Chapter VI: Part 6

"In No. 3, the reader naturally enunciates 'the little stream of the
Oder' as in the objective case after 'below'; but there he comes to a
predicate which compels him to go back and read differently. In No. 4,
it appears that 'the day returned the professor,' and then 'the artist
and I rowed,' etc."

All clauses should generally be isolated by commas; where, however,
the connection is very close or the clause is very short, no point may
be necessary. "But his pride is greater than his ignorance, and what
he wants in knowledge he supplies by sufficiency." "A man of polite
imagination can converse with a picture, and find an agreeable
companion in a statue." "Though he slay me, yet will I trust him."
"The prince, his father being dead, succeeded." "To confess the truth,
I was much at fault." "As the heart panteth after the water-brooks, so
panteth my soul after thee." "Where the bee sucks, there suck I." "His
father dying, he succeeded to the estate." "The little that is known,
and the circumstance that little is known, must be considered as
honorable to him."

The comma is used before and after a phrase when coördinating and not
restrictive. "The jury, having retired for half an hour, brought in a
verdict." "The stranger, unwilling to obtrude himself on our notice,
left in the morning." "Rome, the city of the Emperors, became the city
of the Popes." "His stories, which made everybody laugh, were often
made to order." "He did not come, which I greatly regret." "The
younger, who was yet a boy, had nothing striking in his appearance."
"They passed the cup to the stranger, who drank heartily." "Peace at
any price, which these orators seem to advocate, means war at any
cost." "Sailors, who are generally superstitious, say it is unlucky to
embark on Friday."

Adverbs and short phrases, _when they break the connection_, should be
between commas. Some of the most common words and phrases so used are
the following: Also, too, there, indeed, perhaps, surely, moreover,
likewise, however, finally, namely, therefore, apparently, meanwhile,
consequently, unquestionably, accordingly, notwithstanding, in truth,
in fact, in short, in general, in reality, no doubt, of course, as it
were, at all events, to be brief, to be sure, now and then, on the
contrary, in a word, by chance, in that case, in the mean time, for
the most part. "History, in a word, is replete with moral lessons."
"As an orator, however, he was not great." "There is, remember, a
limit at which forbearance ceases to be a virtue." "Our civilization,
therefore, is not an unmixed good." "This, I grant you, is not of
great importance."

If, however, the adverb does not break the connection, but readily
coalesces with the rest of the sentence, the commas are omitted.
"Morning will come at last, however dark the night may be." "We then
proceeded on our way." "Our civilization is therefore not an unmixed
good." "Patience, I say; your mind perhaps may change."

Adverbial phrases and clauses beginning a sentence are set off by
commas. "In truth, I could not tell." "To sum up, the matter is this."
"Everything being ready, they set out." "By looking a little deeper,
the reason will be found." "Finally, let me sum up the argument." "If
the premises were admitted, I should deny the conclusion." "Where your
treasure is, there will your heart be also."

Words used in apposition should be isolated by commas. "Newton, the
great mathematician, was very modest." "And he, their prince, shall
rank among my peers." In such sentences, however, as, "The
mathematician Newton was very modest," and "The Emperor Napoleon was a
great soldier," commas are not used.

The name or designation of a person addressed is isolated by commas.
"It touches you, my lord, as well as me." "John, come here." "Mr.
President, my object is peace." "Tell me, boy, where do you live?"
"Yes, sir, I will do as you say." "Mr. Brown, what is your number?"

Pairs of words.--"Old and young, rich and poor, wise and foolish, were
involved." "Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my
hand and heart to this vote." "Interest and ambition, honor and shame,
friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in
public transactions."

A restrictive clause is not separated by a comma from the noun. "Every
one must love a boy who [that] is attentive and docile." "He preaches
sublimely who [that] lives a holy life." "The things which [that] are
seen are temporal." "A king depending on the support of his subjects
can not rashly go to war." "The sailor who [that] is not superstitious
will embark any day."

The comma is used after adjectives, nouns, and verbs in sentences like
the following:

"Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils
Shrunk to this little measure?"

"He fills, he bounds, connects and equals all."

