Chapter II: Preface (2)

Not a sound could be heard.
He called out.
Still there was no sound.
The boys slipped down the tree and picked up their clubs.
They crept up softly and peeped into the alders.
"There's nothing there," said One-Ear.
Bodo knew better.
He noticed a hump among the leaves.
He reached out his hand and touched it.
It was a little calf that had been hid there by its mother.
It scarcely moved as Bodo touched it.
Its mother had taught it to lie still.
Many people might have passed it by.
But Bodo had sharp eyes, and besides he was very hungry.
So the boys killed the calf and began to eat the raw flesh.
They ate until they were satisfied.
Then they played among the trees.

THINGS TO DO

_Choose somebody to be Bodo and somebody to be One-Ear, and let them
show how the boys found the calf._
_Model a calf in clay._

XXI.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Why were all of the animals afraid of the rhinoceros?
How could the little hyenas hunt the big-nosed rhinoceros?
What could the Tree-dwellers learn by watching the wild animals hunt?

_How the Hyenas Hunted_

One day Bodo and One-Ear climbed a fir tree near the edge of a cliff.
They were watching a big-nosed rhinoceros.
It had just rooted up an oak tree with its twin-tusked snout.
Now it was tearing the trunk into strips as we tear a stalk of celery.
The boys watched it grinding the wood with its great teeth.

They were glad that they were safe in the fir tree.
They watched the creature in silence.
Suddenly Bodo gave One-Ear a nudge.
One-Ear looked up.
Bodo put his finger on his lips, then pointed toward the underbrush.
One-Ear stared with open mouth.
A whole pack of hyenas was on the cliff.
They were sneaking along toward the rhinoceros.
What hungry-looking creatures they were!
How their eyes gleamed!
The boys wondered what the hyenas would do.
They watched to see.
The big-nosed rhinoceros went stupidly browsing along the edge of the
cliff.
He did not see the hyenas.
The hyenas had learned that the rhinoceros could not see far away, and
now they were taking advantage of this.
They were too cowardly to risk a fair fight.
Even the mammoth and sabre-tooth did not like to encounter the
big-nosed rhinoceros.
Even they could not pierce his thick, heavy skin.
Even they feared his twin-tusked snout.
The hyenas crept softly from bush to bush.
They kept their eyes fastened upon the rhinoceros.
As he stepped on the very edge of the cliff they sprang out and began
to growl.
The rhinoceros turned fiercely upon them.
He tossed one of the hyenas over the cliff.
As he did this he lost his footing.
The huge creature stumbled and fell.

He rolled down the steep cliff and was dashed upon the rocks.
The hyenas were no longer afraid.
They feasted upon the carcass.
They dragged the bones to their caves.
They gnawed them until they left the marks of their teeth.
The bones stayed in the caves for many years.
Not long ago some one found them there.
He sent them to a museum, where they may be seen to-day.
Perhaps you will go to the museum some time.
If you do, be sure and look at these bones.
Perhaps you will be able to help your friends read the story they
tell.

THINGS TO DO

_Think of the rhinoceros as he was rooting up the tree._
_Think of him as he was tearing the wood into strips._
_Draw one of the pictures._
_Think of the high cliff with the caves at its foot._
_Model the cliff and caves in your sand box._

XXII.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Can you think how a fire might have been started before people knew
how to make it?
What did the Tree-dwellers think the fire was?
Why did they fear it?
What else did they fear?

_Frightened by Fire_

One day there was a great storm on the wooded hills.
The lightning struck a tree in the forest.
It set it on fire.
At once the flames spread to the neighboring trees.
The Tree-dwellers were driven to the ground.
They had never been so frightened before.
They were afraid of thunder and lightning.
They were afraid of beasts of prey.
Only when they were up in a tree did they feel that they were safe.
But now the trees were on fire.
They thought that the fire was a wild animal.
They thought that it was an animal that ate wood.
They had seen the rhinoceros and the mammoth eat parts of trees, but
this creature devoured all the trees in its path.

* * *

Several years passed by.
Once again a fire broke out on the wooded hills.
Once again the wild animals ran.
The Tree-dwellers ran, for they still were afraid.
Bodo ran; for he, too, was afraid.
But he soon stopped and looked at the fire.

He was almost full grown now.
He was learning every day.
He was curious about many things, and now he wanted to see what the
red monster was doing.
So he stood and watched it a moment.
It seemed to be chasing him.
So he ran to find a hiding-place.
He ran around through the underbrush until at last he found a safe
place.
The fire ran away from him now.
He stood and gazed at the red flames.
The wind blew.
The fire monster spread its great red wings and leaped from tree to
tree.
The branches groaned, and cracked, and fell.
Bodo was filled with terror.
He did not know what to do.
After a little it began to rain.
The fire monster became smaller and smaller.
In a few moments it was gone.
Bodo wondered where it went.

