Chapter I: Preface (1)

The series, of which this is the first volume, is an attempt to meet a need that has been felt for several years by parents and physicians, as well as by teachers, supervisors, and others who are actively interested in educational and social progress. The need of practical activity, which for long ages constituted the entire education of mankind, is at last recognized by the elementary school. It has been introduced in many places and already results have been attained which demonstrate that it is possible to introduce practical activity in such a way as to afford the child a sound development--physically, intellectually, and morally--and at the same time equip him for efficient social service. The question that is perplexing educators at the present time is, therefore, not one regarding the value of practical activity, but rather one of ways and means by which practical activity can be harnessed to the educational work.

The discovery of the fact that steam is a force that can do work had to await the invention of machinery by means of which to apply the new force to industrial processes. The use of practical activity will likewise necessitate many changes in the educational machinery before its richest results are realized. Yet the conditions that attend the introduction of practical activity as a motive power in education are very different from those that attended the introduction of the use of steam. In the case of steam the problem was that of applying a new force to an old work. In the case of practical activity it is a question of restoring a factor which, from the earliest times until within the last two or three decades, has operated as a permanent educational force.

The situation that has recently deprived the child of the opportunity to participate in industrial processes is due, as is well known, to the rapid development of our industrial system. Since the removal of industrial processes from the home the public has awakened to the fact that the child is being deprived of one of the most potent educational influences, and efforts have already been made to restore the educational factor that was in danger of being lost. This is the significance of the educational movement at the present time.

As long as a simple organization of society prevailed, the school was not called upon to take up the practical work; but now society has become so complex that the use of practical activity is absolutely essential. Society to-day makes a greater demand than ever before upon each and all of its members for special skill and knowledge, as well as for breadth of view. These demands can be met only by such an improvement in educational facilities as corresponds to the increase in the social demand. Evidently the school must lay hold of all of the educational forces within its reach.

In the transitional movement it is not strange that new factors are being introduced without relation to the educational process as a whole. The isolation of manual training, sewing, and cooking from the physical, natural, and social sciences is justifiable only on the ground that the means of establishing more organic relations are not yet available. To continue such isolated activities after a way is found of harnessing them to the educational work is as foolish as to allow steam to expend itself in moving a locomotive up and down the tracks without regard to the destiny of the detached train.

This series is an attempt to facilitate the transitional movement in education which is now taking place by presenting educative materials in a form sufficiently flexible to be readily adapted to the needs of the school that has not yet been equipped for manual training, as well as to the needs of the one that has long recognized practical activity as an essential factor in its work. Since the experience of the race in industrial and social processes embodies, better than any other experiences of mankind, those things which at the same time appeal to the whole nature of the child and furnish him the means of interpreting the complex processes about him, this experience has been made the groundwork of the present series.

In order to gain cumulative results of value in explaining our own institutions, the materials used have been selected from the life of Aryan peoples. That we are not yet in possession of all the facts regarding the life of the early Aryans is not considered a sufficient reason for withholding from the child those facts that we have when they can be adapted to his use. Information regarding the early stages of Aryan life is meager. Enough has been established, however, to enable us to mark out the main lines of progress through the hunting, the fishing, the pastoral, and the agricultural stages, as well as to present the chief problems that confronted man in taking the first steps in the use of metals, and in the establishment of trade. Upon these lines, marked out by the geologist, the paleontologist, the archaeologist, and the anthropologist, the first numbers of this series are based.

A generalized view of the main steps in the early progress of the race, which it is thus possible to present, is all that is required for educational ends. Were it possible to present the subject in detail, it would be tedious and unprofitable to all save the specialist. To select from the monotony of the ages that which is most vital, to so present it as to enable the child to participate in the process by which the race has advanced, is a work more in keeping with the spirit of the age. To this end the presentation of the subject is made: First, by means of questions, which serve to develop the habit of making use of experience in new situations; second, by narrative, which is employed merely as a literary device for rendering the subject more available to the child; and third, by suggestions for practical activities that may be carried out in hours of work or play, in such a way as to direct into useful channels energy which when left undirected is apt to express itself in trivial if not in anti-social forms. No part of a book is more significant to the child than the illustrations. In preparing the illustrations for this series as great pains have been taken to furnish the child with ideas that will guide him in his practical activities as to illustrate the text itself.

Mr. Howard V. Brown, the artist who executed the drawings, has been aided in his search for authentic originals by the late J. W. Powell, _director of the United States Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D.C._; by Frederick J. V. Skiff, _director of the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago_, and by the author. Ethnological collections and the best illustrative works on ethnological subjects scattered throughout the country have been carefully searched for material.

I wish to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to Professor Dewey for the suggestions he has given me with reference to this series, and to acknowledge that without the inspiration that has come through his teaching I should probably never have undertaken a work of this kind. To Dr. W. I. Thomas, _professor of sociology and anthropology in the University of Chicago_, I am indebted for suggestions upon anthropological phases of many of the subjects presented. To Dr. S. W. Williston, _professor of paleontology in the University of Chicago_, I am indebted for a careful examination of the book from the standpoint of the paleontologist. Among the many friends who have given me help and inspiration, I would mention especially, Professor Ella Flagg Young, _of the University of Chicago_; Superintendent F. A. Manny, _of the Ethical Culture Schools, New York City_; Mrs. Charlotte W. Williams, _of Chicago_; my sister, Miss Elspa M. Dopp, _of the State Normal School, St. Cloud, Minn._; and Mr. W. W. Charters, _of the University of Chicago_. To the late Director J. W. Powell, _of the United States Bureau of Ethnology_, and to Director Frederick J. V. Skiff, _of the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago_, I am under obligations for courtesies extended which have enabled me to gain access to illustrative materials.

