some pronounce this word [fɔlkən].

[40] These are modifications of the Scotch form of the word.

[41] [h] is described as voiceless; but it may also be produced with voice. We have seen that the vocal chords consist of a fleshy and a cartilaginous part: it is possible to let the former vibrate, while the latter is left open, and the breath passing through produces [h]. Try to utter this sound.

[42] The "neutral" vowel [ə], for which see § 38, requires less effort.

[43] Notice the faulty tendency to raise the tongue too high in uttering the first part of this diphthong; see § 40.

[44] However, there is a pronunciation of _are_, intermediate between the emphatic [ɑː] and the unstressed [ə], which may be described as short [ɑ]. The _a_ in the unstressed prefix _trans-_, and the second _a_ of _advantageous_ also have the sound of [ɑ] sometimes.

[45] Especially when it is final.

[46] Many cultivated people pronounce _girl_ as [gɛəl]; but [gəːl] is to be preferred. _Clerk_, _sergeant_ have [ɑː], not [əː]; also _Derby_, _Berkshire_, _Hertfordshire_.

[47] It is heard on the stage and in public speaking generally; in ordinary conversation it suggests the speech of a foreigner, especially if the [ɑ] element of the diphthong is lengthened.

[48] The first part is still more open in a common vulgar pronunciation of _tea_, _please_.

[49] For [ɔː] see the diagram on p. 125.

[50] Exceptions are _borrow_, etc., _work_, _attorney_, etc.

[51] To pronounce this [ə] distinctly in such words as _law_, _saw_ is a mistake.

[52] It is absurd to speak of _fort_ and _caught_, _morn_ and _dawn_ as "cockney" rimes; they are perfectly good rimes in standard English; and a southern Englishman only shows ignorance by speaking of them as bad. Considering, however, that standard English is by no means universal, the would-be poet is advised to avoid these rimes.

[53] For [ö] see the note on p. 68.

[54] In the case of this diphthong as well as in that in _name_, _pail_, etc. (see § 41), untrained singers usually betray themselves by passing too soon to the second part of the diphthong.

[55] For [o] see the diagram on p. 124.

[56] [ö] is [o] pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more forward than usual. To the ear it gives an effect like that of French _eu_ or German _ö_; but for these sounds the lips are rounded.

[57] The pronunciations [wində, pilə] for _window_, _pillow_ are, however, avoided by educated speakers.

[58] [ü] is [u] pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more forward than usual. To the ear it gives an effect like that of French _u_ or German _ü_; but for these sounds the lips are rounded.

[59] For [u] see the diagram on p. 124.

[60] See also § 29.

THE SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH

=46.= Let us take a familiar nursery rime as an example of simple conversational English; it will serve to give us some idea of the problems which have to be considered when we deal with the sounds of connected speech. This is the rime:

siŋ ə sɔŋ əv sikspəns | ə pɔkit ful əv rai | fɔːr ən tʍ_e_nti blækbəːdzz̥ | beikt in ə pai | w_e_n ðə pai wəz oŭpnd | ðə bəːdzz̥ bi´gæn tə siŋ | wɔzn̩(t) ðæt ə deinti diʃ | tə s_e_t bi´fɔː ðə kiŋ.

=47.= Pedantically precise speech is as much out of place in the nursery as vulgar speech; therefore we do not say, siŋ eĭ sɔŋ ɔv siksp_e_ns.

Notice that the following words have =strong and weak forms=, a weak form being regularly used when they are not stressed:--

_weak_ _strong_
a, an ə, ən ei, æn
the ðə (before consonants) ðij
ði (before vowels)
has həz,[61] əz, z hæz
have həv,[61] əv, v hæv
had həd,[61] əd, d hæd
is iz, z, s iˑz
are ɑ(r), ə(r) ɑːə, ɑːr
was wəz wɔz
were wə(r) wəː(r), wɛːə(r)
can kən, kn̩ kæn
shall ʃəl, əl, l ʃæl
will əl, l wil
could kəd kud
should ʃəd, ʃd, ʃt, d ʃud
would wəd, əd, d wud
he hi,[62] i hij
she ʃi ʃij
her hə(r),[62] ə(r) həː(r)
him ɪm him
his ɪz hiz
we wi wij
us əs ʌs
you ju, jə juw
them ðəm, (əm) ðem
your jü(r), jɔ(r), jə(r) juːə(r)
of əv ɔv
from frəm, frm̩ frɔm
to tə (before consonants) tu
and ənd, n̩d, ɔn, n̩ ænd
or ɔ(r), ə(r) ɔː(r)

The use of strong forms for weak ones in ordinary conversation is undoubtedly a fault, and should be avoided; much of the unnatural reading aloud in our schools is due to this cause. Foreigners who have lived long in England often fail in this respect when they have overcome almost all other difficulties. It is also not uncommon in the speech of colonials.

* * * * *

Notice [p_e_ns], but [sikspəns].

A word which forms the second part of a compound often changes in pronunciation, a weaker form being substituted. Compare _penny_ and _halfpenny_, _board_ and _cupboard_, _come_ and _welcome_, _day_ and _yesterday_, _ways_ and _always_, _fast_ and _breakfast_, _mouth_ and _Portsmouth_, _land_ and _England_, _ford_ and _Oxford_.

The first letter of the second part is sometimes dropped; thus the _w_ in _housewife_ (case for needles, etc.) [hʌzif], _Greenwich_, _Harwich_, _Woolwich_, _Norwich_, _Keswick_, _Warwick_ is no longer pronounced, nor the _h_ in _shepherd_, _forehead_, _Clapham_, _Sydenham_, and in many words beginning with _ex-_, e.g., _exhale_,[63] _exhaust_, _exhibit_, _exhilarate_, _exhort_. The dropping of _h_ in _neighbourhood_ is vulgar.

Sometimes there is a change in the first part of a compound word. Compare _half_ and _halfpenny_, _three_ and _threepence_, _fore_ and _forehead_, _break_ and _breakfast_.

The stress of compounds like _sixpence_ is discussed below ("blackbirds").