THINGS TO DO

_Think of the Tree-dwellers and the animals running away from the
forest fire._
_Draw the picture._
_Show how Bodo tried to find out more about the fire._
_Draw a picture of him as he was watching the fire._

XXIII.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Why would the Tree-dwellers want to use fire?
How would they learn to take care of it?
Why could they live in a better way after they had fire?

_How People Got Their First Homes_

The Tree-dwellers still thought that the fire was alive.
The red monster still frightened them.
Whenever they saw it they ran away.
Bodo, too, was afraid of the fire.
So he tried to be good to it and thus make it his friend.
He gave it wood to eat.
He learned to go near it without getting hurt.
He learned to carry a burning branch.
Once he carried a firebrand to the old oak.
He put it in the hollow of the tree.
Then he gave it dry sticks that he found close by, and he watched it
while it ate them.
As he stood looking at the fire, the sound of footsteps fell upon his
ear.
He looked up to see who was passing.
It was Sharptooth.
She was coming to the old oak tree.
As soon as she saw the fire, she ran.
Bodo called to her.
He asked her to come back.
Sharptooth was trembling, so that she could scarcely walk.
Bodo took her by the hand.
He led her to the fire.
He told her how he had made friends with it.
She listened to what he said, but she still seemed afraid.
Bodo wished to show that he was not afraid.
He looked puzzled a moment and then he said, "I am not going to sleep
in the trees any more."
For a moment Sharptooth was speechless.
At length she opened her lips and spoke.
"The cave-bears will get you," was what she said.
But Bodo had thought of the bears.
"I am not afraid of the bears," he said.
"They run when they see me with fire. I am going to sleep at the foot
of this tree."
Then Sharptooth was troubled.
She was anxious about Bodo.
She had taught him the best that she could.
But now he seemed to be risking his life.
She wondered how he could do it.
As it grew dark she climbed into a neighboring tree.
She was afraid to sleep in the old oak that night.
Bodo stayed on the ground beside the fire.
Sharptooth did not close her eyes.
She kept watch from a branch of the tree.
She knew the wild animals were out of their dens.
She saw their shadows among the trees.
When they saw the fire they turned and ran.
But Bodo stayed by the fire.
He was a brave boy, yet he could not sleep.
As long as he was awake he felt safe.
But he was afraid of what might happen if he went to sleep.
So he kept awake and fed the fire.
Sharptooth still kept watch from the tree.
At last she came down.
"Let me feed the fire, Bodo, while you sleep," she said.
Bodo had been yawning for some time.
He was glad to have a chance to rest.
So he slept while Sharptooth took his place.
She watched the fire cautiously at first.
Then she fed it and found that it did not hurt her.

She liked the warmth that it gave.
She enjoyed the pleasant firelight.
She saw that it was their friend.
After that Sharptooth and Bodo did not sleep in trees.
They lived by the fire at the foot of a tree.
Sometimes their home was by the old oak.
Sometimes it was in other places.
But it was always where they carried the fire.

THINGS TO DO

_Tell how to make a fire._
_What does a fire need in order to burn?_
_Put a tumbler over a lighted candle and watch to see what happens._
_Why does the light go out?_
_Light the candle again and see if you can find out what it is that
burns._

XXIV.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

What do you think the other Tree-dwellers did when they heard of the
fire Sharptooth and Bodo had?
Does fire ever do any harm nowadays? Why do we need to be careful in
using fire?

_How the Tree-dwellers Formed a Clan_

The next night One-Ear stayed with Sharptooth and Bodo at the foot of
the old oak.
Then other Tree-dwellers came.
At first they were afraid just as Sharptooth had been.
But they, too, soon learned that the fire was their friend.
So they sat around the fire each evening.
They talked about the wild animals they had seen.
As long as they sat by the fire, they felt safe.
So they came to the fireplace each night.
They began to live together.
They formed a clan.
Their clan was the fire clan.
The women with babies stayed near the fire.
All the others went farther away.
Each one hunted for his own food.
Each ate what he found on the spot.
But all came back to the fireplace at night.

All were tired and needed to rest.
Since they had no chairs they squatted on the ground.
They talked and they played in the firelight.
When they got drowsy they fell asleep.
But Sharptooth kept watch of the fire.
Her sisters helped, but she was the clan mother.
It was she who took charge of the fire.
She knew how the fire became their friend.
She knew that it needed care.
She knew that it gave them their first home.
So she taught the people to worship the fire.

THINGS TO DO

_Play that you are Tree-dwellers just beginning to form a clan._
_Plan how you will divide your work._
_Choose sides and let those on one side tell a story of the
Tree-dwellers before they had fire. Let those on the other side
tell a story of the Tree-dwellers after they had fire._
_Look at the picture on page 100 and tell such a story about it as
you think the tree-dwellers would tell after they had seen such a
fight._

XXV.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

How were the Tree-dwellers sheltered from the wind and rain?
How did they keep warm after they used fire?
How did they find shelter from the rain?
What trees offer the best shelter from the rain?
Where is the rain that falls on those trees carried?
Do you know what kind of roots those trees have?
What trees do not give a good shelter from the rain? Why?
What trees would give the best shelter in the winter? Why?
How did the fire clan find shelter from the cold winds?
If they were living in places that were not well sheltered, what kind
of a shelter do you think they might make?