K. E. D.

CONTENTS
Page

_Dedication_ 7
_Preface_ 8
_Contents_ 12
_Illustrations_ 13

THE TREE-DWELLERS: THE AGE OF FEAR

A Story of Long Ago 15
Sharptooth 17
The Wooded Hills 20
Sharptooth's Excursions 23
Sharptooth and Her Baby 28
The First Weaver 31
What Happened When the Wild Cattle
Went to the River 35
How Sharptooth Spent the Night 38
Sharptooth Goes to the River 43
What the Wild Hogs Did for Sharptooth 47
How the Wild Hogs Protected their Young 50
How the Tree-dwellers Taught their Children 53
Alone on the Wooded Hills 56
How Bodo Found Wild Honey 59
Bodo Follows the Wild Horses 61
Ancestors of Our Mammals 66
The Story of the Wild Horse 69
How Bodo Learned to Make Tools and Weapons 72
Bodo's Hammer and Knife 75
What Bodo and One-Ear Found in the Alders 81
How the Hyenas Hunted 85
Frightened by Fire 89
How People Got their First Homes 93
How the Tree-dwellers Formed a Clan 99
How the Women Made a Shelter 102
How Sharptooth Made a Basket 106
How Bodo Used Fire 112
How Bodo Saved One-Ear's Life 116
How People Learned to Hunt Large Animals 119
Why People Began to Wear Ornaments 122
The Coming of the Musk Sheep 125
The Woolly Rhinoceros 128
How We Have Learned About the Tree-dwellers 130

_Suggestions to Teachers_ 132
a. _Method_ 134
b. _Typical Modes of Activity_ 136
c. _Supplementary Facts_ 142
d. _Animal Life_ 142
e. _Special Suggestions_ 147

ILLUSTRATIONS

FULL PAGE
Page

_A map of the Tree-dwellers' country_ Frontispiece
"_Many wild beasts lived then_" 14
"_Sharptooth was afraid of wild animals_" 19
"_She made a safe place for the baby to sleep_" 32
"_There were a great many wild cattle
when the Tree-dwellers lived_" 34
_The upper part of the river valley_ 39
"_Hippopotamuses were snorting and blowing_" 41
"_Bodo watched them wade through the
shallow water_" 62
"_Sometimes Bodo threw stones_" 73
"_They crept up softly and peeped into the alders_" 83
"_Bodo stood and watched it a moment_" 91
"_They lived by the fire at the foot of a tree_" 97
"_They talked about the wild animals they had seen_" 100
"_So the women now tried to weave a shelter_" 105
"_They saw Bodo rush up to the cave-bear
and wave a torch in his face_" 117

TEXT
Page

_Tiger's head--vignette on title page_ 5
_A Tree-dweller_ 17
_The wooded hills_ 21
_Acorns and wild roots_ 22
_Sharptooth in the tree branches_ 24
_Sharptooth watching the wild cattle_ 26
_A lion_ 27
_Sharptooth gathering berries_ 30
_Wild cattle_ 36
_A hyena_ 43
_Sharptooth's baby's cradle in the tree_ 44
_Cave wolves_ 45
_A wild hog_ 48
_Wild pigs_ 51
_Bodo catches a pig_ 55
_A bear_ 56
_A boy in a tree hunting eggs_ 58
_Bodo with the bird's eggs_ 59
_Bodo running away from the bees_ 60
_A herd of mammoths_ 63
_A bison_ 64
_A reptile and a wild horse_ 67
_A wild horse_ 69
_The stick Bodo used_ 74
_Bodo cracks nuts_ 77
_A chipped pebble_ 78
_An antler_ 79
_A big-nosed rhinoceros_ 86
_The fight on the cliff_ 88
_Basket-weaving showing four stages
of construction_ 108, 109, 110, 111
_Sabre-tooth_ 112
_Bodo builds a fire_ 113
_Bodo's club_ 114
_Bodo catches a squirrel_ 115
_A leader_ 120
_A necklace of claws_ 122
_How they wore the necklace_ 123
_Musk sheep_ 125
_A Tree-dweller_ 131
_A lion_ 158

THE TREE-DWELLERS

THE AGE OF FEAR

I.

_A Story of Long Ago_

This is a story of long ago.
It will tell you of the first people we know anything about.
It will tell you how they lived before they had fire.
It will tell you how they worked before they had tools.
Many wild beasts lived then.
They were fierce and strong.
All the people feared them.
The cave-bear could strike with his big paws.
The tiger could tear with his sharp teeth.
The rhinoceros could trample one under his feet.
Each animal knew how to do one thing well.
But the people could do a great many things.
They could remember, too, what had happened before.
They learned to profit by their mistakes.
You will learn how they became brave and strong.
You will learn how they used their bodies and minds.
They began the work we are doing to-day.
They took the first steps.
People who lived after them were able to do a little more.
The next people could do still more.
Many people have lived and worked since then.
The work they have done helps us to-day.
We have something to do, too.
We can do our part better if we know what others have done.
We can do it better if we learn to use our hands.
We can do it better if we learn to use our minds.
That is why we have this little book.