=48.= In _pocket_ the second vowel is not middle [_e_], but a very laxly articulated variety of [ɪ], with the tongue only a little higher than for close [e]; see § 38. In the speech of elocutionists the middle [_e_] often appears here. They tell of the [gaːəd_e_n ɔv ijd_e_n], just as they succeed in pronouncing [d_e_vɪl] instead of [d_e_vəl], thus avoiding all offence; for [d_e_vəl] is said by common people, but [d_e_vɪl] only by the polite.

* * * * *

Notice that in _four-and-twenty_ the _r_ is pronounced, as it comes between vowels; but it is mute in _before the King_, where it comes before a consonant, as in the word _forth_. See § 32.

=49.= In _and_ the _d_ is dropped. Here it might be a case of assimilation; that is to say the _t_ which immediately follows, and which is closely akin to it, might have changed it to [t], and the two would have fallen together.

In _sit down_, do you utter both [t] and [d]? If you speak naturally, you probably say [sidaun] or [sitaun]. What is your pronunciation of _hold tight_, _less zeal_?

In _cupboard_ none but the absurdly precise pronounce the [p].

* * * * *

Assimilation of consonants is common in English, and the more colloquial the speech is, the more assimilation you are likely to find. Assimilation reduces the number of movements which have to be made, and thus represents a saving of trouble; and in colloquial speech we incline to take as little trouble as possible.

The general rule is, that when two sounds come together, those movements of articulation which are common to both are executed once only. Thus in _don't_,[64] the stopping of the passage for [n] also does duty for [t]; it is the opening of the passage which constitutes the [t]. In _stamp_ the closure for [m] also does duty for [p]. In _witness_ the closure for [t] remains for [n], which merely requires the opening of the nose-passage and vibration of the vocal chords.

Utter the word _clean_, and observe whether you produce the [k] in the same way as in _keen_; probably you will find that for the [k] of _clean_ you open the closure only at the sides, leaving the centre of the tongue in contact, ready for the production of [l]. See whether anything similar happens when you say the word _atlas_.

Sometimes a voiced sound makes a neighbouring sound voiced, or a voiceless sound makes a neighbouring sound voiceless. Examples in the nursery rime are [bəːdzz̥] and [beikt]; find similar examples of the _s_ of the plural[65] and the _ed_ of the past participle, and determine in each case whether the final sound is voiced or voiceless. Try to find pairs like _lagged_ and _lacked_, _bids_ and _bits_.

Utter the words _apt_, _act_, and notice carefully when you make the closure for [t]; probably it is earlier than you would have thought. Do you make the [n] closure in _open_ before or after the [p] opening?

In compound words, and in neighbouring words which belong closely together, assimilation is common. When one word ends in a voiceless sound and the other begins with a voiced sound, or _vice versa_, it is usually the second which prevails. Observe _cupboard_ [kʌbəd], _raspberry_ [rɑːzbəri], _blackguard_ [blægɑːd], _bedtime_ [betaim], _hold tight_ [houltait].

Consider the pronunciation of _observe_, _obstacle_, _gooseberry_, _absolve_, _absolute_.

In careless speech [hɔːʃu] is heard for [hɔːsʃu], [lædbru grouv] does duty for _Ladbroke Grove_, and [həsijn] for _has seen_. _Is she_ is regularly pronounced [iʒ ʃi], or [iʃi] in quick conversation.

The nasals frequently change to suit the place of articulation of the _following_ sound, as in _congress_ [kɔŋres], _congregation_ [kɔŋri´geiʃən], _anchor_, _concave_, _conclusion_, _concourse_, _concrete_, _syncope_, _tranquil_, _unctuous_, _pincushion_ [piŋkuʃən], _infamous_ [imfəməs], _Holland Park_ [hɔləmpɑːk]; or of the _preceding_ sound, as in _second single_ [sekŋsiŋgəl], _captain_ [kæpm̩], _open the door_ [oupm̩ ðə dɔː], _cup and saucer_ [kʌpm̩sɔːsə]. The examples from _pincushion_ onwards occur only in distinctly careless speech.

The change of [s] to [z] in _house_, _houses_ [haus, hauziz], shows a different kind of assimilation.

=50.= The dropping of _d_ in _four-and-twenty_ might also be due to the desire to =simplify a group of consonants=; and this will seem the more likely explanation if we notice that the _d_ of _and_ is generally dropped before a consonant, but kept before a vowel. Compare _you and Ida_, _bread and butter_; if you drop the _d_ in the first instance, or utter it in the second, you are equally wrong. Such simplifying is fairly common in educated speech; most people drop the _t_ in _often_, and the _p_ in _empty_ (where it has no etymological justification), and _jumped_; in colloquial speech _don't know_ is [dʌnou]. In quite careless speech you may notice consonants dropped in such words as _acts_, _insects_, but this is clearly a licence which cannot be permitted in the class-room. Indeed these groups of consonants should be articulated with great care. Nothing so quickly gives an effect of slovenly speech as the slurring of consonants, where it is not generally adopted.

* * * * *

In ordinary speech numerous instances occur of this tendency to simplify groups of consonants, _d_ and _t_ being the sounds most frequently dropped.

_d_ is not pronounced in _handkerchief_ [hæŋkətʃif], _handsome_
[hænsəm], _Windsor_ [winzə], _Guildford_ [gilfəˑd], _Ingoldsby_
[iŋgəlzbi], _Wednesday_ [wenzdi].[66]

The _d_ in _friends_, _grandfather_ is also often dropped;
and, in very careless speech, the _d_ of such words as _old_,
_cold_, _child_, _thousand_, _kindness_, _landlord_.

_t_ is not pronounced in _christen_ [krisən], _glisten_
[glisən], _hasten_ [heisən], _listen_ [lisən], _moisten_
[mɔisən], _apostle_ [ə´pɔsəl], _bustle_ [bʌsəl], _castle_
[kɑːsəl], _epistle_ [i´pisəl], _gristle_ [grisəl], _hustle_
[hʌsəl], _ostler_ [ɔslə], _pestle_ [pesəl], _rustle_ [rʌsəl],
_thistle_ [θisəl], _trestle_ [tresəl], _whistle_ [wisəl],
_wrestle_ [resəl], *_Westbourne_ [wesbən], *_Westminster_
[wesminstə], _Christmas_ [krisməs], _chestnut_ [tʃesnət],
_coastguard_ [kousgɑːd], _often_ [ɔːfən], _soften_ [sɔːfən],
_mortgage_ [mɔːgidʒ], *_directly_ [di´rekli], *_exactly_
[i´gzækli], _postpone_ [pous´poun], _waistcoat_ [weiskət,
weskət], _bankruptcy_ [bæŋkrəpsi].