"Who to the enraptured heart, and ear, and eye
Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody."[25]

"He rewarded his friends, chastised his foes, set Justice on her seat,
and made his conquest secure."

The comma is used to separate adjectives in opposition, but closely
connected. "Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull."
"Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." "Though black, yet
comely; and though rash, benign."

After a nominative, where the verb is understood. "To err is human; to
forgive, divine." "A wise man seeks to shine in himself; a fool, in
others." "Conversation makes a ready man; writing, an exact man;
reading, a full man."

A long subject is often separated from the predicate by a comma. "Any
one that refuses to earn an honest livelihood, is not an object of
charity." "The circumstance of his being unprepared to adopt immediate
and decisive measures, was represented to the Government." "That he
had persistently disregarded every warning and persevered in his
reckless course, had not yet undermined his credit with his dupes."
"That the work of forming and perfecting the character is difficult,
is generally allowed."

In a series of adjectives that precede their noun, a comma is placed
after each except the last; there usage omits the point. "A beautiful,
tall, willowy, sprightly girl." "A quick, brilliant, studious, learned
man."[26]

A comma is placed between short members of compound sentences,
connected by _and_, _but_, _for_, _nor_, _or_, _because_, _whereas_,
_that_ expressing purpose (so that, in order that), and other
conjunctions. "Be virtuous, that you may be respected." "Love not
sleep, lest you come to poverty." "Man proposes, but God disposes."

A comma must not be placed before _that_ except when it is equivalent
to _in order that_. "He says that he will be here."

A comma must not be placed before _and_ when it connects two words
only. "Time and tide wait for no man." "A rich and prosperous people."
"Plain and honest truth wants no artificial covering."

A comma is sometimes necessary to prevent ambiguity. "He who pursues
pleasure only defeats the object of his creation." Without a comma
before or after _only_, the meaning of this sentence is doubtful.

The following sentences present some miscellaneous examples of the use
of the comma by writers on punctuation: "Industry, as well as genius,
is essential to the production of great works." "Prosperity is secured
to a state, not by the acquisition of territory or riches, but by the
encouragement of industry." "Your manners are affable, and, for the
most part, pleasing."[27]

"However fairly a bad man may appear to act, we distrust him." "Why,
this is rank injustice." "Well, follow the dictates of your
inclination." "The comma may be omitted in the case of _too_, _also_,
_therefore_, and _perhaps_, when introduced so as not to interfere
with the harmonious flow of the period; and, particularly, when the
sentence is short."[28] "Robert Horton, M. D., F. R. S." "To those who
labor, sleep is doubly pleasant"; "Sleep is doubly pleasant to those
who labor." "Those who persevere, succeed." "To be overlooked,
slighted, and neglected; to be misunderstood, misrepresented, and
slandered; to be trampled under foot by the envious, the ignorant, and
the vile; to be crushed by foes, and to be distrusted and betrayed
even by friends--such is too often the fate of genius." "She is tall,
though not so handsome as her sister." "Verily, verily, I say unto
you." "Whatever is, is right." "What is foreordained to be, will be."
"The Emperor Augustus was a patron of the fine arts." "Augustus, the
Emperor, was a patron of the fine arts." "United, we stand; divided,
we fall." "God said, Let there be light." "July 21, 1881." "President
Garfield was shot, Saturday morning, July 2, 1881; he died, Monday
night, Sept. 19, 1881." "I am, sir, very respectfully, your obedient
servant, John Jones." "New York, August, 1881." "Room 20, Equitable
Building, Broadway, New York."

"_When you are in doubt as to the propriety of inserting commas, omit
them_; IT IS BETTER TO HAVE TOO FEW THAN TOO MANY."--Quackenbos.