_How the Women Made a Shelter_

When people slept in trees, they did not need to make a shelter.
They were sheltered by the trees.
Long after they began to sleep on the ground, the trees still
sheltered them.
The leaves of the trees kept off the rain.
The thick underbrush kept off the cold winds.
When the fire clan moved to a new place, it was always Sharptooth who
chose the spot for the fire.
She knew the best sheltered places.
Sometimes she chose a spot near an oak or a birch.
Their tops were well thatched with leaves.
They shed rain almost as well as a roof.
But when the oak and the birch trees dropped their leaves, Sharptooth
carried her fire to a fir or a spruce.
These evergreen trees had needle-like leaves.
They gave some protection from the rain and the snow.
But sometimes a drizzling rain kept up for many days.
Sometimes the cold winds blew.
Then the fire clan shivered with the wet and the cold.
Mothers were anxious about their children.
They wanted to keep them safe from harm.
So they tried to keep off the cold wind and the rain.
They had not yet learned many ways of working, but they long had known
how to weave cradles of vines.
So the women now tried to weave a shelter.
They broke off large armfuls of evergreens.
They carried them to some saplings that grew near the fire.
Then they bent down the tops of the small growing saplings.
They tied them together and began to weave.
They wove branches of evergreens among them.
They piled larger branches against the wall.
At last the shelter was done.
It was the first shelter that they had made.
There was not one like it on the wooded hills.

THINGS TO DO

_Make a playhouse that will shelter you from the wind and the rain._
_Find trees that give a good shelter from the sun and the rain._

_Notice trees that do not give good shelter. See if you can find out
why some trees give a better shelter than others._
_When do oaks and birches drop their leaves?_
_Do evergreen trees ever drop their leaves?_
_Find out why we call them evergreen trees._

XXVI.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

What do we use baskets for?
What are they made of?
Do you think that the Tree-dwellers made baskets before they had fire?
When do you think that they would first need baskets?
How do you think that they might have made them?

_How Sharptooth Made a Basket_

Before the Tree-dwellers had fire they did not need baskets.
For a long time afterwards they did not make them.
They ate fruits from the trees and cracked the nuts where they found
them.
Each night they came home one by one.
Sharptooth still had charge of the fire.
She ate wild roots that grew near.
She cracked nuts that she found in the trees close by.
She ate berries in a neighboring patch.
But she never went far away, and she never stayed away long.
The blueberries were now ripe, so she went to the patch.
How she wished she might stay a long time!
But as soon as she had eaten a few, she hurried home to the fire.
As she scrambled over the fallen trees, she broke off a handful of
bushes.
They were loaded with ripe blueberries.
She carried them home to the children.
She told the women and children about the patch.
They all wanted to go.
So they piled broken branches upon the fire.
Then Sharptooth told one of the women to stay at home and take charge
of the fire.
The women left their babies and little children in charge of this
woman, too.
How disappointed the little children were!
They watched the women and older children until they had passed out of
sight among the trees.
Sharptooth led the way to the patch.
In a few moments they found it.
It was almost blue with berries.
The children ate as fast as they picked.
The women ate, too, for a while.

But they remembered their little ones at home.
So they picked heaping handfuls of berries.
They wanted to carry more berries, so hunted for something to hold
them.
One woman had a rabbit skin.
The other women helped her fill it with berries.
Another woman made a basket of oak leaves.
They filled that with berries.

Sharptooth gathered some rushes from a marshy place and tried still
another way.
She sat down upon the grass and began to weave.
The bottom of the basket was soon made.
Then she bent the rushes and tied the ends together.
After that she wove round and round.
When the basket was deep enough she fastened the ends.
Then the basket was done.
It did not have a rim.
Sharptooth did not miss the rim, for this was her first basket.
She called the women and children around her.
They ran up to see what she had made.

Every one wanted to take it.
It did not take long to fill the basket with berries.
Sharptooth took them home to the children.
How glad the little ones were when they saw the women and children!
They were glad to eat the berries.
While they were smacking their lips, Sharptooth showed them the
basket.
That night as the fathers and mothers came home, the children ran out
to meet them.
Each time they told what Sharptooth had made.
Each time they showed the rush basket.
It was not many days before each of the older children had made one
like it.

THINGS TO DO

_Look at the pictures in this lesson and see how Sharptooth's basket
was made._
_Gather tough grasses or rushes and make a basket of your own._
_Show how the children ran to meet the fathers and mothers as they
came home at night. Draw the picture._

XXVII.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Do you think that the fire clan used fire in as many ways as we do?
What do we use it for?
How many uses do you think that the fire clan made of it?
Can you think how people learned to cook food?