In very careless speech the _t_ of such words as _slept_,
_swept_, _wept_ is dropped; also in _acts_, _facts_, _insects_,
_sects_.

Notice the French _rosbif_, _bifteck_.

_th_ is not pronounced in _asthma_ [æsmə], _isthmus_ [isməs]
and (carelessly) in _depths_.

_p_ is not pronounced in _empty_ [emti], _jumped_ [dʒʌmt],
_tempt_ [temt], _attempt_ [ə´temt], _contempt_ [kən´temt],
_peremptory_ [pər´emtəri], _symptom_ [simtəm],[67] _sapphire_
[sæfaiə], _Sappho_ [sæfou].

_c_ is not pronounced in _corpuscle_ [kɔː´pʌsəl], _muscle_
[mʌsəl], _victuals_ [vitl̩z], _indict_ [in´dait].[68]

So many educated speakers say [ɑːst] for _asked_, that this pronunciation must be regarded as no longer incorrect.

What is the usual pronunciation of _next station_?

In careful speech the simplifications marked with an asterisk are avoided, as also such pronunciations as [ail dʒʌssij] for _I'll just see_, [difikl̩ kwestʃn̩z] for _difficult questions_. The omission of [k] in the pronunciation of _arctic_ and _antarctic_ and of [g] in _recognise_ is generally regarded as faulty.

* * * * *

Unfamiliar groups of consonants at the beginning of words are simplified by dropping the first sound; notice the simplification of

_bd_ in _bdellium_;
_chth_ in _chthonian_;
_gn_ in _gnaw_, _gneiss_, _gnome_, _gnostic_;
_gz (x)_ in _Xerxes_ [zəːksijz], _Xenophon_;
_kn_ in _knee_, _knit_, _know_, etc.;
_mn_ in _mnemonic_;
_phth_ in _phthisis_ [θaisis], also [taisis];
_pn_ in _pneumatic_, _pneumonia_;
_ps_ in _psalm_, _pseudo-_, _Psyche_, _psychic_ [saikik],
_psychology_, etc.;
_pt_ in _ptarmigan_, _Ptolemy_;
_sw_ becomes _s_ in _sword_ (observe also _answer_);
_wr_ in _wreck_, _write_, etc.

Similarly, an unfamiliar group at the end of a word is simplified, usually by dropping the last sound; notice--

_ln_ in _kiln_ (some do not drop this _n_);
_mb_ in _bomb_, _catacomb_, _climb_, _comb_, _dumb_, _hecatomb_,
_lamb_, _limb_, _plumber_, _succumb_, _tomb_;
_mn_ in _autumn_, _column_, _condemn_, _contemn_, _hymn_,
_limn_, _solemn_.

(The opposite tendency is found in vulgar speech, where [vɑːmint] is said for _vermin_, [draund] for _drown_.)

* * * * *

Observe _drachm_ [dræm], _yacht_ [jɔt], _impugn_ [im´pjuwn], _physiognomy_ [fizi´ɔnəmi], _diaphragm_ [daiəfræm], _paradigm_ [pærədaim], _phlegm_ [flem], _sign_ [sain], _feign_, _reign_, _foreign_, _benign_.

=51.= In [rai] we have a diphthong. It is worth noting that the English diphthongs [ai, au, ɔi, ei, ou], etc., all have the =stress= on the former element.

* * * * *

_Blackbirds_ and _black birds_: in the spelling we distinguish these by writing the first as one word, the second as two. What difference is there in the sounds? If you listen carefully, you will find that the second vowel in the compound word is just a little shorter than in _birds_ standing alone, and that in _blackbirds_ the opening of the closure for [k] is not heard, while in _black birds_ it may be audible. The chief difference, however, lies in the =stress of the compound word=. _Blackbirds_ is an example of descending stress [>], _black birds_ is pronounced with level stress [=], perhaps with ascending stress [<].

Take the following compound words or groups, and classify them according to their stress:--

_Sixpence_, _rainbow_, _good morning_, _looking glass_, _moonshine_, _bravo!_, _twenty-four_, _twenty-four men_, _High Street_, _London Road_, _waterspout_, _right of way_, _undo_, _Mr Jones_, _Park Lane_, _season ticket_, _sunflower_, _Hongkong_, _steel pen_, _Chinese_, _hallo!_ _bill of fare_, _earthquake_, _sea wall_, _Bond Street_, _Grosvenor Square_, _fourteen_, _Hyde Park_.

Try to deduce some rules from these examples. It has been said that level stress contrasts, and uneven stress unites the ideas expressed by the compound words; do you agree with this?

Notice what difficulty our level stress gives to the German; he will utter _steel pen_, _Hyde Park_, etc., with descending stress. Do so yourself, and observe how strange it sounds.

Notice the difference in stress of

Substantive or Adjective Verb
_absent_ _to absent_
_accent_ _to accent_
_consort_ _to consort_
_converse_ _to converse_
_desert_ _to desert_
_prefix_ _to prefix_
_present_ _to present_

Substantive Verb
_proceeds_ _to proceed_
_produce_ _to produce_
_project_ _to project_
_protest_ _to protest_
_rebel_ _to rebel_
_record_ _to record_
_refuse_ _to refuse_

Substantive Adjective
_compact_ _compact_
_instinct_ _instinct_
_minute_ _minute_

Some words of two syllables have the stress on the first or the second syllable according to their place in the sentence. Consider the accent of the italicised words in the following sentences: They sat _outside_. An _outside_ passenger. Among the _Chinese_. A _Chinese_ lantern. His age is _fifteen_. I have _fifteen_ shillings. Some fell by the _wayside_. A _wayside_ inn. Try to find a rule governing these cases.