THE SEMICOLON.--Reasons are preceded by semicolons; "Economy is no
disgrace; for it is better to live on a little than to outlive a great
deal." Clauses in opposition are separated by a semicolon when the
second is introduced by an adversative: "Straws swim at the surface;
but pearls lie at the bottom"; "Lying lips are an abomination to the
Lord; but they that deal truly are his delight." Without the
adversative, the colon is to be preferred: "Prosperity showeth vice:
adversity, virtue." The great divisions of a sentence must be pointed
with a semicolon when the minor divisions are pointed with commas:
"Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, not the web; and wit
the ornament of the mind, not the furniture." The things enumerated
must be separated by semicolons, when the enunciation of particulars
is preceded by a colon: "The value of a maxim depends on four things:
the correctness of the principle it embodies; the subject to which it
relates; the extent of its application; and the ease with which it may
be practically carried out." When _as_ introduces an example, it is
preceded by a semicolon. When several successive clauses have a common
connection with a preceding or following clause, they are separated by
semicolons; as, "Children, as they gamboled on the beach; reapers, as
they gathered the harvest; mowers, as they rested from using the
scythe; mothers, as they busied themselves about the household--were
victims to an enemy, who disappeared the moment a blow was struck."
"Reason as we may, it is impossible not to read in such a fate much
that we know not how to interpret; much of provocation to cruel deeds
and deep resentment; much of apology for wrong and perfidy; much of
doubt and misgiving as to the past; much of painful recollections;
much of dark foreboding." "Philosophers assert that Nature is
unlimited; that her treasures are endless; that the increase of
knowledge will never cease."

THE COLON.--This point is less used now than formerly: its place is
supplied by the period, the semicolon, or the dash; and sometimes,
even by the comma. The colon is used very differently by different
writers. "He was heard to say, 'I have done with this world.'" Some
writers would put a colon, some a comma, after _say_. "When the quoted
passage is brought in without any introductory word, if short," says
Quackenbos, "it is generally preceded by a comma; if long, by a colon;
as, 'A simpleton, meeting a philosopher, asked him, "What affords wise
men the greatest pleasure?" Turning on his heel, the sage replied,
"To get rid of fools."'"

Formal enumerations of particulars, and direct quotations, when
introduced by such phrases as _in these words_, _as follows_, _the
following_, _namely_, _this_, _these_, _thus_, etc., are properly
preceded by a colon. "We hold these truths to be self-evident: that
all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with
certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and
the pursuit of happiness." "Lord Bacon has summed up the whole matter
in the following words: 'A little philosophy inclineth men's minds to
atheism; but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds to religion.'"
"The human family is composed of five races: first, the Caucasian;
second, the Mongolian; third, the," etc.

"All were attentive to the godlike man
When from his lofty couch he thus began:
'Great queen,'" etc.--Dryden.

When the quotation, or other matter, begins a new paragraph, the colon
is, by many writers, followed with a dash; as, "The cloth being
removed, the President rose and said:--

"'Ladies and gentlemen, we are,'" etc.

The colon is used to mark the greater breaks in sentences, when the
lesser breaks are marked by semicolons. "You have called yourself an
atom in the universe; you have said that you are but an insect in the
solar blaze: is your present pride consistent with these professions?"
"A clause is either independent or dependent: independent, if it forms
an assertion by itself; dependent, if it enters into some other clause
with the value of a part of speech." A colon is sometimes used instead
of a period to separate two short sentences, which are closely
connected. "Never flatter people: leave that to such as mean to
betray them." "Some things we can, and others we can not do: we can
walk, but we can not fly."

THE PERIOD.--Complete sentences are always followed either by a
period, or by an exclamation or an interrogation point.[29]

The period is also used after abbreviations; as, R. D. Van Nostrand,
St. Louis, Mo.; Jno. B. Morris, M. D., F. R. S., London, Eng.; Jas. W.
Wallack, Jr., New York City, N. Y.; Jas. B. Roberts, Elocutionist,
Phila., Pa.

INTERROGATION-POINT.--This point is used after questions put by the
writer, and after questions reported directly. "What can I do for
you?" "Where are you going?" "What do you say?" cried the General.
"The child still lives?" It should not be used when the question is
reported indirectly. "He asked me where I was going." "The Judge asked
the witness if he believed the man to be guilty."

