Chapter V: Part 5

"I might greatly extend the number of my extracts from these authors; but here, I trust, are enough. I had noted down about _two hundred errors_ in Dr. Johnson's 'Lives of the Poets'; but, afterward perceiving that he had revised and corrected 'The Rambler' with _extraordinary care_, I chose to make my extracts from that work rather than from the 'Lives of the Poets.'"

The position of the adverb should be as near as possible to the word it qualifies. Sometimes we place it before the auxiliary and sometimes after it, according to the thought we wish to express. The difference between "The fish should _properly_ be broiled" and "The fish should be _properly_ broiled" is apparent at a glance. "The colon may be _properly_ used in the following cases": should be, "may _properly_ be used." "This mode of expression _rather suits_ a familiar than a grave style": should be, "suits a familiar _rather than_ a grave style." "It is a frequent error _in the writings even_ of some good authors": should be, "in the writings of _even some good_ authors." "_Both_ the circumstances of contingency and futurity are necessary": should be, "The circumstances of contingency and futurity are _both_ necessary." "He has made charges ... which he has failed _utterly_ to sustain."--"New York Tribune." Here it is uncertain at first sight which verb the adverb is intended to qualify; but the nature of the case makes it probable that the writer meant "has utterly failed to sustain."

MISTAKEN. "If I am not _mistaken_, you are in the wrong": say, "If I _mistake not_." "I tell you, you are _mistaken_." Here _mistaken_ means, "You are wrong; you do not understand"; but it might be taken to mean, "I _mistake you_." For "you are _mistaken_," say, "you _mistake_." If, as Horace and Professor Davidson aver, usage in language makes right, then the grammarians ought long ago to have invented some theory upon which the locution _you are mistaken_ could be defended. Until they do invent such a theory, it will be better to say _you mistake_, _he mistakes_, and so on; or _you are_, or _he is_--as the case may be--_in error_.

MORE PERFECT. Such expressions as, "the _more_ perfect of the two," "the _most_ perfect thing of the kind I have ever seen," "the _most_ complete cooking-stove ever invented," and the like, can not be defended logically, as nothing can be more perfect than perfection, or more complete than completeness. Still such phrases are, and probably will continue to be, used by good writers.

MOST. "Everybody abuses this word," says Mr. Gould in his "Good English"; and then, in another paragraph, he adds: "If a man would cross out _most_ wherever he can find it in any book in the English language, he would in _al_most every instance improve the style of the book." That this statement may appear within bounds, he gives many examples from good authors, some of which are the following: "a _most_ profound silence"; "a _most_ just idea"; "a _most_ complete orator"; "this was _most_ extraordinary"; "an object of _most_ perfect esteem"; "a _most_ extensive erudition"; "he gave it _most_ liberally away"; "it is, _most_ assuredly, not because I value his services least"; "would _most_ seriously affect us"; "that such a system must _most_ widely and _most_ powerfully," etc.; "it is _most_ effectually nailed to the counter"; "it is _most_ undeniable that," etc.

This word is much, and very erroneously, used for _almost_. "He comes here _most_ every day." The user of such a sentence as this means to say that he comes _nearly_ every day, but he _really says_, if he says anything, that he comes more every day than he does every night. In such sentences _almost_, and not _most_, is the word to use.

MUTUAL. This word is much misused in the phrase "our _mutual_ friend." Macaulay says: "_Mutual_ friend is a low vulgarism for _common_ friend." _Mutual_ properly relates to two persons, and implies reciprocity of sentiment--sentiment, be it what it may, received and returned. Thus, we say properly, "John and James have a _mutual_ affection, or a _mutual_ aversion," i. e., they like or dislike each other; or, "John and James are _mutually_ dependent," i. e., they are dependent on each other. In using the word _mutual_, care should be taken not to add the words _for each other_ or _on each other_, the thought conveyed by these words being already expressed in the word _mutual_. "Dependent on each other" is the exact equivalent of "mutually dependent"; hence, saying that John and James are _mutually_ dependent _on each other_ is as redundant in form as it would be to say that the editors of "The Great Vilifier" are the biggest, greatest mud-slingers in America.

MYSELF. This form of the personal pronoun is properly used in the nominative case only where _increased emphasis_ is aimed at.

"I had as lief not be as live to be
In awe of such a thing as I _myself_."

"I will do it _myself_," "I saw it _myself_." It is, therefore, incorrect to say, "Mrs. Brown and myself were both very much pleased."

NAME. This word is sometimes improperly used for _mention_; thus, "I never _named_ the matter to any one": should be, "I never _mentioned_ the matter to any one."

NEIGHBORHOOD. See VICINITY.

NEITHER. See EITHER.

NEITHER--NOR. "He would _neither_ give wine, _nor_ oil, _nor_ money."--Thackeray. The conjunction should be placed before the excluded object; "neither _give_" implies neither some other _verb_, a meaning not intended. Rearrange thus, taking all the common parts of the contracted sentences together: "He would give _neither_ wine, _nor_ oil, _nor_ money." So, "She can _neither_ help her beauty, _nor_ her courage, _nor_ her cruelty" (Thackeray), should be, "She can help _neither_," etc. "He had _neither_ time to intercept _nor_ to stop her" (Scott), should be, "He had time _neither_ to intercept," etc. "Some _neither_ can for wits _nor_ critics pass" (Pope), should be, "Some can _neither_ for wits _nor_ critics pass."

NEVER. Grammarians differ with regard to the correctness of using _never_ in such sentences as, "He is in error, though _never_ so wise," "Charm he _never_ so wisely." In sentences like these, to say the least, it is better, in common with the great majority of writers, to use _ever_.

NEW. This adjective is often misplaced. "He has a _new_ suit of clothes and a _new_ pair of gloves." It is not the _suit_ and the _pair_ that are new, but the _clothes_ and the _gloves_.