The stresses in a sentence are considered in § 54.

* * * * *

_When_ would be pronounced as voiceless [ʍ] by some, hardly by a southern English nurse saying the rime (§ 46). Notice how the tongue moves forward as the [n] passes over into the [ð] in _when the_.

_Was_ is in the weak form because it is quite unstressed; but notice: [wɛːə ju riːəli ðɛːə? j_e_s, ai wɔz].

=52.= In _opened_, observe carefully how the consonants are articulated, and put their action down in writing.

How many syllables are there in _opened_, _bubbles_, _chasms_, _mittens_?

Probably you have no difficulty in understanding and answering this question, but if asked to describe =a syllable= you might hesitate, for it is not easy.

Utter [ɑ] and then [t]; which carries farther, which has greater fulness of sound or sonority? If you wished to attract the attention of some one, and were only allowed to utter one of these two sounds, you would prefer [ɑ] without hesitation. Why is [ɑ] more sonorous than [t]? Because, whereas [t] is only a brief noise, in [ɑ] the current of breath is rendered musical by the vibration of the vocal chords, and has a free passage through the wide open mouth. Indeed [ɑ] is the most sonorous of all sounds. It is clear that voiced sounds are more sonorous than voiceless, vowels than consonants, continuants than stops. The liquids and nasals stand between vowels and consonants in point of sonority; they are voiced and with either a fair passage through the mouth or a free passage through the nose. A good deal naturally depends on the force and the pitch of the sounds; a whispered [ɑ] may not carry so far as a forcible [s].

Now if a sound with good carrying power has for its neighbours sounds that do not carry far, it helps them to be heard; notice how such weakly sonorous sounds as [t] or [p] occurring in the words of a song are quite clearly heard at the other end of a large concert hall. They are carried along by the full sounding vowels, as the greater volume of air employed causes more pressure, and hence a more forcible and louder release. It is the sounds of greater sonority that carry the syllable, which term is also applied to a vowel standing alone, or beside other vowels of practically equal sonority. In English, the syllable is generally carried by vowels; sometimes also by liquids and nasals, which are then called =syllabic=.[69]

Rules for dividing words into syllables are given in most grammars, and are required for writing and printing; but they do not always represent the actual state of things. When a consonant comes between two vowels, it really belongs to both syllables. In _leaving_ we pronounce neither _lea-ving_ nor _leav-ing_.

From the phonetic point of view we may think of words and groups of words as consisting of a series of sounds of varying sonority. We may indicate the sonority very roughly by lines; if we connect their top ends, we shall obtain a curve. Thus the word _sonority_ might be represented as follows (no attempt is here made at scientific accuracy).

The curves will represent a series of waves; and each of these waves is a syllable.

* * * * *

_Began_: notice the quality of the vowel in the first, unstressed syllable of this word. It is higher than any real _e_ sound, and is very laxly articulated. It occurs also in _before_, _enough_, _inquire_; find other words in which it occurs. Is it the same sound as the second vowel in _lily_?

_To sing_: read the sixth line quite naturally and see whether you say [tə] or [tu]; get friends to read it, and find out what they say.

_When you wish to ascertain how a friend pronounces some particular sound, do not tell him what this sound is, or he may pronounce it not naturally, but in what he believes, or has been told, is "the correct pronunciation."_

Try to ascertain the pronunciation of these sentences: _What are you going to do to-morrow morning?_ _I'm going to answer letters._

_Wasn't that_: _was_ is here in the strong form (§ 47); are weak forms found at the beginning of a sentence? Notice the syllabic [n]; also the simplification of the group of consonants by the omission of [t]. What is the weak form of _that_? When is it used?

The remaining words present nothing of special interest.

=53.= We may now consider the =stress of the sentence=. For this purpose it is sufficient to consider the most sonorous part of each syllable, generally speaking a vowel. We may distinguish stress and absence of stress, which we can designate by the signs / and ×; extra strong stress will be //, and secondary stress \. The first line of Sing a Song of Sixpence, will then run:--

// × / × // \

Here "sing" and "six" have the strongest stress; "song" has ordinary stress.

Secondary stress is given to that syllable of a word which is stressed, but has not the chief stress; thus the stresses in _energetic_ may be written \ × / ×.

The nursery rhyme then shows the following stresses:--

// × / × // \
× // × / × //
// × \ × // \
// \ × //
// × / × // \
× // × / × //
// × / × // × /
× // × / × //

Perhaps you do not read the poem in this way; mark the stresses for yourself, without looking at the book.

_Accept no statements without verifying them._

=53A.= It will have struck you that you have really been scanning the poem. Hitherto you may have done it by means of the signs – and ˘, taken from Latin prosody, where they stand for "long" and "short." Consider the question which of these two systems of scansion is the more accurate and the more convenient.

=53B.= It may also strike you that in reading the poem we do not make a pause at the end of each word; and of course we do not read it "all in one breath." How many breaths do you require for reading it slowly? for reading it quickly? What guides you in finding places for your pauses? Take any dozen lines of prose and read them aloud; notice where you pause for breath. The words which are read together in one breath are called a _breath group_. After considering several passages from this point of view, you will realise that good reading depends to some extent on the choice of suitable places for taking breath. Let your friends read to you, and observe how they manage their breath.

=54.= We have spoken several times of stress, and you have probably followed without difficulty. What is stress? Utter the series of sounds [´atata], then [a´tata], and [ata´ta].[70] You use more force for the stressed than for the unstressed vowels, that is to say, you put more breath into them. Place your hand close in front of your lips as you say the above sounds, and you will notice a distinct increase of breath as the stressed syllable is uttered.

We use this stress for purposes of emphasis; generally speaking, we expend more breath on those syllables of a word, or words of a sentence, which are more important for the meaning. We may say that English sentence stress is guided by logical considerations. Is this equally true of French? of German? Has anything struck you about the stress in French, or in English as spoken by a Frenchman?