EXCLAMATION-POINT.--This mark is placed after interjections, after
sentences and clauses of sentences of passionate import, and after
solemn invocations and addresses. "Zounds! the man's in earnest."
"Pshaw! what can we do?" "Bah! what's that to me?" "Indeed! then I
must look to it." "Look, my lord, it comes!" "Rest, rest, perturbed
spirit!" "O heat, dry up my brains!" "Dear maid, kind sister, sweet
Ophelia!" "While in this part of the country, I once more
revisited--and, alas, with what melancholy presentiments!--the home of
my youth." "O rose of May!" "Oh, from this time forth, my thoughts be
bloody or be nothing worth!" "O heavens! die two months ago, and not
forgotten yet?"

"Night, sable goddess! from her ebon throne,
In rayless majesty now stretches forth
Her leaden scepter o'er a slumbering world.
Silence, how dead! and darkness, how profound!"--Young.

"Hail, holy light! offspring of heaven just born!"--Milton.

"But thou, O Hope! with eyes so fair,
What was thy delighted measure?"--Collins.

It will be observed that the interjection O is an exception to the
rule: it is often followed by a comma, but never by an
exclamation-point.

An exclamation-point sometimes gives the same words quite another
meaning. The difference between "What's that?" and "What's that!" is
obvious.

THE DASH.--Cobbett did not favor the use of this mark, as we see from
the following: "Let me caution you against the use of what, by some,
is called the _dash_. The dash is a stroke along the line; thus, 'I am
rich--I was poor--I shall be poor again.' This is wild work indeed!
Who is to know what is intended by these _dashes_? Those who have
thought proper, like Mr. Lindley Murray, to place the _dash_ amongst
the _grammatical points_, ought to give us some rule relative to its
different longitudinal dimensions in different cases. The _inch_, the
_three-quarter-inch_, the _half-inch_, the _quarter-inch_: these would
be something determinate; but '_the dash_,' without measure, must be a
perilous thing for the young grammarian to handle. In short, '_the
dash_' is a cover for ignorance as to the use of points, and it can
answer no other purpose."

This is one of the few instances in which Cobbett was wrong. The
_dash_ is the proper point with which to mark an unexpected or
emphatic pause, or a sudden break or transition. It is very often
preceded by another point. "And Huitzilopochtli--a sweet name to roll
under one's tongue--for how many years has this venerable war-god
blinked in the noonday sun!" "Crowds gathered about the newspaper
bulletins, recalling the feverish scenes that occurred when the
President's life was thought to be hanging by a thread. 'Wouldn't it
be too bad,' said one, 'if, after all--no, I won't allow myself to
think of it.'" "Was there ever--but I scorn to boast." "You are--no,
I'll not tell you what you are."

"He suffered--but his pangs are o'er;
Enjoyed--but his delights are fled;
Had friends--his friends are now no more;
And foes--his foes are dead."--Montgomery.

"Greece, Carthage, Rome,--where are they?" "He chastens;--but he
chastens to save."

Dashes are much used where parentheses were formerly employed. "In the
days of Tweed the expression to divide fair--forcible, if not
grammatical--acquired much currency." "In truth, the character of the
great chief was depicted two thousand five hundred years before his
birth, and depicted--such is the power of genius--in colors which will
be fresh as many years after his death." "To render the Constitution
perpetual--which God grant it may be!--it is necessary that its
benefits should be practically felt by all parts of the country."

PARENTHESIS.--This mark is comparatively little used nowadays. The
dash is preferred, probably because it disfigures the page less. The
office of the parenthesis is to isolate a phrase which is merely
incidental, and which might be omitted without detriment to the
grammatical construction.

"Know then this truth (enough for man to know),
Virtue alone is happiness below."--Pope.

"The bliss of man (could pride that blessing find)
Is not to act or think beyond mankind."

BRACKETS.--This mark is used principally to inclose words improperly
omitted by the writer, or words introduced for the purpose of
explanation or to correct an error. The bracket is often used in this
book.

THE APOSTROPHE.--This point is used to denote the omission of letters
and sometimes of figures; as, Jan'y, '81; _I've_ for _I have_;
_you'll_ for _you will_; _'tis_ for _it is_; _don't_ for _do not_;
_can't_ for _can not_; It was in the year '93; the spirit of '76; It
was in the years 1812, '13, and '14.