NICE. Archdeacon Hare remarks of the use, or rather misuse, of this word: "That stupid vulgarism by which we use the word _nice_ to denote almost every mode of approbation, for almost every variety of quality, and, from sheer poverty of thought, or fear of saying anything definite, wrap up everything indiscriminately in this characterless domino, speaking at the same breath of a _nice_ cheese-cake, a _nice_ tragedy, a _nice_ sermon, a _nice_ day, a _nice_ country, as if a universal deluge of _niaiserie_--for _nice_ seems originally to have been only _niais_--had whelmed the whole island." Nice is as good a word as any other in its place, but its place is not everywhere. We talk very properly about a _nice_ distinction, a _nice_ discrimination, a _nice_ calculation, a _nice_ point, and about a person's being _nice_, and over-_nice_, and the like; but we certainly ought not to talk about "Othello's" being a _nice_ tragedy, about Salvini's being a _nice_ actor, or New York bay's being a _nice_ harbor.[23]

NICELY. The very quintessence of popinjay vulgarity is reached when _nicely_ is made to do service for _well_, in this wise: "How do you do?" "_Nicely_." "How are you?" "_Nicely_."

NO. This word of negation is responded to by _nor_ in sentences like this: "Let your meaning be obscure, and _no_ grace of diction _nor_ any music of well-turned sentences will make amends."

"Whether he is there or _no_." Supply the ellipsis, and we have, "Whether he is there or _no_ there." Clearly, the word to use in sentences like this is not _no_, but _not_. And yet our best writers sometimes inadvertently use _no_ with _whether_. Example: "But perhaps some people are quite indifferent _whether_ or _no_ it is said," etc.--Richard Grant White, in "Words and Their Uses," p. 84. Supply the ellipsis, and we have, "said or _no_ said." In a little book entitled "Live and Learn," I find, "No _less_ than fifty persons were there; No _fewer_," etc. In correcting one mistake, the writer himself makes one. It should be, "_Not_ fewer," etc. If we ask, "There were fifty persons there, were there or were there _not_?" the reply clearly would be, "There were _not_ fewer than fifty." "There was _no_ one of them who would not have been proud," etc., should be, "There was _not_ one of them."

NOT. The correlative of _not_, when it stands in the first member of a sentence, is _nor_ or _neither_. "_Not_ for thy ivory _nor_ thy gold will I unbind thy chain." "I will _not_ do it, _neither_ shall you."

The wrong placing of _not_ often gives rise to an imperfect negation; thus, "John and James were _not_ there," means that John and James were not there _in company_. It does not exclude the presence of one of them. The negative should precede in this case: "Neither John _nor_ James was there." "Our company was _not_ present" (as a company, but some of us might have been), should be, "No member of our company was present."

NOT--BUT ONLY. "Errors frequently arise in the use of _not_--but _only_, to understand which we must attend to the force of the whole expression. 'He did _not_ pretend to extirpate French music, _but only_ to cultivate and civilize it.' Here the _not_ is obviously misplaced. 'He pretended, or professed, _not_ to extirpate.'"--Bain.

NOTORIOUS. Though this word can not be properly used in any but a bad sense, we sometimes see it used instead of _noted_, which may be used in either a good or a bad sense. _Notorious_ characters are always persons to be shunned, whereas _noted_ characters may or may not be persons to be shunned.

"This is the tax a man must pay for his virtues--they hold up a torch to his vices and render those frailties _notorious_ in him which would pass without observation in another."--Lacon.

NOVICE. See AMATEUR.

NUMBER. It is not an uncommon thing for a pronoun in the plural number to be used in connection with an antecedent in the singular. At present, the following notice may be seen in some of our Broadway omnibuses: "Fifty dollars reward for the conviction of any person caught collecting or keeping fares given to _them_ to deposit in the box." Should be, to _him_. "A person may be very near-sighted if _they_ can not recognize an acquaintance ten feet off." Should be, if _he_.

The verb _to be_ is often used in the singular instead of in the plural; thus, "There _is_ several reasons why it would be better": say, _are_. "How many _is_ there?" say, _are_. "There _is_ four": say, _are_. "_Was_ there many?" say, _were_. "No matter how many there _was_": say, _were_.

A verb should agree in number with its subject, and not with its predicate. We say, for example, "Death _is_ the wages of sin," and "The wages of sin _are_ death."

"When singular nouns connected by _and_ are preceded by _each_, _every_, or _no_, the verb must be singular." We say, for example, "_Each_ boy and _each_ girl _studies_." "_Every_ leaf, and _every_ twig, and _every_ drop of water _teems_ with life." "_No_ book and _no_ paper _was_ arranged."

_Each_ being singular, a pronoun or verb to agree with it must also be singular; thus, "Let them depend each on _his_ own exertions"; "Each city has _its_ peculiar privileges"; "Everybody has a right to look after _his_ own interest."

Errors are often the result of not repeating the verb; thus, "Its significance is as varied as the passions": correctly, "as _are_ the passions." "The words are as incapable of analysis as the thing signified": correctly, "as _is_ the thing signified."

OBSERVE. The dictionaries authorize the use of this word as a synonym of _say_ and _remark_; as, for example, "What did you _observe_?" for "What did you _say_, or _remark_?" In this sense, however, it is better to leave _observe_ to the exclusive use of those who delight in being fine.

O'CLOCK. "It is a quarter _to_ ten o'clock." What does this statement mean, literally? We _understand_ by it that it lacks a quarter of ten, i. e., of being ten; but it does not really mean that. Inasmuch as _to_ means toward, it _really_ means a quarter after nine. We should say, then, a quarter _of_, which means, literally, a quarter _out of_ ten.

OF ALL OTHERS. "The vice of covetousness, _of all others_, enters deepest into the soul." This sentence says that covetousness is one of the _other_ vices. A thing can not be _another_ thing, nor can it be one of a number of _other_ things. The sentence should be, "Of all the vices, covetousness enters deepest into the soul"; or, "The vice of covetousness, of all the vices, enters," etc.; or, "The vice of covetousness, _above_ all others, enters," etc.