II.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

What do you need in order to live?
What do you think that the Tree-dwellers needed?

_Sharptooth_

Sharptooth was a Tree-dweller.
She lived a long, long time ago.
She did not have any home.
Nobody had a home then.
People wandered from place to place.
They had no shelter except the trees.
Each night Sharptooth slept in the branches.
Each day she hunted for something to eat.
Sometimes she was very hungry.
She had hard work to find enough food.
She could not go to a store to buy it.
There were no stores then.
She could not buy food of a farmer.
There were no farmers then.
All the plants were growing wild.
All the animals were wild, too.
Sharptooth was afraid of them.
That is why she climbed the trees.

THINGS TO DO

_Go out where everything is growing wild and find a place where the
Tree-dwellers might have lived._
_Find as many wild foods as you can._
_Notice what places have the best wild foods._
_Find a place where the Tree-dwellers might have protected themselves
from the wild beasts._
_Find a picture of Sharptooth running away from a wild animal._
_Tell a story about this picture._

III.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Did you find a place where the Tree-dwellers might have lived?
What kind of a place was it?
Did you find any wild foods where the ground was covered with grass?
Do you think they could live on a grassy plain?
Did you find any wild foods where the trees were thick?
Do you think they could live in a dense forest?
Where did you find the best wild foods?
Could the sun get down to places where you found wild roots?
Do vegetables grow better in the shade or in the sunlight?
Are there as many wild foods here now as there used to be? Why not?
Do you think you could live on such foods as the Tree-dwellers ate?
Can you think of a name for the place where the Tree-dwellers lived?

_The Wooded Hills_

The Tree-dwellers needed a place where they could be safe from the
wild animals.
So they lived among the tall trees.
They needed to be near fresh water.
So they lived by trees along the river.
They needed to be where they could find roots and berries.

Down in the river valley most of the forests were dense.
The sun could not shine through the thick leaves of the trees.
There was not enough sunlight to make the roots and berries grow.
There were not many nuts and acorns on the trees.
So the Tree-dwellers could not live there.

Out on the grassy plains there were no trees.
The Tree-dwellers could not live there.
Near the head of the river valley there were hills and uplands.
The forests there were not so dense.
The sun could shine through the open spaces.
Many roots and berries grew there.
On the wooded hills near the head of the valley was a good place for
the Tree-dwellers to live.
They could be safe in the tall trees.
They could get fresh water from the river.
They could find nuts and acorns on the trees.
They could find roots and berries in the open spaces.

THINGS TO DO

_Model in sand the hills and uplands near the head of a river valley._
_Show where the trees grow._
_Where would you look for the roots and berries?_
_Where would the cattle find grass?_
_What else would the cattle need?_
_Where would they find it?_

IV.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Do you think Sharptooth had ever been away from the wooded hills near
the head of the river valley?
If she had gone into the dense forests, do you think she would have
stayed there?
Would it have been safe for her to walk on the ground?
What way would have been safe at that time?
Do you think Sharptooth would dare to go out on the grassy plains?
Why did she like the wooded hills best?

_Sharptooth's Excursions_

Sharptooth knew every spot on the wooded hills.
But she seldom went to a strange place.

One day, though, she took a long journey.
This is the way that it came about.
She found plenty of roots and ripe blue berries.
She ate until she was satisfied.
Then she began to play among the trees.
She walked out upon a strong spreading branch.
Then she grasped a tough branch just over her head.
She swung herself into a neighboring tree.
Then she walked out on another branch.
She swung herself into another tree.
She traveled in this way for a long time.
At last she came to a dense forest.
How dark and damp it seemed!
How still it was!
She stopped her play.
She began to feel tired and hungry; so she rested a while, and then
searched for food.
She found few signs of roots or berries.
There were many trees, but nuts were scarce.
So she ate the bark from the tender twigs.
But she was not satisfied.
She missed the roots and berries.
She missed the bright sunshine.
She missed familiar sights and sounds.
So she soon went back to the wooded hills.
Another day Sharptooth went to the edge of a grassy plain.
There were many wild animals feeding there.
She hid in the tall green grass and watched the wild cattle from her
hiding-place.

She saw mammoths eating the tender grass.
There were smaller animals not far away.
A lion was creeping up through the grass.
Sharptooth saw him pounce upon the beasts.
The frightened creatures ran for their lives.
Sharptooth wished that she had not ventured so far.
She watched for a chance to get away.
As soon as she dared she crept to the trees.
Then she hurried back to the wooded hills.
She never forgot what she saw that day.

THINGS TO DO

_Think of Sharptooth as she was playing among the trees. Draw the
picture._
_Think of what she saw when she was hiding in the tall grass. Draw the
picture._
_Show on your sand map where the dense forest was._
_Show where the grassy plain was._
_Cut a lion and a mammoth from paper._

V.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Can you think why the Tree-dwellers did not live in families as we do?
Why did each one have to take care of himself?
Who took care of the babies then?
Do you know whether the baby Tree-dwellers could do anything for
themselves?