_How Bodo Used Fire_

All the Tree-dwellers now knew that the fire was their friend.
They found it useful in many ways.
It guarded the spot where they slept at night, and it helped them all
through the day.
They no longer swung from branch to branch.
When they carried a firebrand, it was safe to walk on the ground.
Their hands were at last free.
When Bodo started out with his firebrand the wild animals ran to their
dens.
Sometimes Bodo pursued them.
He chased some of the animals home to their dens, but he never went to
the caves.
Sabre-tooth and the cave-bear were too large and fierce.
The hyenas were small, but they lived in packs.
So Bodo learned to let them alone.

But he was not afraid of the gophers and badgers.
He chased them to their holes and tried to smoke them out.
He would build a fire at the mouth of a hole.
Then he would stand with a club in his hand and watch.
He would watch until the animal came out.
Sometimes he had to wait a long time.

But in the end he nearly always got meat to eat.
One day he was hunting squirrels.
He chased a squirrel to its hole in a tree.
Then he tried to smoke it out.
He waited a long time in vain, so at last he set fire to the tree.
But the rain soon came and his fire went out.
So Bodo struck the tree with his club.
The trunk gave way.
Bodo peeped into the hollow tree.
He wanted to find the squirrel.

It lay there perfectly still.
He put in his hand and pulled it out.
It had been killed by the fire and smoke.
He began to eat the warm flesh.
He wondered why it was so hot and tender.
Bodo did not know then that the flesh had been roasted.
This was the first time that he had ever eaten cooked food.
Not long afterward all the people learned to roast meat.

THINGS TO DO

_Draw a picture of Bodo hunting with a firebrand._
_See if you can find trees that have hollows in them._
_How do you think that the hollows were made?_
_Find out whether there are any animals near you that live in hollow
trees._

XXVIII.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Do you think that the people of the fire clan would help one another
in time of danger?
Can you think why people began to work together instead of hunting
alone?

_How Bodo Saved One-Ear's Life_

One day One-Ear was hunting gophers on the grassy upland.
His torch went out.
So he tried to get back to the wooded hills without being seen.
At first he crept through the tall grass.
But he soon came to a place where the grass did not cover him.
He hurried on as fast as he could.
He had almost reached the wooded hills when a cave-bear crossed his
path.
The bear saw him.
One-Ear shouted for help, and then ran as he had never run before.

But the cave-bear overtook him.
He soon had One-Ear in his embrace.
One-Ear remembered nothing more, but the men who heard him saw what
happened.
They saw the cave-bear grasp him with his huge paws.
Then they saw Bodo rush up to the cave-bear and wave a torch in his
face.
The cave-bear let go his hold.
The frightened beast ran off to his cave.
The men came up in time to help Bodo raise One-Ear from the ground.
They helped him back to the wooded hills.
His wounds were soon healed, but he always carried the marks of that
cave-bear.
That was the day that he lost his ear.
We have called him One-Ear before, but the fire clan never called him
One-Ear until after that day.

THINGS TO DO

_Find a stick that will make a good torch and make one._
_Draw a picture of One-Ear and the cave-bear._

XXIX.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

How do you think the fire clan spent the evening?
If they could not say what they wished to say, how do you think they
would make themselves understood?
How do you think that they learned to hunt together?

_How People Learned to Hunt Large Animals_

For many days the men talked about One-Ear's narrow escape.
They acted the whole thing over again.
One man would show what One-Ear did.
Another would take the part of the cave-bear.
Then some one would play he was Bodo and rush up with a make-believe
torch.
Others showed how the men came up to the spot and helped One-Ear home.
They played this over and over again.
They learned to work together.
They learned to play other plays as well.
They learned it in this way: They watched the wild animals all through
the day.

At night they showed what they had seen.
At last they made plans for hunting them.
They did it the way children make a new game.
First they chose a leader for the play.
Then the leader asked them all to help.
He showed them what to do.
They all did as the leader said.
They learned to play together.
This play was their hunting dance.
It helped the people to hunt together.
It helped the brave men to lead in the hunt.
It helped all the people to do their part.
Only brave men were given a chance to lead the hunting dance.
Each one led the best that he could.
The people always chose the man that they thought led the best.
This man led them all in the hunt the next day.

THINGS TO DO

_Let any one who would like to lead in a hunt, lead in a hunting
dance._
_When all have led who wish to do so, let the class choose the one who
led the best._

XXX.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Why do you think the Tree-dwellers liked their brave men best?
How do you think they helped them to become more brave?
Can you think why people had not yet learned to wear clothing?
Why would they care more for ornaments at first?
Have you ever heard any one speak of "a feather in one's cap"?
Can you tell what is meant by it?
What kind of ornaments do you like to wear?
Do you know how to make them?
Can you make such ornaments as the Tree-dwellers wore?

_Why People Began to Wear Ornaments_

The fire clan played a hunting dance each night.
They hunted every day.
They began to attack the larger animals.
Brave men were needed to do this.
Men liked to show that they were brave.
So they kept trophies of their conflicts with the wild beasts.
These trophies were sometimes teeth and claws.
Sometimes they were beautiful skins and feathers.
When men found the time they worked upon them.