Also to denote the possessive case; as, Brown's house; the king's
command; Moses' staff; for conscience' sake; the boys' garden.

Also with _s_ to denote the plural of letters, figures, and signs; as,
Cross your _t_'s, dot your _i_'s, and mind your _p_'s and _q_'s; make
your 5's better, and take out the _x_'s.

CAPITALS.--A capital letter should begin every sentence, every line of
verse, and every direct quotation.

All names of the Deity, of Jesus Christ, of the Trinity, and of the
Virgin Mary must begin with a capital. Pronouns are usually
capitalized when they refer to the Deity.

Proper names, and nouns and adjectives formed from proper names, names
of streets, of the months, of the days of the week, and of the
holidays, are capitalized.

Titles of nobility and of high office, when used to designate
particular persons, are capitalized; as, the Earl of Dunraven, the
Mayor of Boston, the Baron replied, the Cardinal presided.

THE PARAGRAPH.--In writing for the press, the division of matter into
paragraphs is often quite arbitrary; in letter-writing, on the
contrary, the several topics treated of should, as a rule, be isolated
by paragraphic divisions. These divisions give one's letters a
shapely appearance that they otherwise never have.

PURCHASE. This word is much preferred to its synonym _buy_, by that class of people who prefer the word _reside_ to _live_, _procure_ to _get_, _inaugurate_ to _begin_, and so on. They are generally of those who are great in pretense, and who would be greater still if they were to pretend to all they have to pretend to.

PURPOSE. See PROPOSE.

QUANTITY. This word is often improperly used for _number_. _Quantity_ should be used in speaking of what is measured or weighed; _number_, of what is counted. Examples: "What _quantity_ of apples have you, and what _number_ of pineapples?" "Delaware produces a large _quantity_ of peaches and a large _number_ of melons."

QUIT.--This word means, properly, to leave, to go away from, to forsake; as, "Avaunt! _quit_ my sight." This is the only sense in which the English use it. In America, it is generally used in the sense of to leave off, to stop; as, "_Quit_ your nonsense"; "_Quit_ laughing"; "_Quit_ your noise"; "He has _quit_ smoking," and so on.

QUITE. This word originally meant completely, perfectly, totally, entirely, fully; and this is the sense in which it was used by the early writers of English. It is now often used in the sense of _rather_; as, "It is _quite_ warm"; "She is _quite_ tall"; "He is _quite_ proficient." Sometimes it is incorrectly used in the sense of _considerable_; as, _quite_ an amount, _quite_ a number, _quite_ a fortune. _Quite_, according to good modern usage, may qualify an adjective, but not a noun. "She is quite the lady," is a vile phrase, meaning, "She is very or _quite_ ladylike."

RAILROAD DEPOT. Few things are more offensive to fastidious ears than to hear a railway _station_ called a _depot_. A depot is properly a place where goods or stores of any kind are kept; and the places at which the trains of a railroad--or, better, rail_way_--stop for passengers, or the points from which they start and at which they arrive, are, properly, the _stations_.

RAILWAY. The English prefer this word to rail_road_.

RAISE THE RENT. An expression incorrectly used for _increase the rent_.

RARELY. It is no uncommon thing to see this adverb improperly used in such sentences as, "It is very _rarely_ that the puppets of the romancer assume," etc.--"Appletons' Journal," February, 1881, p. 177. "But," says the defender of this phraseology, "_rarely_ qualifies a verb--the verb _to be_." Not at all. The sentence, if written out in full, would be, "It is a very rare thing that," etc., or "The circumstance is a very rare one that," etc., or "It is a very rare occurrence that," etc. To those who contend for "It is very _rarely_ that," etc., I would say, It is very _sadly_ that persons of culture will write and then defend--or rather try to defend--such grammar.

RATIOCINATE. See EFFECTUATE.

REAL.--This adjective is often vulgarly used in the sense of the adverb _very_; thus, _real_ nice, _real_ pretty, _real_ angry, _real_ cute, and so on.