_Sharptooth and Her Baby_

We have learned that the Tree-dwellers had no homes.
All the Tree-dwellers had a hard time to live, for they had not yet
learned to help one another.
It took many long years to learn to do that.
But mothers have always taken care of their babies.
Sharptooth's mother had once taken care of her.
But Sharptooth soon learned to take care of herself.
Then she began to live as the other Tree-dwellers lived.
She lived by herself the greater part of the time.
She grew to be a strong young woman.
Then a baby came to live with her.
How proud she was of the little boy!
Wherever she went she took him with her, for there was nothing else
for her to do.
There was no place where she dared to leave him, so the mother and
baby were never apart.
Sometimes the baby clung to her waist.
Baby Tree-dwellers knew how to hold fast.
Sometimes Sharptooth tied a vine around her waist.
Then the baby clung to the vine.
Sometimes he sat on her shoulder and clung to her head or neck.
Sometimes he rode upon her back.
Sharptooth helped him all that she could, but she needed her hands for
other work.

THINGS TO DO

_Show how your mamma carries your baby brother or sister._
_Show how Sharptooth carried her baby._
_Which of the babies do you think has the better care?_
_How do you help to take care of the baby?_
_Draw a picture of a mother and baby._

VI.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

How many kinds of cradles have you seen?
What kind of a cradle does your baby brother or sister have?
What kind of a cradle do you think Sharptooth's baby had?
What kind of a lullaby would Sharptooth sing?
What lullaby can you sing?

_The First Weaver_

Sharptooth had climbed most of the trees on the wooded hills.
She had slept in many of them.
But she liked the old oak near the trail the best of all.
Its strong spreading branches were covered with vines.
Here was a place to lay the baby.
While he slept among the vines, she gathered wild foods.
But she never went far away, and she never stayed away long.
There were panthers and wild cats on the hills.
Sharptooth knew that they could climb the trees.
Many a time they had nearly caught her.
She was afraid that they would get the baby.
So she always stayed near him while he slept.

When she stayed in a tree that had no vines, there was no place to lay
the baby.
So she wove the slender branches together.
She made a safe place for the baby to sleep.
She lulled him to sleep as he lay in her arms.
Then she gently laid him upon his bed.
She watched him a moment as he slept.
A moment more and she, too, was asleep.

THINGS TO DO

_Think of Sharptooth as she was laying the baby down among the
vine-covered branches. Draw the picture._
_Find some vines or branches and make a cradle._

VII.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

There were a great many wild cattle when the Tree-dwellers lived.
They were not so gentle as our cattle.
They had wide-spreading horns.
The fierce flesh-eating animals were always lying in wait for them.
How could the wild cattle protect themselves from their enemies?

Where would they stay during the day?
Where would they go at night?
Why did they stay in herds?
Where could they find water?
What kind of banks does a river have at the drinking-places?
Do you think the cattle would make paths to the drinking-places? How?

_What Happened When the Wild Cattle Went to the River_

The sun was just setting.
Sharptooth was getting ready for the night.
She was in the old oak tree.
The baby had gone to sleep.
As she put him down upon his bed she heard the mooing of the wild
cattle.
She looked out upon the hills.
The wild cattle were coming down to the river to drink.
She watched the long line winding down the trail.
Other creatures were watching, too.
Wild animals were coming out of their dens.
A big bear passed close to Sharptooth's tree.
He had heard the mooing of the wild cattle.
Wolves were prowling about.
They, too, were watching the herd.

The cattle reached the river.
They waded out.
They drank from the flowing stream.
They stood knee deep in the cool water.
At last the leader turned to go.
The others followed one by one.
But some of the weaker ones lingered behind.
They seemed tired.
A big wolf watched them from a thicket.
At length the cattle came out of the stream.
They walked slowly along the bank.
They passed close to the thicket.
The wolf sprang out from his hiding-place.
He seized the smallest creature.
The others dashed off through the underbrush.
They were too frightened to keep the path.
They lost their way.
Wolves and bears were lying in wait.
They fell upon the frightened cattle.
The herd was too far away to help.
So the poor creatures lost their lives.
But the wolves and bears had a feast.

THINGS TO DO

_Model the wooded hills where the cattle fed by day._
_Model the grassy uplands where they fed by night._
_Show the trail that the cattle made._
_Make the banks at the drinking-place._
_Make the thickets and show where the wolf hid._

VIII.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Why did the wild cattle feed on the grassy uplands at night instead of
during the day?
Where did they spend the day?
When do the flesh-eating animals sleep?
When do they hunt?
Can they live without flesh to eat?
Do you know whether they kill more than they need to eat?

_How Sharptooth Spent the Night_

It was now almost dark.
The wild cattle had reached the grassy upland.
They were feeding on the fresh grass.
Sharptooth had watched them out of sight, and now she was getting
sleepy.
She could see nothing but dim shadows, but she could hear all sorts of
sounds.
Wild animals were coming out of their dens.
Most of them had slept during the day, but now they were wide awake.