They made them into curious ornaments.
It was hard work to bore holes through the teeth and claws.
But they learned to do it.

They strung them on sinews and hung them about their necks.
Sometimes they wore them on their arms and wrists.
Sometimes they wore them on their ankles and knees.
They made head-dresses of the feathers.
They covered their shoulders with the skins.
Men did not wear skins to keep themselves warm.
They wore them to show that they were brave.
Such trophies were worn by all the brave men.
These men were the leaders in time of danger.
When they were successful in the hunt, the people praised them.
When they failed, the people mocked them.
So they tried to do their work well.
They tried to find the best stones for tools and weapons.
They worked until they made them sharp and strong.
They studied the animals until they learned their ways.
They taught the people the hunting dance.
They kept the trophies of their brave deeds.
They were brave men.
All the people praised them.

THINGS TO DO

_Tell a story of how Bodo earned a trophy._
_Find ornaments that you think the leaders might have worn._
_Dress some dolls the way you think that the leaders dressed._
_Perhaps you would like to string seeds and make a necklace._

XXXI.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

What animals live in the cold north?
Do they like to live there?
Would you be surprised if any of these animals came here to live?
If they came, what do you think it would mean?

_The Coming of the Musk Sheep_

One day long after Bodo lived some men went up the valley to hunt.
They had not gone far when the leader waved his hand.
All the men stopped to find out what he wanted.
He pointed to a herd of strange animals feeding on the rocky slope.
Then he motioned to show them what to do.
He sent some of the men up the trail to the right.
He motioned for others to go to the left.
He wanted to surround the animals.
The strange creatures soon caught sight of the hunters.
They huddled together like frightened sheep.
Then the men thought they could surely catch them.
They shouted aloud for joy.
But the animals turned and ran up the slope.
They jumped over rocks and chasms with ease.
They were soon out of sight.
How disappointed the hunters were!
They did not know what these strange animals were.
They did not know from what place they had come.
They wondered why they had come to their land.
Perhaps you would like to know.
They were musk sheep that had come from the cold, cold north.
They were used to treeless, desolate places.
They were used to eating moss and young shoots of the willow.
They looked something like sheep and something like oxen.
Sometimes they are called musk oxen.
They looked something like the bison.
Sometimes they are called musk bison.
Does it seem strange that the musk sheep should leave their cold home
and come to the land where the Tree-dwellers had lived?
It was not so strange as it seemed.
Many years had passed since the Tree-dwellers lived.
It was no longer warm on the wooded hills.
There was snow on the ground the greater part of the year.
After many years it became very cold.
Then all the animals came down from the north.
The coming of the musk sheep was the sign of the coming cold.

THINGS TO DO

_Bend your arms to show how the musk sheep's horns curve._
_How do you think the musk sheep used its horns?_
_Model a musk sheep in clay._

XXXII.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

What animals stay here in the winter?
How do they keep warm?
How do they find food?

_The Woolly Rhinoceros_

About the same time that the musk sheep came from the north, another
strange animal appeared.
It was a huge creature.
Not one like it has lived for ages.
It was a woolly rhinoceros.
The big-nosed rhinoceros liked to live where it was warm.
It lived on the wooded hills before the Tree-dwellers did.
The small-nosed rhinoceros liked the warm country, too.
It came from the south when the Tree-dwellers appeared.
But the woolly rhinoceros came down from the north.
It was able to live in the cold.
It had an inner coat of fine curly wool.
This coat kept it warm.
It had a coarse, hairy outer coat.
This coat kept it from feeling heavy blows.
It had two horns on its ugly snout.
They kept it safe from harm.
When it was not disturbed it was a peaceable animal.
But when it was attacked there was no animal that was more fierce.
The other animals learned to let it alone.
Sometimes the wolves and hyenas frightened it over a precipice.
But it was a long time before men tried to hunt it.

THINGS TO DO

_Tell a story of how the wild animals were taught to let the woolly
rhinoceros alone._
_See if you can find an animal that has both an inner and an outer
coat._

XXXIII.

_How We Have Learned About the Tree-dwellers_

The Tree-dwellers lived such a long time ago that we do not know all
that they did.
But they have left some things to tell their story.
A few of their bones and stone weapons have been found in the gravel.
We have learned something about the Tree-dwellers from studying these.
Bones of animals that lived then have been found in the caves.
They tell something more about the life of the Tree-dwellers.
Marks of plants have been found upon the rocks.
They, too, help to tell the story.
Wise men have studied all these things.
They have tried to learn all that they could about these people.
We have written their story in this book for you, so that you may know
how our forefathers lived before they learned how to use fire.

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS

The test of a book is the service it can render. The character of the service demanded by it is determined by the needs of those to whom it is devoted. This book was not written for the child of five or six years, although children of that age have shown an interest in it. The child of five or six is absorbed in the activities of his own home and his immediate environment. His own neighborhood may well constitute the chief source from which to draw the subject-matter in these early years. Even though many of the processes that he observes are complex, it matters little to the child at this time; for so easily do they lend themselves to dramatic play that they cause him little difficulty. The child at this time, therefore, has no need of this book.