OF ANY. This phrase is often used when _of all_ is meant; thus, "This is the largest _of any_ I have seen." Should be, "the largest _of all_," etc.

OFF OF. In such sentences as, "Give me a yard _off of_ this piece of calico," either the _off_ or the _of_ is vulgarly superfluous. The sentence would be correct with either one, but not with both of them. "The apples fell _off of_ the tree": read, "fell _off_ the tree."

OFTEN. This adverb is properly compared by changing its termination: often, oftener, oftenest. Why some writers use _more_ and _most_ to compare it, it is not easy to see; this mode of comparing it is certainly not euphonious.

OH--O. It is only the most careful writers who use these two interjections with proper discrimination. The distinction between them is said to be modern. _Oh_ is simply an exclamation, and should always be followed by some mark of punctuation, usually by an exclamation point. "Oh! you are come at last." "Oh, help him, you sweet heavens!" "Oh, woe is me!" "Oh! I die, Horatio." _O_, in addition to being an exclamation, denotes a calling to or adjuration; thus, "Hear, O heavens, and give ear, O earth!" "O grave, where is thy victory?" "O heavenly powers, restore him!" "O shame! where is thy blush?"

OLDER--ELDER. "He is the _older_ man of the two, and the _oldest_ in the neighborhood." "He is the _elder_ of the two sons, and the _eldest_ of the family." "The _elder_ son is heir to the estate; he is _older_ than his brother by ten years."

ON TO. We get _on_ a chair, _on_ an omnibus, _on_ a stump, and _on_ a spree, and not on _to_.

ONE. Certain pronouns of demonstrative signification are called indefinite because they refer to no particular subject. This is one of them. If we were putting a supposition by way of argument or illustration, we might say, "Suppose _I_ were to lose my way in a wood"; or, "Suppose _you_ were to lose your way in a wood"; or, "Suppose _one_ were to lose _one's_ way in a wood." All these forms are used, but, as a rule, the last is to be preferred. The first verges on egotism, and the second makes free with another's person, whereas the third is indifferent. "If _one's_ honesty were impeached, what should _one_ do?" is more courtly than to take either one's self or the person addressed for the example.

_One_ should be followed by _one_, and not by _he_. "The better acquainted _one_ is with any kind of rhetorical trick, the less liable _he_ is to be misled by it." Should be, "the less liable _one_ is to be misled by it."

In the phrase, "any of the little _ones_," _one_ is the numeral employed in the manner of a pronoun, by indicating something that has gone before, or, perhaps, has to come after. "I like peaches, but I must have a ripe _one_, or ripe _ones_."

Professor Bain says, in his "Composition Grammar":

"This pronoun continually lands writers in difficulties. English idiom requires that, when the pronoun has to be again referred to, it should be used itself a second time. The correct usage is shown by Pope: '_One_ may be ashamed to consume half _one's_ days in bringing sense and rhyme together.' It would be against idiom to say 'half _his_ days.'

"Still, the repetition of the pronoun is often felt to be heavy, and writers have recourse to various substitutions. Even an ear accustomed to the idiom can scarcely accept with unmixed pleasure this instance from Browning:

"'Alack! _one_ lies _oneself_
Even in the stating that _one's_ end was truth,
Truth only, if _one_ states so much in words.'

"The representative 'I' or 'we' occasionally acts the part of 'one.' The following sentence presents a curious alternation of 'we' with 'one'--possibly not accidental (George Eliot): 'It's a desperately vexatious thing that, after all _one's_ reflections and quiet determinations, _we_ should be ruled by moods that _one_ can't calculate on beforehand.' By the use of 'we' here, a more pointed reference is suggested, while the vagueness actually remains.

"Fenimore Cooper, like Scott, is not very particular; an example may be quoted: 'Modesty is a poor man's wealth; but, as _we_ grow substantial in the world, patroon, _one_ can afford to begin to speak truth of _himself_ as well as of _his_ neighbor.' Were Cooper a careful writer, we might persuade ourselves that he chose 'we' and 'one' with a purpose: 'we' might indicate that the speaker had himself and the patroon directly in his eye, although at the same time he wanted to put it generally; and 'one' might hint that modesty succeeded in getting the better of him. But 'himself' and 'his' would alone show that such speculations are too refined for the occasion.

"The form 'a man,' which was at one time common, seems to be reviving. In 'Adam Bede' we have, '_A man_ can never do anything at variance with his own nature.' We might substitute 'one.'

"'Men' was more frequent in good writing formerly than now. 'Neither do _men_ light a candle, and put it under a bushel.' 'Do _men_ gather grapes of thorns?' Hume is fond of expressing a general subject by 'men.'

"'Small birds are much more exposed to the cold than large _ones_.' This usage is hardly 'indefinite'; and it needs no further exemplification."

ONLY. This word, when used as an adjective, is more frequently misplaced than any other word in the language. Indeed, I am confident that it is not correctly placed half the time, either in conversation or in writing. Thus, "In its pages, papers of sterling merit [only] will _only_ appear" (Miss Braddon); "Things are getting dull down in Texas; they _only_ shot [only] three men down there last week"; "I have _only_ got [only] three." _Only_ is sometimes improperly used for _except_ or _unless_; thus, "The trains will not stop _only_ when the bell rings." The meaning here is clearly "_except_ when the bell rings."

Dr. Bain, in his "Higher English Grammar," speaking of the order of words, says:

"The word requiring most attention is _only_.

"According to the position of _only_, the same words may be made to express very different meanings.

"'He _only_ lived for their sakes.' Here _only_ must be held as qualifying '_lived_ for their sakes,' the emphasis being on _lived_, the word immediately adjoining. The meaning then is 'he _lived_,' but did not _work_, did not _die_, did not do any other thing for their sakes.

"'He lived _only_ for their sakes.' _Only_ now qualifies 'for their sakes,' and the sentence means he lived for this one reason, namely, for their sakes, and not for any other reason.