Hippopotamuses were snorting and blowing.
They were splashing in the water.
They were crashing through the underbrush along the banks.
Straight-tusked elephants were trumpeting and bellowing.
Lions were roaring.
The hunted animals were seeking a place of refuge.
Sharptooth was used to these sights and sounds.
She felt safe in the old oak tree.
She tied herself to a strong branch and soon was fast asleep.
She slept all through the long night.
Many of the wild beasts, too, were soon asleep.
Some of the hunted creatures found places of refuge.
Some beasts of prey were soon satisfied.
Then they stole back to their dens and slept.
But all of the wild animals did not fare so well.

Not all of the hunted creatures found places of refuge.
Not all of the beasts of prey found food.
Some beasts of prey hunted all through the night and were still hungry
when morning came.

THINGS TO DO

_Cut a hippopotamus or a straight-tusked elephant from paper._
_Tell how little boys and girls that you know are taken care of at
night._
_Tell how the Tree-dwellers took care of their children._

IX.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

At the drinking-place the river banks were low.
In many other places they were high and steep.
In some places there was a solid wall of rock.
In others the rocks were broken and worn.
In some places there were deep holes in the rocks.
We call these holes caves.
They were made long ago.
Can you think how they were made?
Can you think what the caves were used for?

_Sharptooth Goes to the River_

Before sunrise the next morning Sharptooth awoke.
She opened her eyes and looked out upon the hills.

She heard animals moving about.
A large cave-bear was passing by toward his cave.
Hyenas, too, were stealing down to their caves.
Many flesh-eating animals were slinking away to their dens.
They were tired with their night's work.
Most of them had eaten until they were satisfied, and now they were
ready to sleep through the day.
The wild cattle were coming back to the hills.
The baby awoke.
Sharptooth played with him a moment.
Then she put him under her arm and slipped down the tree.
She started down toward the river, but she did not go by the trail.

It was safer to walk in the shadow of the tall trees.
Once she suddenly grasped a branch of a tree and swung herself up and
looked about.
She had heard a rustling in the underbrush.
Long ago she had learned what such sounds meant.
So she swung on the branches until she reached the river.
She listened a moment in the tree.
Then she slipped down and ran to the water's edge.
She dipped up the water with her hand.
She drank some, and then gave some to the baby.
He was so pleased that he laughed aloud.
As quick as a flash, Sharptooth sprang for the tree.
She was afraid the hyenas were in the thickets.
She was afraid they had heard the baby laugh.
She talked to the baby in a strange language.
She made queer clucking sounds.
After that he was always quiet when they went to the river.
He must have understood what she said.

THINGS TO DO

_If there is a cave near where you live, visit it._
_Model in sand some high river banks with caves._
_Show where Sharptooth went to drink, and where the hyenas were
hiding._
_Show how she gave water to the baby._
_Show how she sprang for the tree when the baby laughed._
_Draw a picture of Sharptooth and the baby._
_Ask some one to read you the first story in Kipling's Second Jungle
Book._

X.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Where do hogs live to-day? How are they taken care of?
How do you think the wild hogs found food?
Do you think the Tree-dwellers could learn anything by watching the
wild hogs?
What have you learned from animals?

_What the Wild Hogs Did for Sharptooth_

The sun had now been up for some time.
Sharptooth was getting hungry.
She picked a handful of wild plums from the thicket, but she wanted
something more.
She kept on down the hill.
The wild hogs were rooting under the oak trees.
She wondered what they found there, so she stepped near enough to see.

They were eating something round and black.
She watched them for a long time.
As soon as they started off toward the marsh, Sharptooth ran down to
the trees.
She saw the loose earth that the hogs had rooted up.
Then she began to dig where it had not been loosened.
She had nothing to dig with except her hands, but she was not afraid
to dig with them.
She soon felt something that was round and hard.
She dug it up and looked at it.
It was a truffle.
It was black and warty on the outside.
She bit off a piece.
It was white inside.
She tasted it and found that it was good, so she dug another and
ate it.
She wondered how the wild hogs knew that the truffles were there.
Perhaps you can tell.
Perhaps you have heard stories of how hogs dig truffles in France
to-day.

THINGS TO DO

_Collect five or six vegetables or fruits._
_Blindfold some one and let him smell of one of the vegetables and
guess what it is._
_When he guesses right, blindfold some one else._
_When you have a chance, dig a root with your hands, then dig one with
a sharp stick._
_Which way is the easier?_

XI.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Can you think how the wild hogs protected themselves?
Do hogs have tusks now?
Can you think why the wild hogs were not as fat as our hogs?

_How the Wild Hogs Protected their Young_

Sharptooth watched the wild hogs every day.
She learned many things from them.
They were peaceable creatures when not disturbed.
They lived on fruits, wild nuts, and roots.
When they had eaten all they wanted, they went down to the river or
lake.
They hid in the reedy marshes.
They hid in the thorny thickets.
But they always kept together.
Sharptooth watched them from a tree.
There were tiny little pigs with long, light stripes.
They kept close to their mothers.
There were larger pigs that had lost their stripes.
They, too, stayed with their mothers.
There were wild boars about three years old.