=55.= Stress, due to force of breath, is not the only means of accentuation at our disposal. We can also produce various effects by changing the _pitch_ of the voice. When the pitch of a voice hardly varies at all, we consider it monotonous. Certain clergymen have acquired the habit of reading the Church service in monotone; consider whether this has any advantage or disadvantage. When there is very great and regular or monotonous variation of pitch in a voice, we call it a "sing-song."

In standard speech there is moderate variation of pitch; it becomes considerable only in dramatic and oratorical declamation, when a skilled use of pitch variations may produce a deeply moving or highly stirring effect, somewhat resembling that produced by song.

Observe the pitch changes in ordinary speech. The most obvious case is the rise of pitch in questions, in contrast with the tendency to lower the pitch in a statement. Even though we have the same order of words as in a statement, this change of pitch alone suffices to show that a question is being asked. Say: _You are going out_ and _You are going out?_ Try to say _Are you going out?_ with the same falling pitch as in _You are going out_, and observe the strange effect. Determine the changes of pitch in such questions as: _Is your brother tall or short?_ _Is your uncle's house in the town or in the country?_ Notice that joy or any great excitement leads to the use of a higher pitch than usual.

Sometimes the pitch may rise or fall, or rise and fall, or fall and rise during the utterance of a single vowel. Say _No_ in a doubtful, a questioning, a decided, and a threatening tone, and observe the pitch. If you wish to represent it roughly, you may use \ for fall in pitch, / for a rise, /\ for a rise and fall, \/ for a fall and rise.

=56.= We have devoted our attention mainly to standard English as it is spoken in ordinary life, because it is important to train the ear so that it perceives the sounds and ceases to be misled by the conventional spelling. Only when we can hear what sounds our pupils actually utter, only when we have a fair idea of the way in which they produce these sounds, are we in a position to correct what is faulty in the mother tongue, or to impart the sounds of a foreign language with any prospect of success. Hints have been given as to some of the faulty tendencies likely to be found; the teacher whose ear has been trained in the manner here suggested will be able to add to their number without difficulty, and probably with growing interest. In this respect every county presents its own problems, and many still require to be recorded; every teacher can help by contributing his own observations.

No observer can fail to be struck by the different degrees of care with which most individuals speak English under different circumstances. In their talk among themselves, children, especially young boys, are often extremely careless; at home we find various degrees of care, much depending on the example set by the parents and the influence of governesses and nurses. In talking to educated strangers, we are usually careful in our pronunciation. If we occupy a position which makes it necessary to speak to large numbers, we must be particularly careful, and that in several respects: the voice must be pleasant, carry far, and have good staying power.

=57.= A pleasant voice is to a certain degree a natural gift; it depends on the quality of the vocal chords, the shape of the roof of the mouth, and so on. Many voices are spoilt by bad habits, such as excessive nasalising, or very high pitch. The teacher of elocution often gives valuable criticism and help here. Listen attentively to any criticisms which your friends make about your voice.

The voice of a public speaker (which includes the class teacher and college lecturer no less than the clergyman, actor, or politician) must carry far. His words must penetrate to every hearer, even in a large hall. If there is any straining to catch his words, those words will not produce their best effect. _The chief requirement is not loudness, but distinctness._ He must articulate more carefully than in ordinary conversation: unstressed vowels will have greater importance and be less reduced, consonants will never be slurred over. The stressed vowels are the most important of all because they are the most sonorous sounds and help the others (see § 52); he will let the vocal chords vibrate longer for them, to reinforce their value, and he will produce them in such a way that they give their characteristic sound most clearly. For this purpose he will find it best to articulate more tensely (this applies also to the consonants) than in ordinary speech; and a distinct rounding of the lips for the back vowels will enable him to add to their value. He will prefer to keep the tongue point well forward in the mouth for [l]. This and other hints he may obtain from the teacher of elocution.

However pleasant a voice may be, and however far it may carry, it will yet be of little use if it tires soon; it must have staying power. This again is to some extent a natural gift; the throat may be constitutionally weak. Training, however, can do very much to improve the powers of endurance. Above all, good breathing is essential; hints have been given in § 4 how this may be assured, and the teacher cannot be recommended too warmly to give from 15 to 25 minutes every morning to breathing exercises; he will be amply repaid for the time spent in that way by the greater ease with which he gets through his teaching, and by the inevitable improvement in his general health. It has also been pointed out above that bad ventilation and dust are calculated to interfere with his voice. Another suggestion may be helpful: to keep the tongue as forward in the mouth as possible. The average tongue position in many southern English teachers is too far back in the mouth, and this is found to lead to serious fatigue; it may indeed be regarded as one of the main causes of "teachers' sore throat."

It is in giving advice on the management of the voice for public speaking that trustworthy teachers of elocution are most helpful. When they make dogmatic statements as to how a sound or word is or should be pronounced, their guidance is not equally satisfactory, and the student is earnestly recommended always to test their statements himself. The same request is addressed to him with regard to the present book; if it arouses interest, there is no harm if it also arouses opposition.

FOOTNOTES:

[61] These forms are found, for instance, at the beginning of questions; thus _have you been there?_ is [həv ju bijn ðɛə]. They are also found after vowels, e.g., _I had done so_, [ai həd dʌn sou].

[62] See the note on p. 72.

[63] When contrasted with _inhale_, this word is also pronounced [eksheil].

[64] The change in the quality of the vowel is interesting; possibly _don't_ preserves the old pronunciation of the vowel in _do_.

[65] Strictly speaking the _s_ of the plural was always voiced in the older language, and it is in _cats_, _tips_ that we have assimilation.

[66] The first _d_ is sometimes heard in the pronunciation of this word.

[67] It should, however, be noted that in passing from [m] to [t] there is a transitional sound or "glide" which has the value of a faint [p].

[68] The _c_ in _victuals_ and _indict_ has no etymological justification, as may be seen from the middle English spelling (_vitaille_, _endite_).

[69] For syllabic _m_ see § 22; for syllabic _n_, § 24; for syllabic _l_, § 33.

[70] The mark ´ _precedes_ the stressed syllable.

APPENDIX I

Exercises.