"'He lived for their sakes _only_.' The force of the word when placed at the end is peculiar. Then it often has a diminutive or disparaging signification. 'He lived for their sakes,' and not for any more worthy reason. 'He gave sixpence _only_,' is an insinuation that more was expected.

"By the use of _alone_, instead of _only_, other meanings are expressed. 'He _alone_ lived for their sakes'; that is, _he, and nobody else_, did so. 'He lived for their sakes _alone_,' or, 'for the sake of them _alone_'; that is, not for the sake of any other persons. 'It was _alone_ by the help of the Confederates that any such design could be carried out.' Better _only_.

"'When men grow virtuous in their old age, they _only_ make a sacrifice to God of the devil's leavings.'--Pope. Here _only_ is rightly placed. 'Think _only_ of the past as its remembrance gives you pleasure,' should be, 'think of the past, _only_ as its remembrance,' etc. 'As he did not leave his name, it was _only_ known that a gentleman had called on business': it was known _only_. 'I can _only_ refute the accusation by laying before you the whole': this would mean, 'the only thing I am able to do is to refute; I may not retaliate, or let it drop, I must _refute_ it.' 'The negroes are to appear at church _only_ in boots'; that is, when the negroes go to church they are to have no clothing but boots. 'The negroes are to appear _only_ at church in boots' might mean that they are not to appear anywhere but at church, whether in boots or out of them. The proper arrangement would be to connect the adverbial adjunct, _in boots_, with its verb, _appear_, and to make _only_ qualify _at church_ and no more: 'the negroes are to appear in boots _only_ at church.'"

It thus appears very plain that we should look well to our _onlys_.

OUGHT--SHOULD. These two words, though they both imply obligation, should not be used indiscriminately. _Ought_ is the stronger term; what we _ought_ to do, we are morally bound to do. We _ought_ to be truthful and honest, and _should_ be respectful to our elders and kind to our inferiors.

OVERFLOWN. _Flown_ is the past participle of _to fly_, and _flowed_ of _to flow_. As, therefore, a river does not _fly_ over its banks, but _flows_ over them, we should say of it that it has over_flowed_, and not that it has over_flown_.

OVERLY. This word is now used only by the unschooled.

OWING. See DUE.

PANTS. This abbreviation is not used by those who are careful in the choice of words. The purist does not use the word _pantaloons_ even, but _trousers_. _Pants_ are worn by _gents_ who eat _lunches_ and _open_ wine, and _trousers_ are worn by _gentlemen_ who eat _luncheons_ and _order_ wine.

PARAPHERNALIA. This is a law term. In Roman law, it meant the goods which a woman brought to her husband besides her dowry. In English law, it means the goods which a woman is allowed to have after the death of her husband, besides her dower, consisting of her apparel and ornaments suitable to her rank. When used in speaking of the affairs of every-day life, it is generally misused.

PARLOR. This word, in the sense of _drawing-room_, according to Dr. Hall, except in the United States and some of the English colonies, is obsolete.

PARTAKE. This is a very fine word to use for _eat_; just the word for young women who hobble on French heels.

PARTIALLY--PARTLY. "It is only _partially_ done." This use of the adverb _partially_ is sanctioned by high authority, but that does not make it correct. A thing done in part is _partly_, not _partially_, done.

PARTICIPLES. When the present participle is used substantively, in sentences like the following, it is preceded by the definite article and followed by the preposition _of_. The omitting of the preposition is a common error. Thus, "Or, it is _the drawing_ a conclusion which was before either unknown or dark," should be, "the drawing _of_ a conclusion." "Prompted by the most extreme vanity, he persisted in the writing bad verses," should be, "in writing bad verses," or "in the writing _of_ bad verses." "There is a misuse of the article _a_ which is very common. It is the using it before the word _most_."--Moon. Most writers would have said "the using _of_ it." Mr. Moon argues for his construction.

PARTICLES. "Nothing but study of the best writers and practice in composition will enable us to decide what are the prepositions and conjunctions that ought to go with certain verbs. The following examples illustrate some common blunders:

"'It was characterized _with_ eloquence': read, 'by.'

"'A testimonial _of_ the merits of his grammar': read, 'to.'

"'It was an example of the love _to form_ comparisons': read, 'of forming.'

"'Repetition is always to be preferred _before_ obscurity': read, 'to.'

"'He made an effort _for meeting_ them': read, 'to meet.'

"'They have no _other_ object _but_ to come': read, 'other object than,' or omit 'other.'

"Two verbs are not unfrequently followed by a single preposition, which accords with one only; e. g., 'This duty _is repeated_ and inculcated _upon_ the reader.' 'Repeat _upon_' is nonsense; we must read 'is repeated _to_ and inculcated upon.'"--Nichol's "English Composition," p. 39. We often see _for_ used with the substantive _sympathy_; the best practice, however, uses _with_; thus, "Words can not express the deep sympathy I feel _with_ you."--Queen Victoria.

PARTY. This is a very good word in its place, but it is very much out of its place when used--as it often is by the vulgar--where good taste would use the word _person_.

PATRONIZE. This word and its derivatives would be much less used by the American tradesman than they are, if he were better acquainted with their true meaning. Then he would solicit his neighbors' _custom_, not their _patronage_. A man can have no _patrons_ without incurring obligations--without becoming a _protégé_; while a man may have customers innumerable, and, instead of placing himself under obligations to them, he may place them under obligations to him. Princes are the _patrons_ of those tradesmen whom they allow to call themselves their purveyors; as, "John Smith, Haberdasher to H. R. H. the Prince of Wales." Here the Prince _patronizes_ John Smith.

PELL-MELL. This adverb means mixed or mingled together; as, "Men, horses, chariots, crowded _pell-mell_." It can not properly be applied to an individual. To say, for example, "He rushed pell-mell down the stairs," is as incorrect as it would be to say, "He rushed down the stairs _mixed together_."