RECOMMEND. This word, which means to commend or praise to another, to declare worthy of esteem, trust, or favor, is sometimes put to strange uses. Example: "Resolved, that the tax-payers of the county be _recommended_ to meet," etc. What the resolving gentlemen meant was, that the tax-payers should be _counseled_ to meet.

REDUNDANCY. See PLEONASM.

RELIABLE. This is a modern word which is often met with; but it is not used by our careful writers. They prefer its synonym _trustworthy_, and argue that, in consequence of being ill-formed, _reliable_ can not possibly have the signification in which it is used.

REMAINDER. See BALANCE.

RENDITION. This word is much misused for _rendering_. Example: "The excellence of Mr. Gilbert's _rendition_ of certain characters, Sir Peter and Sir Antony, for instance, is not equaled," etc. _Rendition_ means the act of yielding possession, surrender, as the _rendition_ of a town or fortress. The sentence above should read, "The excellence of Mr. Gilbert's _rendering_," etc. _Rendition_ is also sometimes improperly used for _performance_.

REPLY. See ANSWER.

REPUTATION. See CHARACTER.

RESIDE. A big word that Mr. Wouldbe uses where Mr. Is uses the little word _live_.

RESIDENCE. In speaking of a man's domicile, it is not only in better taste but more correct to use the term _house_ than _residence_. A man has a _residence_ in New York, when he has lived here long enough to have the right to exercise the franchise here; and he may have a _house_ in Fifth Avenue where he _lives_. People who _are_ live in houses; people who _would be_ reside in residences. The former _buy_ things; the latter _purchase_ them.

REST. See BALANCE.

RESTIVE. Some of the dictionaries, Richard Grant White, and some other writers, contend that this word, when properly used, means unwilling to go, standing still stubbornly, obstinate, stubborn, and nothing else. In combating this opinion, Fitzedward Hall says: "Very few instances, I apprehend, can be produced, from our literature, of this use of _restive_." Webster gives impatient, uneasy, as a second meaning; and this is the sense in which the word is nearly always used.

RETIRE. It is only the over-nice who use _retire_ in the sense of _go to bed_.

REVEREND--HONORABLE. Many persons are in doubt whether they should or should not put _the_ before these adjectives. Emphatically, yes, they should. See "Words and Their Uses," by Richard Grant White, for a full discussion of the question; also "Good English," by Edward S. Gould.

RHETORIC. The art which has for its object the rendering of language effective is called _rhetoric_. Without some study of the art of composition, no one can expect to write well, or to judge the literary work of others.

"True ease in writing comes from art, not chance,
As those move easiest who have learned to dance."

RIDE--DRIVE. Fashion, both in England and in this country, says that we must always use the second of these words when we speak of going out in a carriage, although _ride_ means, according to all the lexicographers, "to be carried on a horse or other animal, or in any kind of vehicle or carriage."

RIGHT. Singularly enough, this word is made, by some people, to do service for _ought_, _in duty bound_, under _obligation_ to; thus, "You had a _right_ to tell me," meaning, "You should have told me." "The Colonists contended that they _had no right_ to pay taxes," meaning, "They were _under no obligation_ to pay taxes," i. e., that it was unjust to tax them.

RIGHT HERE. The expressions "right here" and "right there" are Americanisms. Correctly, "just here" and "just there."

ROLLING. The use of this participial adjective in the sense of undulating is said to be an Americanism. Whether an Americanism or not, it would seem to be quite unobjectionable.

RUBBERS. This word, in common with _gums_ and _arctics_, is often, in defiance of good taste, used for _overshoes_.

SABBATH. This term was first used in English for Sunday, or Lord's day, by the Puritans. Nowadays it is little used in this sense. The word to use is _Sunday_.

SARCASM. Bain says that _sarcasm_ is vituperation softened in the outward expression by the arts and figures of disguise--epigram, innuendo, irony--and embellished with the figures of illustration. Crabb says that _sarcasm_ is the indulgence only of personal resentment, and is never justifiable.