1. How is _-ious_ pronounced in _gracious_, _bilious_, _victorious_?

2. How is _-ion_ pronounced in _motion_, _onion_, _criterion_, _vision_, and _Ionian_?

3. How is _-ial_ pronounced in _labial_, _judicial_, _martial_, _partiality_?

4. What difference in pronunciation, if any, do you make between _hire_ and _higher_, _lyre_ and _liar_, _cure_ and _(s)kewer_, _alms_ and _arms_?

5. Consider the value of _oar_ in _roar_ and in _roaring_, and the value of _air_ in _pair_ and in _pairing_.

6. Determine the vowel sounds corresponding to the italicized letters in ch_i_ld, ch_i_ldren; wom_a_n, wom_e_n; r_ea_d (infinitive), r_ea_d (past participle); s_ay_, s_ay_s; dr_ea_m, dr_ea_med; l_ea_p, l_ea_ped; h_ea_r, h_ea_rd; c_a_n, c_a_n't; d_o_, d_o_n't; gentlem_a_n, gentlem_e_n.

7. Write in transcript the words italicized:

_a._ I have _learned_ much from this _learned_ man.

_b._ He has _aged_ a good deal. He is _aged_.

_c._ I _used_ to _use_ it; you _used_ it too.

Try to account for the pronunciation of _used_ in the sense of "was accustomed" (see § 49).

8. Transcribe your pronunciation of _halfpenny, twopence_, _threepence_. Show the difference between the English and the French pronunciation of _franc_, and between the English and the German pronunciation of _mark_.

9. A waiter was heard to remark pathetically that he never _could_ tell whether a customer wanted "cold lamb" or "cold ham." What caused his uncertainty?

10. The pronunciation of the children of Walworth attending the Church schools has given much concern to Canon Horsley, who says that in their speech "I've been to take her home" becomes "binter tiker rome," "Oh, shake hands" becomes "ow shy cans," and "I've been having a game" becomes "binnavinagime." Consider the pronunciation suggested by this rough transcription, transcribe it more carefully, and comment on such features of the Walworth dialect as it illustrates.

11. You are familiar with the term "alliteration," and know that it is a favourite device of cheap journalism. Criticise the alliteration in the following scare-lines: CITY CLERK CHASED. THIEF TAKEN. SOLICITOR SHOT.

12. Mention words in which the following letters are written but not sounded: _b_, _g_, _gh_, _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _t_, _w_.

13. Comment on the following statement: "The letters _l_ and _r_ are called trills, because there is a vibration in the sounds, or in some part of the vocal apparatus by which we pronounce them."

14. Consider this statement: "The _ai_ in _fair_, _ea_ in _lead_, _ie_ in _field_, _ei_ in _receive_, are none of them true diphthongs; they are more or less clumsy ways of showing the length of an elementary vowel-sound."

15. "English has two _e_ sounds, as in _fed_, _feed_, and four _u_ sounds, as in _but_, _pull_, _fur_, _fool_." Do you agree with this?

16. Why does _crystal_ look nicer than _kristle_, which represents the same sounds? Account for such spellings as Edythe, Smythe, Whyte.

17. Say quickly but distinctly:

She sells sea-shells in a salt-fish shop.

Is Stephen Smith's son a smith too?

How many houses had Harry Hall?

Long and loudly little Lily laughed.

The skilled dentist extracted the three teeth.

Do you want the thick thread or the thin?

In silence he sat on the sands by the silvery sea.

A boat is floating over the ocean.

With a loud shout he came out of the house.

The first question Charles asked was strange.

Three grey geese in the green grass grazing.

18. Discuss the old-fashioned form of address "mine host." Do you say "an historical novel"? "a (or an) hotel at Folkestone"? How do you pronounce "the Grand Hotel"? Transcribe your pronunciation of "I gave her her hat."

19. What is the derivation of _ventriloquist_? Does the term correctly indicate the way in which ventriloquists produce their sounds? Which sounds do you think most likely to give them difficulty?

20. In the French of the 12th century _l_ under certain circumstances became a vowel; thus _altre_ became _autre_ and _chevals_ became _chevaus_. How do you explain this change? Point to a similar change in English.

21. How would you teach a foreigner to pronounce the English _th_ sounds?

22. Little children say _pease_ for _please_, _gamma_ or _granma_ for _grandma_, _dess_ for _dress_, _tocking_ for _stocking_. Illustrate the tendency shown in these examples from the speech of grown-up people.

23. Comment on the little child's pronunciation of _tsain_ for _chain_, _fee_ for _three_, _noder_ for _another_, and _bafyoom_ for _bathroom_.

24. Consider carefully the question, why the pronunciation of a foreign language presents difficulties; draw on any foreign language you know for illustrations.

25. The Latin _camera_ is our _chamber_, _numerus_ our _number_, Latin _humilis_ our _humble_, Latin _similare_ our _(re)semble_. Account for the _b_ in the English words.

26. Consider the value of _ure_ in _sure_, _pure_, _nature_, _figure_.

27. What light is thrown on the pronunciation of the past by the following quotations:

(_a_) While he, withdrawn, at their mad labour smiles,
And safe enjoys the Sabbath of his toils. (Dryden.)

(_b_) Dreading even fools, by flatterers besieg'd,
And so obliging that he ne'er oblig'd. (Pope.)

(_c_) _Cóntemplate_ is bad enough, but _bálcony_ makes me sick.
(Rogers.)

(_d_) The dame, of manner various, temper fickle,
Now all for pleasure, now the conventicle. (Colman.)

(_e_) There is little doubt that in the pronunciation of
_successor_ the antepenultimate accent will prevail. (Walker.)

(_f_) To ketch [catch] him at a vantage in his snares.
(Spenser.)

(_g_) Yet he was kind, or, if severe in aught,
The love he bore to learning was in fault. (Goldsmith.)

28. Determine which sounds are represented by _ea_ in the following words: _bear_, _beard_, _bread_, _bead_, _yea_, _create_, _realm_, _leap_, _leapt_, _hearken_; and by _eo_ in the following words: _yeoman_, _people_, _leopard_, _re-open_.

29. Determine which sounds are represented by _oi_ in the following words: _boil_, _heroic_, _choir_, _tortoise_, _turquoise_, _coincide_; and by _ou_ in the following words: _south_, _southern_, _mourn_, _journal_, _though_, _thought_, _uncouth_.