PER. This Latin preposition is a good deal used in English, as, for example, in such phrases as _per_ day, _per_ man, _per_ pound, _per_ ton, and so on. In all such cases it is better to use plain English, and say, _a_ day, _a_ man, _a_ pound, _a_ ton, etc. _Per_ is correct before Latin nouns only; as, per annum, per diem, per cent., etc.

PERFORM. "She _performs_ on the piano beautifully." In how much better taste it is to say simply, "She _plays_ the piano well," or, more superlatively, "exceedingly well," or "admirably"! If we talk about _performing_ on musical instruments, to be consistent, we should call those who _perform_, piano-performers, cornet-performers, violin-performers, and so on.

PERPETUALLY. This word is sometimes misused for _continually_. Dr. William Mathews, in his "Words, their Use and Abuse," says: "The Irish are _perpetually_ using _shall_ for _will_." _Perpetual_ means never ceasing, continuing without intermission, uninterrupted; while _continual_ means that which is constantly renewed and recurring with perhaps frequent stops and interruptions. As the Irish do something _besides_ misuse _shall_, the Doctor should have said that they _continually_ use _shall_ for _will_. I might perhaps venture to intimate that _perpetually_ is likewise misused in the following sentence, which I copy from the "London Queen," if I were not conscious that the monster who can write and print such a sentence would not hesitate to cable a thunderbolt at an offender on the slightest provocation. Judge, if my fears are groundless: "But some few people contract the ugly habit of making use of these expressions unconsciously and continuously, _perpetually_ interlarding their conversation with them."

PERSON. See PARTY; also, INDIVIDUAL.

PERSONALTY. This word does not, as some persons think, mean the articles worn on one's person. It is properly a law term, and means _personal property_. "There is but one case on record of a peer of England leaving over $7,500,000 personalty."

PERSONIFICATION. That rhetorical figure which attributes sex, life, or action to inanimate objects, or ascribes to objects and brutes the acts and qualities of rational beings, is called _personification_ or _prosopopœia_.

"The mountains _sing together_, the hills rejoice and _clap their hands_." "The worm, _aware_ of his intent, _harangued_ him thus."

"See, _Winter_ comes to _rule_ the varied year,
_Sullen_ and _sad_ with all his rising train."--Thomson.

"So saying, her rash hand, in evil hour,
Forth reaching to the fruit, she plucked, she ate!
_Earth felt the wound; and Nature from her seat,
Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe,
That all was lost._"--Milton.

"War and Love are strange compeers.
War sheds blood, and Love sheds tears;
War has swords, and Love has darts;
War breaks heads, and Love breaks hearts."

"Levity is often less foolish and gravity less wise than each of them appears."

"The English language, by reserving the distinction of gender for living beings that have sex, gives especial scope for personification. The highest form of personification should be used seldom, and only when justified by the presence of strong feeling."--Bain.

"Knowledge and wisdom, far from being one,
Have ofttimes no connection. Knowledge dwells
In heads replete with thoughts of other men;
Wisdom in minds attentive to their own.
Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much;
Wisdom is humble that he knows no more."--Cowper.

PHENOMENON. Plural, _phenomena_.

PLEAD. The imperfect tense and the perfect participle of the verb _to plead_ are both _pleaded_ and not _plead_. "He _pleaded_ not guilty." "You should have _pleaded_ your cause with more fervor."

PLENTY. In Worcester's Dictionary we find the following note: "_Plenty_ is much used colloquially as an adjective, in the sense of _plentiful_, both in this country and in England; and this use is supported by respectable authorities, though it is condemned by various critics. Johnson says: 'It is used barbarously, I think, for _plentiful_'; and Dr. Campbell, in his 'Philosophy of Rhetoric,' says: '_Plenty_ for _plentiful_ appears to me so gross a vulgarism that I should not have thought it worthy of a place here if I had not sometimes found it in works of considerable merit.'" We should say, then, that money is _plentiful_, and not that it is _plenty_.

PLEONASM. Redundancy or pleonasm is the use of more words than are necessary to express the thought clearly. "They returned _back again_ to the _same_ city _from_ whence they came _forth_": the five words in italics are _redundant_ or _pleonastic_. "The different departments of science and of art _mutually_ reflect light _on each other_": either of the expressions in italics embodies the whole idea. "The _universal_ opinion of _all_ men" is a pleonastic expression often heard. "I wrote you _a letter_ yesterday": here _a letter_ is redundant.

Redundancy is _sometimes_ permissible for the surer conveyance of meaning, for emphasis, and in the language of poetic embellishment.

POLITE. This word is much used by persons of doubtful culture, where those of the better sort use the word _kind_. We accept _kind_, not _polite_ invitations; and, when any one has been obliging, we tell him that he has been _kind_; and, when an interviewing reporter tells us of his having met with a _polite_ reception, we may be sure that the person by whom he has been received deserves well for his considerate kindness. "I thank you and Mrs. Pope for my _kind_ reception."--Atterbury.

PORTION. This word is often incorrectly used for _part_. A _portion_ is properly a part assigned, allotted, set aside for a special purpose; a share, a division. The verb _to portion_ means to divide, to parcel, to endow. We ask, therefore, "In what _part_ [not, in what _portion_] of the country, state, county, town, or street do you live?"--or, if we prefer grandiloquence to correctness, _reside_. In the sentence, "A large _portion_ of the land is unfilled," the right word would be either _part_ or _proportion_, according to the intention of the writer.

POSTED. A word very much and very inelegantly used for _informed_. Such expressions as, "I will _post_ you," "I must _post_ myself up," "If I had been better _posted_," and the like, are, at the best, but one remove from slang.

PREDICATE. This word is often very incorrectly used in the sense of _to base_; as, "He _predicates_ his opinion on insufficient data." Then we sometimes hear people talk about predicating an action upon certain information or upon somebody's statement. To predicate means primarily _to speak before_, and has come to be properly used in the sense of _assumed_ or believed to be the consequence of. Examples: "Contentment is _predicated_ of virtue"; "Good health may be _predicated_ of a good constitution." He who is not very sure that he uses the word correctly would do better not to use it at all.