They did not go far from their mothers.
They were not strong enough yet to protect themselves.
There were many full-grown hogs.
There were fierce boars with long tusks.
Sharptooth watched them eating acorns.
A pack of hyenas was watching, too.
They were hiding in the underbrush.
They were lying in wait for the smaller pigs.
But the old hogs scented danger.
They gathered the little pigs together.
The stronger ones stood in a circle around them.
Their white tusks glistened in the sunlight.
They were ready to fight for their young.
The hyenas were afraid.
They sneaked away in the underbrush.
The little pigs were safe.

THINGS TO DO

_Show how the wild hogs protected the little pigs._
_Show how the hyenas came up and sneaked away._
_Cut some wild hogs from paper._

XII.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Do you think that the Tree-dwellers had schools?
What did their children need to know?
How would they teach them?
Have you ever seen a cat teaching her kittens?
Have you ever tried to teach a baby?
What can you teach the baby to do?
What do you need to have done for you?
What can you do to help yourself?
What can you do to help others?

_How the Tree-dwellers Taught their Children_

Sharptooth's baby had grown to be a large boy.
He was now about seven years old.
His mother called him Bodo.
Bodo did not have to wash his face.
He did not have to wear any clothes.
He had no clothes to wear.
He did not have to go to school.
There were no schools then.
But he learned a great many things.
His mother was his first teacher.
She taught him where to find the ripe berries.
She taught him where to dig for roots.
She taught him how to catch birds and squirrels.
She taught him how to hide from the wild animals.
She taught him to keep so still that he might be taken for a hump on a
log.
She taught him all that she knew.
Bodo learned his lessons well.
He always obeyed his mother.
Sometimes he saw other Tree-dwellers.
He had seen them snatch food from his mother's hand.
He had seen them help her, too.
But usually each Tree-dweller took care of himself.
Bodo was learning to take care of himself.
He was beginning to feel that he was almost a man.
One day he caught a pig without any help.
The next day his mother let him hunt all alone.
She knew now that he could find his own food.
After that Bodo always hunted alone.
Sometimes he saw his mother, but she no longer found food for him.
She had another baby to care for, so Bodo knew that he must take care
of himself.
When the Tree-dwellers lived nobody ever thought of taking care of a
child who was able to find his own food.

THINGS TO DO

_Show how you teach your baby brother or sister to walk._
_Draw the picture._
_Show how Sharptooth taught Bodo._
_Tell a story of how Bodo caught a little wild pig that had wandered
away from its mother._

XIII.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

What do you think Bodo would do when he left his mother?
Who would teach him now?
Do you think that he could find birds' eggs?
What do you think he would do with them?
Do you know any one who has a collection of birds' eggs?
What would happen to the birds if we all made collections?
How do birds help us?
How do we help them?
How can we coax them to live near us?

_Alone on the Wooded Hills_

Although Bodo was glad to take care of himself, he often wished that
his mother were near.
Sometimes he called to her.
When she heard his call she would answer him.
Then he would swing on the branches until he found her.
But sometimes she was too far away to hear.
Then he listened in vain for her answering call.
Sometimes it was hard work to keep back the tears.
Once he sobbed so loud that a sleepy bear heard him.
The bear started up and began to growl.
Bodo hid in the branches of a tall tree.
He stayed there until the bear went away.
Then he was very hungry.
As he started out to find something to eat, he heard a rustling among
the branches.
He listened.
Bodo hoped that his mother was coming.
But it was only a boy who was hunting birds' eggs.
Bodo watched him climb among the branches.

He watched him suck the eggs that he found.
How he wished that he might find some eggs!
He began to look for some.
In a moment he saw a bird's nest above him.
He climbed up the branch and peeped into the nest.
There were three beautiful eggs.
His eyes danced with joy.
He sucked the eggs.
Then he smacked his lips and hunted for more.

THINGS TO DO

_Show what the bear did when he heard Bodo sobbing._
_Draw the picture of the bear._
_Model a bird's nest in clay._
_Ask some one to read you the story of a little baby who lived with
some wolves. It is in the Jungle Book._

XIV.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Do you think that Bodo ever had any bread and sugar?
Did he ever have any candy?
What could he find that was sweet?
How do bees make their honey?
Where do they store it?

_How Bodo Found Wild Honey_

Bodo never had any candy.
Nobody knew how to make it.
But he knew where to find the wild honey.
He had found some one day in a hollow tree.
He learned to track a bee home to its tree.
When he found a bee-tree he robbed the swarm.
Sometimes the bees stung him, but he was used to getting hurt.

THINGS TO DO

_Watch the bees as they gather honey from the flowers._
_What flowers do they visit?_
_Do all bees look alike? Do all bees do the same kind of work?_
_Draw a picture that will show how they work among the flowers._
_See if you can find some wild honey._

XV.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Do you think that the wild horses had leaders for their herds?
What would the leader have to do?
What might happen to the horses that did not follow the leader?
What could Bodo learn by watching the wild horses?

_Bodo Follows the Wild Horses_

Two or three years passed by.
Bodo was now about ten years old.
He still lived on the wooded hills.
One afternoon he went to the river.
The wild horses were drinking there.
Bodo watched them wade through the shallow water.
He watched them toss their shaggy manes.
He listened to their whinnying calls.
He tried to whinny, too.
The horses drank until they were satisfied, then they started toward
their evening pasture.