30. Determine which sounds are represented by _g_ in the following words: _gem_, _goal_, _gaol_, _gill_, _gibberish_, _fatigue_, _gnaw_; and by _ough_ in the following words: _trough_, _through_, _thorough_, _sough_, _cough_, _rough_, _plough_, _lough_.

31. A character in one of Miss Braddon's novels says: "Supernumery--it's no use, I don't think anybody ever did know how many syllables there are in that word." What is it that leads to the shortening of this word in uneducated speech? Mention similar cases of shortening.

APPENDIX II

Lists of Words with Phonetic Transcription.

NOTE.

The accent shows that the _following_ syllable has the chief stress.

As these lists are intended for the use of English students, it has been thought sufficient to let [e] represent the first vowel sound and [i] the second vowel sound in _very_.

The variation in length of [ij] and other diphthongs and of [m, n, l], etc., has not been indicated.

Words which have occurred in the text of the book are not repeated here.

When two pronunciations are given, both may be considered as common; the first is generally to be preferred. If, however, a pronunciation is enclosed in brackets, it is to be regarded as faulty.

A. General.

abdomen, æb´doumən (´æbdomən)
ab initio, ´æb i´niʃiou, -jou
abscission, æb´siʒən
acacia, ə´keiʃə
accent (subst.), ´æksənt, ´æksent; (verb) æk´sent
acclimatize, ´æklimətaiz, ə´klaimetaiz
accolade, ´ækɔleid
accoutre, ə´kuwtə
acetic, ə´sijtik, -se-
acoustics, ə´kaustiks (ə´kuwstiks)
acrobat, ´ækrobæt
adage, ´ædidʒ
adept, ´ædept, ə´dept
adieu, ə´djuw
ad infinitum, ´æd infi´naitəm
admirable, ´ædmirəbl
admiration, ædmi´reiʃən
ad nauseam, ´æd ´nɔːsiæm, -jæm
ado, ə´duw
adult, ´ædʌlt, ə´dʌlt
ad valorem, æd və´lɔːrem
advantageous, ædvən´teidʒəs, ædvæn´teidʒəs
advertisement, əd´vəːtizmənt
aegis, ´ijdʒis
aegrotat, i´groutæt
aerated, ´ɛːəreitid
aerial, ɛ´eriəl, ɛ´iːəriəl
aerie, ´ɛːri, ´iːəri
aeronaut, ´ɛːronɔːt
aesthetics, ij´sθetiks (e´sθetiks)
a fortiori, ´ei fɔː´ʃjɔːrai
again, ə´gen, ə´gein
against, ə´genst, ə´geinst
aged (adj.), ´eidʒid
aggrandizement, ə´grændizmənt
aghast, ə´gɑːst
agile, ´ædʒail
ague, ´eigjuw
aisle, ´ail
albeit, ´ɔːlbijit
algebra, ´ældʒibrə
alibi, ´ælibai
alienate, ´eiljəneit
allegiance, ə´lijdʒəns
allegro, ə´legrou, -leig-
allot, ə´lɔt
alloy, ə´lɔi
ally, ə´lai
almanac, ´ɔːlmənæk
also, ´ɔːlsou, ´ɔlsou
always, ´ɔːlwiz, -wəz, -weiz
amateur, ´æmətəː, ´æmətʃuə
amenity, ə´meniti
among, ə´mʌŋ (ə´mɔŋ)
anæmic, ə´nijmik
anarchist, ´ænəkist
anarchy, ´ænəki, ´ænɑːki
anchovy, æn´tʃouvi
anemone, ə´neməni
angina, æn´dʒainə
anglice, ´æŋglisi
ant, ´ænt (´ɑːnt)
antipodes, æn´tipodijz
antique, æn´tijk
antithesis, æn´tiθisis
aorist, ´ɛːərist
aperture, ´æpəˑtʃə
aphasia, ə´feizjə
apophthegm, ´æpoθem
apotheosis, æpoθi´ousis, əpo-
apparatus, æpə´reitəs
apparent, ə´pɛːrənt, -pær-
a priori, ´ei pri´ɔːrai
apropos, ´æpropou
arch-, usually ɑːtʃ
archangel, ´ɑːkeindʒəl
archetype, ´ɑːkitaip
archi-, ´ɑːki-, ´ɑːkj-
archives, ´ɑːkaivz
arid, ´ærid
arras, ´ærəs
artificer, ɑː´tifisə
artiste, ´ɑːtijst, -ist
asafœtida, ´æsə´fetidə
askance, ə´skæns, -ɑːns
aspirant, ə´spairənt
assignee, æsi´nij
atoll, ´ætɔl, ə´tɔl
attorney, ə´təːni
avalanche, ´ævəlɑːnʃ
awkward, ´ɔːkwəd
awry, ə´rai
ayah, ´ajə
aye (always), ´ei
aye (yes), ´ai

baboo, ´bɑːbuw
bacillus, bə´siləs
bagatelle, ´bægətel
bakshish, ´bækʃijʃ
balcony, ´bælkəni
ballet, ´bælei
balsam, ´bɔːlsəm
basalt, ´bæsɔlt, bə´sɔːlt
bass (voice), ´beis
because, bi´kɔːz, bi´kɔz
bedizen, bi´daizən
begone, bi´gɔn
belligerent, be´lidʒərənt
betroth, bi´trouð
bicycle, ´baisikl (´bai´saikl)
bigot, ´bigət
bijou, ´bijʒuw
billet-doux, ´bilei´duw
bison, ´baisən
bitumen, ´bitjumən, bi´tjuwmən
bizarre, bi´zɑː
blancmange, blə´mɔn(d)ʒ
blithe, ´blaið
blouse, ´blauz (´bluwz)
boatswain, ´bousən
bodega, bo´dijgə
bombast, ´bɔmbæst, ´bɔmbəst
bona fide, ´bounə ´faidi
booth, ´buwð
borough, ´bʌrə (´bʌrou)
bouquet, bu´kei
bourn, ´bɔːn, ´buːən
bravado, brə´veidou, brə´vɑːdou
brazier, ´breiʒə, ´breizjə
breeches, ´britʃiz, ´brij-
brougham, ´bruːəm, ´brouəm (´broum)
brusque, ´brusk, ´brʌsk
buffet, ´bufei
bulwark, ´bulwək
bureau, ´bjuːrou, bju´rou
burgher, ´bəːgə