PREJUDICE--PREPOSSESS. Both these words mean, to incline in one direction or the other for some reason not founded in justice; but by common consent _prejudice_ has come to be used in an unfavorable sense, and _prepossess_ in a favorable one. Thus, we say, "He is _prejudiced_ against him," and "He is _prepossessed_ in his favor." We sometimes hear the expression, "He is _prejudiced_ in his favor," but this can not be accounted a good use of the word.

PREPOSITIONS. The errors made in the use of the prepositions are very numerous. "The indolent child is one who [that?] has a strong aversion _from_ action of any sort."--Graham's "English Synonymes," p. 236. The prevailing and best modern usage is in favor of _to_ instead of _from_ after _averse_ and _aversion_, and before the object. "Clearness ... enables the reader to see thoughts without noticing the language _with_ which they are clothed."--Townsend's "Art of Speech." We clothe thoughts _in_ language. "Shakespeare ... and the Bible are ... models _for_ the English-speaking tongue."--Ibid. If this means models of English, then it should be _of_; but if it means models for English organs of speech to practice on, then it should be _for_; or if it means models to model English tongues after, then also it should be _for_. "If the resemblance is too faint, the mind is fatigued _while_ attempting to trace the analogies." "Aristotle is in error _while_ thus describing governments."--Ibid. Here we have two examples, not of the misuse of the preposition, but of the erroneous use of the adverb _while_ instead of the preposition _in_. "For my part I can not think that Shelley's poetry, except _by_ snatches and fragments, has the value of the good work of Wordsworth or Byron."--Matthew Arnold. Should be, "except _in_ snatches." "Taxes with us are collected nearly [almost] solely _from_ real and personal estate."--"Appletons' Journal." Taxes are levied _on_ estates and collected _from_ the owners.

"If I am not commended _for_ the beauty of my works, I may hope to be pardoned for their brevity." Cobbett comments on this sentence as follows: "We may commend him _for_ the beauty of his works, and we may _pardon_ him _for_ their brevity, if we deem the brevity _a fault_; but this is not what he means. He means that, at any rate, he shall have the _merit_ of brevity. 'If I am not commended for the beauty of my works, I may hope to be pardoned _on account of_ their brevity.' This is what the Doctor meant; but this would have marred a little the antithesis: it would have unsettled a little of the balance of that _seesaw_ in which Dr. Johnson so much delighted, and which, falling into the hands of novel-writers and of members of Parliament, has, by moving unencumbered with any of the Doctor's reason or sense, lulled so many thousands asleep! Dr. Johnson created a race of writers and speakers. 'Mr. Speaker, that the state of the nation is very critical, all men will allow; but that it is wholly desperate, few will believe.' When you hear or see a sentence like this, be sure that the person who speaks or writes it has been reading Dr. Johnson, or some of his imitators. But, observe, these imitators go no further than the frame of the sentences. They, in general, take care not to imitate the Doctor in knowledge and reasoning."

The rhetoricians would have us avoid such forms of expression as, "The boy went _to_ and asked the advice _of_ his teacher"; "I called _on_ and had a conversation _with_ my brother."

Very often the preposition is not repeated in a sentence, when it should be. We say properly, "He comes from Ohio or _from_ Indiana"; or, "He comes _either_ from Ohio or Indiana."

PREPOSSESS. See PREJUDICE.

PRESENT--INTRODUCE. Few errors are more common, especially among those who are always straining to be fine, than that of using _present_, in the social world, instead of _introduce_. _Present_ means to place in the presence of a superior; _introduce_, to bring to be acquainted. A person is presented at court, and on an official occasion to our President; but persons who are unknown to each other are _introduced_ by a common acquaintance. And in these introductions, it is the younger who is introduced to the older; the lower to the higher in place or social position; the gentleman to the lady. A lady should say, as a rule, that Mr. Blank was introduced to her, not that she was introduced to Mr. Blank.

PRESUMPTIVE. This word is sometimes misused by the careless for _presumptuous_.

PREVENTIVE. A useless and unwarranted syllable is sometimes added to this word--_preventative_.

PREVIOUS. This adjective is much used in an adverbial sense; thus, "_Previous_ to my return," etc. Until _previous_ is recognized as an adverb, if we would speak grammatically, we must say, "_Previously_ to my return." "_Previously_ to my leaving England, I called on his lordship."

PROCURE. This is a word much used by people who strive to be fine. "Where did you _get_ it?" with them is, "Where did you _procure_ it?"

PROFANITY. The extent to which some men habitually interlard their talk with oaths is disgusting even to many who, on occasion, do not themselves hesitate to give expression to their feelings in oaths portly and unctuous. If these fellows could be made to know how offensive to decency they make themselves, they would, perhaps, be less profane.

PROMISE. This word is sometimes very improperly used for _assure_; thus, "I _promise_ you I was very much astonished."

PRONOUNS OF THE FIRST PERSON. "The ordinary uses of 'I' and 'we,' as the singular and plural pronouns of the first person, would appear to be above all ambiguity, uncertainty, or dispute. Yet when we consider the force of the plural 'we,' we are met with a contradiction; for, as a rule, only one person can speak at the same time to the same audience. It is only by some exceptional arrangement, or some latitude or license of expression, that several persons can be conjoint speakers. For example, a plurality may sing together in chorus, and may join in the responses at church, or in the simultaneous repetition of the Lord's Prayer or the Creed. Again, one person may be the authorized spokesman in delivering a judgment or opinion held by a number of persons in common. Finally, in written compositions, the 'we' is not unsuitable, because a plurality of persons may append their names to a document.

"A speaker using 'we' may speak for himself and one or more others; commonly he stands forward as the representative of a class, more or less comprehensive. 'As soon as my companion and I had entered the field, _we_ saw a man coming toward _us_'; '_we_ like _our_ new curate'; 'you do _us_ poets the greatest injustice'; '_we_ must see to the efficiency of _our_ forces.' The widest use of the pronoun will be mentioned presently.