The largest horse led the herd up the trail.
Others followed one by one.
What a long line they made!
The leader was far away over the hill before all the horses had left
the stream.

The smallest and the weakest ones lagged behind.
Spotted hyenas were lying in wait for them.
Bodo wondered if he could catch a wild horse.
He wondered where the horses went at night.
He followed the herd a long, long way.
He went swinging along from branch to branch.
At last he came to a grassy plain.
He did not dare to go out on the plain.

So he sat on a branch and peeped through the leaves.
Wild horses were feeding on the edge of the plain.
Farther out there was a herd of mammoths.
Beyond these still other herds were feeding.
They may have been bisons or wild cattle.
All these animals were eating the fresh green grass.
Bodo watched them till nearly sunset.
But while the sky was still red in the west, Bodo tied himself to a
branch and fell asleep.

THINGS TO DO

_Cut from paper some of the wild animals that Bodo saw eating grass._
_Make a picture of what Bodo saw when he was in the tree._

XVI.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Can you think why our horses are larger than the wild horses?
How many toes does a horse have on each foot? On what part of the foot
does he walk? Where is the horse's heel? Do you think the horse's
foot has always been the same shape that it is to-day?
On what part of the foot does the cow walk? How many toes does she
have?
On what part of the foot does the cat walk? How many toes does she
have?

_Ancestors of Our Mammals_

The wild horses that Bodo saw were about the size of ponies.
Long before the Tree-dwellers lived there were horse-like creatures
the size of a fox.
Long before that there was a time when there were no horses at all.
Great reptiles moved about on the land, they swam in the seas, or they
flew through the air.
All other creatures feared them.
The tiny mammals that lived then were about the size of rats and mice,
but these mammals were not like rats and mice.
The little mammals ran, but they did not run fast, for their feet were
not well fitted for running.
They climbed rocks and trunks of trees, and hid in holes in the
ground.
They ate the eggs of the large reptiles, and became their enemies.

Millions of years passed; great changes took place.
Parts of the land slowly sank beneath the seas, and out of the seas
rose dry land.
Most of the larger reptiles died, but the mammals multiplied.
They grew to be as large as the fox or the sheep.
At first they were all very much alike and they lived in about the
same way.
But as they became more and more unlike they had very different ways.
Some became like cats, and some like dogs.

Some became like rhinoceroses and some like hogs.
Others became like monkeys, and still others became like horses.

THINGS TO DO

_Look at the picture above and tell how this animal must have changed
to become more like a dog, a cat, a pig, a cow, or a horse._

XVII.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

What part of the wild horse's foot touched the ground when he ran?
What happens to muscles that are not used? What happens to muscles
that are used most?

_The Story of the Wild Horse_

Perhaps you have seen the zebra.
If you have, you must have noticed its stripes.
The first horse-like creatures were probably striped in much the same
way.
These animals never ate hay and oats; and, at first, they did not eat
much grass.
There was little, if any, grass at that time.
These horse-like creatures lived on marshes and in swamps bordering
streams and lakes.
They probably ate stems and leaves of plants that grew on the marshy
lands.
They did not run as horses do to-day, but they plodded along on the
soft ground.
They spread out their toes as they walked along, so as to keep from
sinking.
When the dry land began to be covered with grass, little by little
they left the marshes.
They went to the grassy highlands to live, and became more and more
like horses.
Some of the cat-like creatures went to the highlands, but they did not
go for the grass.
They were becoming more and more like tigers, and they went to hunt
the wild horses.
The timid horses ran when their enemies came, for there was no place
in which to hide.
When they ran they stepped on the tips of their toes.
They used the third toe so much more than the others that it became
larger and larger.
Its hoof became hard and strong.
The first and fifth toes were used so little that after thousands of
years they disappeared.
Meanwhile the horses had learned to run fast.
When a pack of wolves chased them, they galloped away.
They found rich grass on the highlands.
Colts grew to be larger than their mothers.
By the time they were as large as ponies they used only the third toe.
Two side toes hung like the dew-claws of a dog, but they did not reach
the ground.
When the Tree-dwellers lived, little bones beneath the skin were all
that was left to show where the side toes had been.
The hoof had become round and hard.
The wild horses ran very fast.
They outran all other creatures.
When surprised, they struck hard blows with their hoofs, and they bit
with their sharp teeth.
But if there was a chance to get away, they always ran when they were
attacked.

THINGS TO DO

_Name all the animals you know that can climb trees. What kind of feet
do they have?_
_Name all the animals you know that have hoofs. Tell all you can about
these hoofs._
_Notice the foot of a horse, a cow, a dog, or a cat, and model it in
clay._
_What pet do you have that is like a wolf?_

XVIII.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

What tools do you know how to use?
What do you use them for?
How do you think that people did their work before they had tools?
What tools do you think the Tree-dwellers needed?
How do you think they learned to make them?

_How Bodo Learned to Make Tools and Weapons_

Bodo did not have any tools or weapons.
Nobody knew how to make them.
But he had learned to use his hands.
He used them to catch small animals.
He knew how to creep up softly.
He knew how to wait patiently.
He knew just when to grasp the animal.
Bodo used his hands to gather berries and nuts.
He used them to pull up roots.
He used them to rake the acorns together.