cabal, kə´bæl
cachet, ´kæʃei
cadi, ´keidi
caesura, si´zjuːrə
cambric, ´keimbrik
campanile, kæmpə´nijli
cañon, ´kænjən
cantata, kæn´tɑːtə
cantonment, kæn´tuwnmənt, -tɔn-
caoutchouc, ´kautʃuk
cap-à-pie, ´kæpəpij
capitalist, ´kæpitəlist
caprice, kə´prijs
capuchin, ´kæpjutʃin
carouse, kə´rauz
cashier, kə´ʃiːə
casino, kə´sijnou
cathedra, ´kæθidrə (kə´θijdrə)
cauliflower, ´kɔliflauə
celibate, ´selibət
'cello, ´tʃelou
centenary, ´sentenri, sen´tenəri
cere (-cloths, -ments), ´siːə-
chagrin, ʃə´grijn, ʃə´grin
chalybeate, kæ´libjet
chamois (leather), ´ʃæmi
chaperon, ´ʃæpəroun
charade, ʃə´rɑːd, ʃə´reid
charivari, ´ʃærij´vɑːrij
charlatan, ´ʃɑːlətən, -æn
chastisement, ´tʃæstizmənt
chauffeur, ´ʃoufə
chaunt, ´tʃɑːnt
chauvinist, ´ʃouvinist
chic, ´ʃik
chimera, kai´miərə, ki-
chiro-, ´kairo-
chivalric, ʃi´vælrik } also
chivalrous, ´ʃivəlrəs } with
chivalry, ´ʃivəlri } tʃi-
choir, ´kwaiə
choleric, ´kɔlərik
chough, ´tʃʌf
cicala, si´kɑːlə
cicerone, sisə´rouni
cinque, ´siŋk
circuit, ´səːkit
circumstance, ´səːkəmstəns
clandestine, klæn´destin
clematis, ´klemətis, (kli´meitis)
clique, ´klijk
coalesce, kouə´les
cobalt, ´koubɔlt
cochineal, ´kɔtʃinijl
cognisant, ´kɔgnisənt
coign(e), ´kɔin
coincide, kouin´said
colonel, ´kəːnəl
combat, combatant, combative have ´kʌm- or ´kɔm-
comely, ´kʌmli
commentary, ´kɔməntri
comparable, ´kɔmprəbəl
comrade, ´kʌmrid, ´kɔmrid
conch, ´kɔŋk
condign, kən´dain
condolence, kən´douləns
conger, ´kɔŋgə
congeries, kɔn´dʒeriijz, -´dʒij-
conjure (sleight of hand), ´kʌndʒə
conjure (implore), kən´dʒuːə
connoisseur, kɔni´səː, kɔni´sjuːə
consignee, kɔnsi´nij
Consols, kən´sɔlz
constable, ´kʌnstəbl, ´kɔnstəbl
construe, ´kɔnstruw, kən´struw
contagion, kən´teidʒən
contemplate, ´kɔntempleit (kən´templeit)
contemplative, kɔn´templətiv
contents, ´kɔntents, kən´tents
contumacy, ´kɔntjuməsi
contumely, kən´tjuwmili
conversazione, kɔnvəsætsi´ouni
corollary, kə´rɔləri, kɔrələri
corps, ´kɔː
coterie, ´koutərij
cotillon, ko´tiljən
counterfeit, ´kauntəfit
courteous, ´kɔːtjəs, ´kəːtjəs (´kəːtʃəs)
courtesy, ´kəːtəsi
courtier, ´kɔːtjə
covetous, ´kʌvitəs
covey, ´kʌvi
coxswain, ´kɔksən
cozen, ´kʌzən
crayon, ´krejən
croup, ´kruwp
cui bono, ´kai ´bounou
cuirass, kwi´ræs, kju-
cuisine, kwi´zijn
cuneiform, ´kjuwniifɔːm
cupola, ´kjuwpolə
cynosure, ´sainosjuə, ´sainoʃuə, ´sino-

dais, ´deis
dandelion, ´dændilaiən
debauch, di´bɔːtʃ
debonair, ´debənɛːə
debris, ´debri
decade, ´dekəd, ´dekeid
decadence, ´dekədəns
decease, di´sijs
decorous, ´dekərəs, di´kɔːrəs
dei gratia, dijai ´greiʃiei
demesne, di´mein
demise, di´maiz
demonstrate, ´demənstreit
demy (paper), di´mai
depot, ´depou (´dijpou)
derelict, ´derəlikt
desiderate, di´sidəreit
design, di´zain
designate, ´dezigneit, ´des-
desist, di´zist
desuetude, ´deswitjuwd
diæresis, dai´iːərəsis
diapason, daiə´peizən
didactic, di´dæktik
dilatory, ´dilət(ə)ri
dilettante, dili´tænti
diocese, ´daiosis
dis- (before voiced sounds), diz-; (before voiceless sounds), dis-
dishabille, ´disəbijl
disputant, ´dispjutənt
distich, ´distik
divan, di´væn (´daivən)
divers, ´daivəːs
diverse, di´vəːs
divisible, di´vizibl
docile, ´dousail, ´dɔsail
doctrinal, ´dɔktrinəl, dɔk´trainəl
doge, ´doudʒ
dolorous, ´dɔlərəs
domicile, ´dɔmisail
douche, ´duʃ, ´duwʃ
doughty, ´dauti
dramatis personæ, ´dræmətis pəː´sounij
draught, ´drɑːft
drollery, drouləri
dromedary, ´drʌmidəri
drought, ´draut (drɔːt)
dubiety, djuw´baiəti
ducat, ´dʌkət
ductile, ´dʌktail
duteous, ´djuwtjəs (´djuwtʃəs)
dynasty, ´dinəsti, ´dainəsti
dysentery, ´disəntri