But there comes a time when the ideal and the real world begin to separate. No longer content with a "make-believe" process, and unable to control the complex processes of modern life, he feels a need that cannot be satisfied by the resources of his neighborhood alone. There is need of looking elsewhere in order to find experiences that are sufficiently related to his spontaneous activities to enlist his attention, and sufficiently related to what is best in the society in which he lives to form legitimate subject-matter for this period of development. The materials which constitute the subject-matter of this book have been selected and arranged with reference to the needs of the child at such a time. It is the child of six and a half or seven years for whom this book is intended.

Were it not true that so many books that are written for children have little regard for real facts, it would seem unnecessary to state that in no case has material been introduced into this book which cannot be justified by reference to a recognized authority in anthropology, paleontology, or geology. The story-form by means of which these facts are conveyed is merely a literary device for bringing home to the child the truth that has thus far been ascertained regarding the fundamental steps in the development of our industrial and social institutions.

The portrayal of the situation which caused our early forefathers to rob birds' nests and kill young animals will no doubt shock the sentimentalist who orders eggs or veal as a matter of course. There might be good ground for his feeling were there not present in the child the instinct to do similar deeds even though living under social conditions that do not justify such acts. Any one who will take the trouble to recall his own childhood, or to make the acquaintance of children of six and a half or seven years, will realize that such instincts are present, and that they must find expression in one form or another. Is it wise to ignore the facts of the case and allow the child to form the habit of gratifying his blind instincts, or shall we recognize the situation and meet it with all the wisdom at our command? Is it not the better plan to tell the child frankly of the way in which people lived at the time when they did what he would like to do now, and lead him to discover the changes that have taken place that lead us to disapprove of actions which, under different conditions, were considered good?

The teacher who knows that she has good ground for her convictions is not afraid to look upon a question from all sides. The fact that the teacher is willing to look at a question from the child's point of view is a means of establishing sympathetic relations between her and the child, who thus becomes willing to look at the question from the teacher's point of view. A sounder morality can be developed by honestly facing the facts with the child and by giving him the benefit of a broader experience, than by leaving him to face the situation alone in the light of but part of the facts. The problems with which the child at this time is grappling are so similar in character to those of the race during the early periods of its development that they afford the child a rich background of experience suited to his own needs. The successful solution of these problems is as important with reference to the development of the individual to-day as then in determining the welfare of the race. A firm basis for the development of the intellectual, the moral, and the physical life can thus be laid at this time by a wise use of the experiences of the race when it was laying the foundations upon which our civilization rests. It must be remembered that there is as wide a difference between the real situation in the hunting life and the scenes depicted in this book as there is between the real attitudes of primitive people and those of the child, which are idealized forms of the same attitudes.[1] The child would shrink in terror from the real conflict. His interest is in the dramatized form. If this dramatic interest of the child is satisfied, it can be made to pay tribute to the sciences and the arts. If it is ignored or repressed, it is liable to find expression in acts of cruelty.

[Footnote 1: See Katharine E. Dopp, "Some Steps in the Evolution
of Social Occupations," _The Elementary School Teacher_, May
and September, 1903. The University of Chicago Press.]

METHOD

The subject-matter is presented with the view of economizing the energy of the teacher as well as that of the child. The attempt has been made to base each lesson upon the experience of the child or at least upon that which he may be enabled to experience if he has not yet done so. This experience is so treated as to secure problems for advance thought. The purpose of "_Things to Think About_" is to awaken the _inquiring attitude_. It is at this point of the lesson that the child is given the opportunity he prizes so highly of telling what he has seen, heard, or done. Here he meets with the new problems which compel him to reconstruct his experiences. The printed questions, which map out the main features in the development of the lesson, should be discussed freely. Care should be taken to avoid mechanical answers. It is much better to leave questions unsettled, or to leave the subject with several different solutions that the different children have worked out, than it is to secure uniformity by imposing upon the child the judgment of the teacher or of the author of the text. In case of a necessary delay in answering a question on account of a lack of related experience, the teacher should use the means that are available for supplying the child with the necessary experience. If the printed questions are discussed before the story is read there will be less danger of a mechanical use of the book than might arise from the habit of reading the story first and making answers to the questions so as to fit the story.

_The Story._ The function of the story is to supply the child with racial experiences that will enrich his own more narrow personal experience. It is not intended merely to please but to _present facts_ in a form which the child can understand. By using the simple form of a sequence of sentences, each sentence standing by itself, less difficulty is presented to the child in reading than if the paragraph form had been employed. The greater ease with which the young child reads this style, together with the fact that the rhythm in a majority of the stories is of a character in keeping with the subject, and readily appreciated by the child, seem to justify the use of this style for a few months of the child's life.