"'We' is used for 'I' in the decrees of persons in authority; as when King Lear says:

'Know that _we_ have divided
In three _our_ kingdom.'

By the fiction of plurality a veil of modesty is thrown over the assumption of vast superiority over human beings generally. Or, 'we' may be regarded as an official form whereby the speaker personally is magnified or enabled to rise to the dignity of the occasion.

"The editorial 'we' is to be understood on the same principle. An author using 'we' appears as if he were not alone, but sharing with other persons the responsibility of his views.

"This representative position is at its utmost stretch in the practice of using 'we' for human beings generally; as in discoursing on the laws of human nature. The preacher, the novelist, or the philosopher, in dwelling upon the peculiarity of our common constitution, being himself an example of what he is speaking of, associates the rest of mankind with him, and speaks collectively by means of 'we.' '_We_ are weak and fallible'; '_we_ are of yesterday'; '_we_ are doomed to dissolution.' 'Here have _we_ no continuing city, but _we_ seek one to come.'

"It is not unfrequent to have in one sentence, or in close proximity, both the editorial and the representative meaning, the effect being ambiguity and confusion. 'Let _us_ [the author] now consider why _we_ [humanity generally] overrate distant good.' In such a case the author should fall back upon the singular for himself--'_I_ will now consider--.' '_We_ [speaker] think _we_ [himself and hearers together] should come to the conclusion.' Say, either '_I_ think,' or '_you_ would.'

"The following extract from Butler exemplifies a similar confusion: 'Suppose _we_ [representative] are capable of happiness and of misery in degrees equally intense and extreme, yet _we_ [rep.] are capable of the latter for a much longer time, beyond all comparison. _We_ [change of subject to a limited class] see men in the tortures of pain--. Such is _our_ [back to representative] make that anything may become the instrument of pain and sorrow to _us_.' The 'we' at the commencement of the second sentence--'_We_ see men in the tortures'--could be advantageously changed to 'you,' or the passive construction could be substituted; the remaining _we_'s would then be consistently representative.

"From the greater emphasis of singularity, energetic speakers and writers sometimes use 'I' as representative of mankind at large. Thus: 'The current impressions received through the senses are not voluntary in origin. What _I_ see in walking is seen because _I_ have an organ of vision.' The question of general moral obligation is forcibly stated by Paley in the individual form, 'Why am _I_ obliged to keep my word?' It is sometimes well to confine the attention of the hearer or reader to his own relation to the matter under consideration, more especially in difficult or non-popular argument or exposition. The speaker, by using 'I,' does the action himself, or makes himself the example, the hearer being expected to put himself in the same position."--Bain's "Composition Grammar."

PRONOUNS OF THE SECOND PERSON. "Anomalous usages have sprung up in connection with these pronouns. The plural form has almost wholly superseded the singular; a usage more than five centuries old.[24]

"The motive is courtesy. The singling out of one person for address is supposed to be a liberty or an excess of familiarity; and the effect is softened or diluted by the fiction of taking in others. If our address is uncomplimentary, the sting is lessened by the plural form; and if the reverse, the shock to modesty is not so great. This is a refinement that was unknown to the ancient languages. The orators of Greece delighted in the strong, pointed, personal appeal implied in the singular 'thou.' In modern German, 'thou' (_du_) is the address of familiarity and intimacy; while the ordinary pronoun is the curiously indirect 'they' (_Sie_). On solemn occasions, we may revert to 'thou.' Cato, in his meditative soliloquy on reading Plato's views on the immortality of the soul before killing himself, says: 'Plato, _thou_ reasonest well.' So in the Commandments, 'thou' addresses to each individual an unavoidable appeal: '_Thou_ shall not----.' But our ordinary means of making the personal appeal is, 'you, _sir_,' 'you, _madam_,' 'my _Lord_, you----,' etc.; we reserve 'thou' for the special case of addressing the Deity. The application of the motive of courtesy is here reversed; it would be irreverent to merge this vast personality in a promiscuous assemblage.

"'You' is not unfrequently employed, like 'we,' as a representative pronoun. The action is represented with great vividness, when the person or persons addressed may be put forward as the performers: 'There is such an echo among the old ruins, and vaults, that if _you_ stamp a little louder than ordinary, _you_ hear the sound repeated'; 'Some practice is required to see these animals in the thick forest, even when _you_ hear them close by _you_.'

"There should not be a mixture of 'thou' and 'you' in the same passage. Thus, Thackeray (Adventures of Philip): 'So, as _thy_ sun rises, friend, over the humble house-tops round about _your_ home, shall _you_ wake many and many a day to duty and labor.' So, Cooper (Water-Witch): '_Thou_ hast both master and mistress? _You_ have told us of the latter, but we would know something of the former. Who is _thy_ master?' Shakespeare, Scott, and others might also be quoted.

"'Ye' and 'you' were at one time strictly distinguished as different cases; 'ye' was nominative, 'you' objective (dative or accusative). But the Elizabethan dramatists confounded the forms irredeemably; and 'you' has gradually ousted 'ye' from ordinary use. 'Ye' is restricted to the expression of strong feeling, and in this employment occurs chiefly in the poets."--Bain's "Composition Grammar."

PROOF. This word is much and very improperly used for _evidence_, which is only the medium of _proof_, _proof_ being the effect of _evidence_. "What _evidence_ have you to offer in _proof_ of the truth of your statement?" See also EVIDENCE.

PROPOSE--PURPOSE. Writers and speakers often fail to discriminate properly between the respective meanings of these two verbs. _Propose_, correctly used, means, to put forward or to offer for _the consideration of others_; hence, _a proposal_ is a scheme or design offered for acceptance or consideration, a proposition. _Purpose_ means, to intend, to design, to resolve; hence, _a purpose_ is an intention, an aim, that which one sets _before one's self_. Examples: "What do you _purpose_ doing in the matter?" "What do you _propose_ that we shall do in the matter?" "I will do" means "I _purpose_ doing, or to do." "I _purpose_ to write a history of England from the accession of King James the Second down to a time which is within the memory of men still living."--Macaulay. It will be observed that Macaulay says, "I purpose _to write_" and not, "I purpose _writing_," using the verb in the infinitive rather than in the participial form. "On which he _purposed_ to mount one of his little guns." See INFINITIVE.