He used them to scoop small things up from the ground.
Bodo knew how to strike with his fists.
He knew how to kick with his feet.
Sometimes he threw stones.
Sometimes he threw sticks.
Sometimes he struck with a stick in his hand.
He could strike harder blows with a stick than he could when he struck
with his fist.
Sometimes it hurt him when he struck with his fist.
It did not hurt him when he struck with a club.
Bodo had many enemies.
He had to take care of himself.
He felt safer when he had a club in his hand.

THINGS TO DO

_Show what Bodo used for a rake._
_Show what he used for a scoop._
_Show how he caught wild animals._
_Draw a picture of Bodo catching a squirrel._

XIX.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Have you ever used a hammer?
What are our hammers made of?
How do you think people learned to make hammers?
Why did Bodo need a hammer?
What do you do with your knife?
How many kinds of knives have you seen?
How do you think people cut their food before they had knives?
What do you think they used for their first knives?

_Bodo's Hammer and Knife_

Bodo had never had a warm dinner.
He had no fire to cook his food.
Much of his food was hard and tough.
He had not learned to soften it with fire.
He had not learned to crush or grind it with stones.
His teeth did all of this work.
The teeth of all the Tree-dwellers were large and strong.
They were fitted to cut and grind tough food.
They were fitted to crack the shells of nuts.
Bodo often cracked nuts with his teeth.
But sometimes he found nuts that he could not crack.
He had never seen or heard of a hammer, so he threw a hard nut against
a rock.
The nut did not crack.
So he kept on trying different ways.
At last he struck the nut with a stone.
Its hard shell broke.
How glad Bodo was!
He ate the kernel and then cracked some more nuts with the stone.
This stone was his first hammer.
Sometimes he used a rough stone.
Its rough edges hurt his hand, so he hunted for a smooth stone.
At other times he wrapped one end of a rough stone in grass.
The grass protected his hand.
This was the first handle to his hammer.
Bodo liked to use this hammer.
He liked to use smooth hammer-stones.
But sometimes the smooth stone slipped or bounded back and jarred his
hand.

One day he found a smooth stone that had a little pit on either side.
He put his thumb and finger into the pits and cracked a hard nut with
the stone.
This was just what he needed.
It neither slipped nor jarred his hand.
Some of the other Tree-dwellers tried it.
They wanted one like it, so they began to hunt for pitted stones.
They could not always find such stones, but they never thought of
making the pits.
People lived many years before they learned to do that.
Tree-dwellers simply used things that they found on the spot.

They seldom changed their shape.
We have only a few weapons that we know they made.
They were found years ago deep down in some gravel.
They had lain there many long years.
Here is a picture of one.
It is only a chipped pebble.
Such a weapon is used nowadays only in play, but then it was used in
real work.
For a long time the Tree-dwellers did not have even this.
They used their teeth and nails instead.

Some animals had larger and sharper teeth.
The Tree-dwellers found such teeth in the sand.
They found sharp claws there, too.
They often found sharp bones and horns.
They used such things for cutting for many long years, but at last
they made a knife.
It happened when Bodo was cracking a bone.
In some way he broke his hammer.
He picked up the pieces and looked at them.
They were sharp enough to cut with, but the edges hurt his hand.
So he found a smooth pebble and chipped flakes from one end.
Before long he had a sharp point.
He never hafted it; but he left one end smooth, so that it would not
hurt his hand.
It was such a weapon as this that was found in the gravel.
You can see that it is something like a spear-head.
Bodo used it when he hunted small animals.
He used it to skin them and to hack off strips of flesh.
Many things had been used as knives before, but this was the first
knife that we know man made.

THINGS TO DO

_Hunt for some smooth hammer-stones. If you can find one with pits
on either side, try both kinds and find out which one works the
better._
_See if you can find a good stone for a knife._
_Strike the edge to see if it crumbles._
_Find one that will not crumble._
_Do you know whether stones have names?_
_What stones have you that you would like named?_

XX.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Have you ever seen wild animals protect their little ones?
How do they do it?
When the mother goes away, in what kind of a place does she leave
them?
Do you know whether the young animals mind their mothers?

_What Bodo and One-Ear Found in the Alders_

Bodo grew to be a large boy.
He made many friends among the Tree-dwellers, but he liked One-Ear
best of all.
The boys liked to hunt together.
When they had enough to eat they liked to play.
One night as they were watching a herd of wild cattle, a young cow
caught their eye.
She was running down toward the marsh.
The boys wondered why she was going.
They chased her down the trail.
When the cow saw what the boys were doing she started off through the
underbrush.
It was no longer safe to follow, so the boys gave up the chase.
Darkness came on.
The boys dropped their clubs and climbed a tree, where they spent the
night.
They slept until the break of day.
As they were rubbing their sleepy eyes, they heard a queer sound
close by.
"What is that?" said Bodo.
The boys listened.
All was still.
But they were sure that some animal was near.
There was a clump of alders within a stone's throw.
Perhaps a bear was hiding there.
The boys were eager to find out, but they knew better than to rush
into danger.
So they waited and listened.
All was quiet.
Bodo threw a stick.