_Things to Do._ The teacher should use her judgment in regard to how many of these suggestions it is best to carry out in the school hours. In schools where little work has yet been done in pantomime, drawing, modeling, and other kindred modes of activity, it will probably be the better plan to have many of the suggestions carried out in hours of play. If the teacher takes an interest in what the child does outside of school hours as well as in what he does in regular recitation and work periods, and if she utilizes the experiences of the child that are gained in informal ways, she will have no difficulty in securing the heartiest cooperation in the work of the school. Where constructive work has already been introduced, the teacher will have no difficulty in selecting from the suggested activities those that are best adapted to her purpose. She should always feel free to substitute for any of the printed suggestions others that may more nearly meet the needs of the child in the locality in which she lives.

TYPICAL MODES OF ACTIVITY

"If there is one principle more than another upon which all
educational practice, not simply education in art, must base
itself, it is precisely in this: that the realization of an idea
in action through the medium of movement is as necessary to the
formation of the mental image as is the expression, the technique,
to the full play of the idea itself." --_John Dewey._

_Gesture and Pantomime._ The muscular sense is the foundation sense from which all the others have been derived. Perceptions through sight and hearing are uncertain, often requiring to be verified by the use of the muscular sense or even by the use of smell or taste. Knowledge gained through the use of sight and hearing may be superficial; that which comes through the use of the muscular sense is wrought into the very fiber of one's being.

Among the more simple modes of using the muscular sense are gesture and pantomime. They are within the reach of every teacher. They require no materials. A worthy idea and the desire to communicate it are the essential conditions for profitable work. Gesture and pantomime are too powerful tools in education to be used carelessly. The teacher should aid the child in discovering the real motive which animated the character to be represented. She should appeal to the best in the child. In so doing she will be able to use gesture and pantomime in such a way as to transform activities, which when undirected are liable to degenerate into vicious habits, into activities of great moral significance.

Teachers who have tried gesture and pantomime as a preparatory step to other modes of activity have found it invaluable as a means of securing a genuine growth of imagery and free expression in a variety of forms.

_Play._ It is now well known that many of the child's spontaneous plays are idealized reproductions of the serious activities of primitive people. It is possible to make a much larger use of these plays than has yet been made. It is hoped that the suggestions that are scattered throughout the pages of this and the succeeding volumes of this series will enable the teacher to make a large use of this most important educational force.

_Sand Modeling._ Almost every child has had experience in sand modeling before coming to school. The part of the teacher is to enable him to make use of this habit with reference to new ends. One who has not learned through experience the value of this art is scarcely in a position to realize what a stimulus it is to the growth of definite images of geographical forms. When based upon observation, as it always should be, it is unsurpassed as a mode of developing and communicating adequate conceptions of topographical features. Sand pans should be provided so that there will be at least one pan for every two children. If each child can have a pan, the conditions will be still more favorable. Whether sand pans are available or not, every primary school-room should be supplied with a large sand box--two or three if there is room for them. Excellent results have been attained in many schools by modeling typical areas and representing in a graphic way the life of the place. If the sand box is lined with zinc, rivers and lakes may be represented with ease. In case there is no zinc lining, water may be represented by the use of tin foil, or by glass which may be laid in the bottom of the box, leaving only such portions uncovered as are needed in order to represent the water. Moss, twigs, grass, stones, toy animals--all help to make the scene more lifelike. By sprinkling the sand with lime water it hardens so as to keep its shape for a long time.

_Clay Modeling._ Although clay does not respond so quickly to the touch as sand, it preserves its shape more easily. The more skill that the teacher has in clay modeling the more freedom she will feel in the work, but she should not hesitate to make use of this mode of expression even though she has to learn with the child. The aim is not so much to secure finish in details, or a result similar to that reached by other people, as it is to secure the growth of the image and freedom in expression. Only by leading the child to compare the result of his work with the image in his mind does the image grow. By so doing, and by referring to the real object when present, the child gradually gains control over this mode of acquiring and communicating ideas.

It costs but little to supply a class with clay, for the same material may be used again and again. It is desirable, however, to have a sufficient supply to permit the preservation of the best work for some time. Clay may be bought ready mixed at art stores and in kindergarten supply stores. The common gray clay costs two or three cents a pound. Artists' clay costs five cents a pound. A cheaper kind can be obtained of manufacturers of sewer pipes. The teacher will find suggestions regarding the use of clay in Frye's _Child and Nature_, pp. 36-8; Kellogg's _Forty Lessons in Clay Modeling_; Prang's _Art Instruction in Primary Schools_, First Year, pp. 27-39, Second Year, 32-43; and in Kate Douglas Wiggin and Nora A. Smith's _Froebel's Occupations_, pp. 32-43. Excellent articles illustrated by the work of children appear in _The University Elementary Record_, which is published by the University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

_Basketry._ The materials of which baskets are made are less pliable than clay or sand, yet the child of seven is able to manipulate some of them. Where possible he should be encouraged to exploit his environment in the search for raw materials that are adapted to this purpose. In many localities tough grasses, willows, rushes, or other pliable materials are present, and even though the child finds little that is adapted to the purpose, the mere search for materials enables him to appreciate the value of the commercially prepared ones and aids him in picturing these materials in their raw state. The pleasant days of autumn should be used for collecting such supplies as are available at that time. These may be prepared for use and stored until they may be needed later in the year. If the child makes a ball of braided grass he will find many ways of using it later in making baskets, mats, cradles, sandals, or anything which he may choose to make of it.