PROPOSITION. This word is often used when _proposal_ would be better, for the reason that _proposal_ has but one meaning, and is shorter by one syllable. "He demonstrated the _proposition_ of Euclid, and rejected the _proposal_ of his friend."

PROSAIST. Dr. Hall is of opinion that this is a word we shall do well to encourage. It is used by good writers.

PROVEN. This form for the past participle of the verb _to prove_ is said to be a Scotticism. It is not used by careful writers and speakers. The correct form is _proved_.

PROVIDING. The present participle of the verb _to provide_ is sometimes vulgarly used for the conjunction _provided_, as in this sentence from the "London Queen": "Society may be congratulated, ... _providing_ that," etc.

PROVOKE. See AGGRAVATE.

PUNCTUATION. The importance of punctuation can not be overestimated; it not only helps to make plain the meaning of what one writes, but it may prevent one's being misconstrued. Though no two writers could be found who punctuate just alike, still in the main those who pay attention to the art put in their stops in essentially the same manner. The difference that punctuation may make in the meaning of language is well illustrated by the following anecdote:

At Ramessa there lived a benevolent and hospitable prior, who caused these lines to be painted over his door:

"Be open evermore,
O thou my door!
To none be shut--to honest or to poor!"

In time the good prior was succeeded by a man as selfish as his predecessor was generous. The lines over the door of the priory were allowed to remain; one stop, however, was altered, which made them read thus:

"Be open evermore,
O thou my door!
To none--be shut to honest or to poor!"

He punctuates best who makes his punctuation contribute most to the clear expression of his thought; and that construction is best that has least need of being punctuated.

THE COMMA.--The chief difference in the punctuation of different
writers is usually in their use of the comma, in regard to which there
is a good deal of latitude; much is left to individual taste. Nowadays
the best practice uses it sparingly. An idea of the extent to which
opinions differ with regard to the use of the comma may be formed from
the following excerpt from a paper prepared for private use:

"In the following examples, gathered from various sources--chiefly
from standard books--the superfluous commas are inclosed in
parentheses:

"1. 'It remains(,) perhaps(,) to be said(,) that, if any lesson at
all(,) as to these delicate matters(,) is needed(,) in this period, it
is not so much a lesson,' etc. 2. 'The obedience is not due to the
power of a right authority, but to the spirit of fear, and(,)
therefore(,) is(,) in reality(,) no obedience at all.' 3. 'The patriot
disturbances in Canada ... awakened deep interest among the people of
the United States(,) who lived adjacent to the frontier.' 4.
'Observers(,) who have recently investigated this point(,) do not all
agree,' etc. 5. 'The wind did(,) in an instant(,) what man and steam
together had failed to do in hours.' 6. 'All the cabin passengers(,)
situated beyond the center of the boat(,) were saved.' 7. 'No other
writer has depicted(,) with so much art or so much accuracy(,) the
habits, the manners,' etc. 8. 'If it shall give satisfaction to those
who have(,) in any way(,) befriended it, the author will feel,' etc.
9. 'Formed(,) or consisting of(,) clay.' 10. 'The subject [witchcraft]
grew interesting; and(,) to examine Sarah Cloyce and Elizabeth
Proctor, the deputy-governor(,) and five other magistrates(,) went to
Salem.' 11. 'The Lusitanians(,) who had not left their home(,) rose as
a man,' etc. 12. 'Vague reports ... had preceded him to Washington,
and his Mississippi friends(,) who chanced to be at the capital(,)
were not backward to make their boast of him.' 13. 'Our faith has
acquired a new vigor(,) and a clearer vision.' 14. 'In 1819(,) he
removed to Cambridge.' 15. 'Doré was born at Strasburg(,) in 1832, and
labors,' etc. 16. 'We should never apply dry compresses, charpie, or
wadding(,) to the wound.' 17. '--to stand idle, to look, act, or
think(,) in a leisurely way.' 18. '--portraits taken from the farmers,
schoolmasters, and peasantry(,) of the neighborhood.' 19. '--gladly
welcomed painters of Flanders, Holland, and Spain(,) to their
shores.'

"In all these cases, the clauses between or following the inclosed
commas are so closely connected grammatically with the immediately
preceding words or phrases, that they should be read without a
perceptible pause, or with only a slight one for breath, without
change of voice. Some of the commas would grossly pervert the meaning
if strictly construed. Thus, from No. 3 it would appear that the
people of the United States in general lived adjacent to the frontier;
from No. 4, that all observers have recently investigated the point in
question; from No. 6, that all the cabin passengers were so situated
that they were saved, whereas it is meant that only a certain small
proportion of them were saved; from No. 10 (Bancroft), that somebody
whose name is accidentally omitted went to Salem 'to examine Sarah
Cloyce and Elizabeth Proctor, the deputy-governor, and five other
magistrates'; from No. 11, that none of the Lusitanians had left their
home, whereas it was the slaughter by the Romans of a great number of
them who _had_ left their home that caused the rising.

"Commas are frequently omitted, and in certain positions very
generally, where the sense and correct reading require a pause. In the
following examples, such commas, omitted in the works from which they
were taken, are inclosed in brackets:

"1. 'The modes of thought[,] and the types of character which those
modes produce[,] are essentially and universally transformed.' 2.
'Taken by itself[,] this doctrine could have no effect whatever;
indeed[,] it would amount to nothing but a verbal proposition.' 3.
'Far below[,] the little stream of the Oder foamed over the rocks.' 4.
'When the day returned[,] the professor, the artist[,] and I rowed to
within a hundred yards of the shore.' 5. 'Proceeding into the interior
of India[,] they passed through Belgaum.' 6. 'If Loring is defeated
in the Sixth District[,] it can be borne.'