Where natural materials cannot be obtained, commercially prepared ones may be substituted. Raffia, uncolored or colored with vegetable dyes, rattan reeds, and splints may be obtained wherever kindergarten supplies are kept, as well as in large seed stores and in most of the department stores in large cities. Of the many books that are appearing upon the subject probably none is more suggestive with reference to the significance of the art than George Wharton James's _Indian Basketry_, and none more helpful with reference to mastering the processes than Mary White's _How to Make Baskets_.

_Drawing and Painting._ Since these arts were originally derived from gesture language, it is not strange that gesture and pantomime are the best means of preparing the child for these modes of communication. The child who has difficulty in expressing his image by means of drawing and painting should be given the opportunity to experiment by means of pantomime until his image has become so clear that he can express it in a less real way. Few children fail to draw and paint reasonably well when afforded this opportunity that should be denied to none. In order to secure the best results the teacher should be careful not to repress spontaneity by criticising too severely; on the other hand she should induce the child to make such comparisons of his work with his image and with the object when present, as to prevent the formation of careless habits of work. Although water colors are used in some schools, such materials present more difficulties than it seems worth the while for the child to encounter. More satisfactory results have thus far been reached by the use of blackboard crayon, colored crayon, and charcoal.

_Language._ When the child talks about what he has experienced, his language is almost invariably simple and direct. The lessons in this book afford ample opportunity for the use of the fundamental forms of language in communicating actual experience. Many of the stories may well be supplemented by stories that the child tells himself. Care should be taken, however, to keep the child within the limits of what was possible during the age to which his story refers. Much benefit is derived from allowing the children of the class to dramatize a story after they have read it and represented it by means of pantomime. Although there is ample room for written work, it is _oral_ rather than written language that should receive emphasis at this time.

_Field Lessons._ The geographical phases of the work are referred to so frequently throughout the text as well as under the special suggestions for each lesson, that little need be added at this time except to emphasize the fact that the teacher should make use of every opportunity to cultivate in the child an intelligent interest in his natural environment. Perhaps nothing will contribute more toward developing this interest than field lessons. The value of these lessons will depend upon whether an adequate motive is aroused in the child for taking the trip and upon whether he is given the opportunity to make use of the experience gained in a practical way. There are schools in crowded quarters of large cities where it does not yet seem practicable to take an entire class out on a field lesson. But it is always feasible to make use of informal observations that the child makes from day to day as well as the results of trips that have previously been taken by some members of the class. During the time that this book is used it is hoped that at least two or three of the following field trips or excursions may be made:

1. To uncultivated spots on hillsides, in the woods, and on natural meadows to find--

(_a_) A place where the Tree-dwellers might have lived.

(_b_) Wild foods, and to discover if possible the reasons for
abundance or scarcity of certain forms.

(_c_) Trees that offer protection from the sun and rain, and branches
that are tough and strong.

(_d_) Suitable sticks for primitive implements and weapons.

(_e_) Grasses, barks, willows, rushes, and other tough and flexible
fibers for basketry.

(_f_) The topographical features which later are to be represented
in sand.

(_g_) What animals now live in uncultivated places.

2. To a brook or river to find--

(_a_) The best drinking-places for animals.

(_b_) The best fords.

(_c_) The best places to build bridges.

(_d_) Stones for primitive implements and weapons.

(_e_) How the river grinds the stones.

(_f_) What the river carries in its water.

(_g_) What plants and animals may be seen there.

3. To a circus to see the wild animals, so as to be better able to realize what the animals that lived when the Tree-dwellers did were like.

4. To a farm to find--

(_a_) What animals live there, how they are taken care of, and how
they differ from wild animals.

(_b_) What plants are cultivated on the farm and in the gardens, how
they are cultivated, and how they differ from the wild plants that
can be found in uncultivated spots.

5. To a gravel bed or stone quarry to find--

(_a_) What kinds of stone are there.

(_b_) How stone is quarried and what it is used for.

(_c_) A problem with reference to how the gravel bed or the stone
quarry was made.

SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS

The child asks many questions, some of which are difficult to answer. Since what has been ascertained regarding the period during which the Tree-dwellers lived is not contained in books that are generally available, it has seemed best to present at this time such summarized statements as will furnish the teacher with the facts that she may need.

ANIMAL LIFE

_Extinct Species._ Among the animals of the mid-Pleistocene period that have since become extinct were the Irish deer; the big-nosed, the small-nosed, and the woolly rhinoceros; the mammoth; the cave-bear; and a sabre-toothed felis (_Machairodus latidens_), sometimes, though incorrectly, referred to as the cave-tiger.