SATIRE. The holding up to ridicule of the follies and weaknesses of mankind, by way of rebuke, is called _satire_. Satire is general rather than individual, its object being the reformation of abuses. A _lampoon_, which has been defined as a _personal satire_, attacks the individual rather than his fault, and is intended to injure rather than to reform.

Said Sheridan: "Satires and lampoons on particular people circulate more by giving copies in confidence to the friends of the parties than by printing them."

SAW. The imperfect tense of the verb _to see_ is carelessly used by good writers and speakers when they should use the perfect; thus, "I never _saw_ anything like it before," when the meaning intended is, "I _have_ never [in all my life] _seen_ anything like it before [until now]." We say properly, "I never _saw_ anything like it _when I was in Paris_"; but, when the period of time referred to extends to the time when the statement is made, it must be _have seen_. Like mistakes are made in the use of other verbs, but they are hardly as common; yet we often hear such expressions as, "I _was_ never in Philadelphia," "I never _went_ to the theatre in my life," instead of _have been_ in Philadelphia, and _have gone_ to the theatre.

SECTION. The use of this word for region, neighborhood, vicinity, part (of the town or country), is said to be a Westernism. A _section_ is a division of the public lands containing six hundred and forty acres.

SEEM--APPEAR. Graham, in his "English Synonymes," says of these two words: "What _seems_ is in the mind; what _appears_ is external. Things _appear_ as they present themselves to the eye; they _seem_ as they are represented to the mind. Things _appear_ good or bad, as far as we can judge by our senses. Things _seem_ right or wrong as we determine by reflection. Perception and sensation have to do with appearing; reflection and comparison, with seeming. When things are not what they _appear_, our senses are deceived; when things are not what they _seem_, our judgment is at fault."

"No man had ever a greater power over himself, or was less the man he _seemed_ to be, which shortly after _appeared_ to everybody, when he cared less to keep on the mask."--Clarendon.

SELDOM OR EVER. This phrase should be "seldom _if_ ever," or "seldom or _never_."

SERAPHIM. This is the plural of _seraph_. "One of the _seraphim_." "To Thee cherubim and seraphim continually do cry." See CHERUBIM.

SET--SIT. The former of these two verbs is often incorrectly used for the latter. To _set_; imperfect tense, _set_; participles, _setting_, _set_. To _sit_; imperfect tense, _sat_; participles, _sitting_, _sat_. To _set_ means to put, to place, to plant; to put in any place, condition, state, or posture. We say, to _set_ about, to _set_ against, to _set_ out, to _set_ going, to _set_ apart, to _set_ aside, to _set_ down (to put in writing). To _sit_ means to rest on the lower part of the body, to repose on a seat, to perch, as a bird, etc. We say, "_Sit_ up," i. e., rise from lying to sitting; "We will _sit_ up," i. e., will not go to bed; "_Sit_ down," i. e., place yourself on a seat. We _sit_ a horse and we _sit_ for a portrait. Garments _sit_ well or otherwise. Congress _sits_, so does a court. "I have _sat_ up long enough." "I have _set_ it on the table." We _set_ down figures, but we _sit_ down on the ground. We _set_ a hen, and a hen _sits_ on eggs. We should say, therefore, "as cross as a _sitting_ [not, as a _setting_] hen."

SETTLE. This word is often inelegantly, if not incorrectly, used for _pay_. We _pay_ our way, _pay_ our fare, _pay_ our hotel-bills, and the like. See, also, LOCATE.

SHALL AND WILL. The nice distinctions that should be made between these two auxiliaries are, in some parts of the English-speaking world, often disregarded, and that, too, by persons of high culture. The proper use of _shall_ and _will_ can much better be learned from example than from precept. Many persons who use them, and also _should_ and _would_, with well-nigh unerring correctness, do so unconsciously; it is simply habit with them, and they, though their culture may be limited, will receive a sort of verbal shock from Biddy's inquiry, "_Will_ I put the kettle on, ma'am?" when your Irish or Scotch countess would not be in the least disturbed by it.

SHALL, _in an affirmative sentence, in the first person, and_ WILL _in
the second and third persons, merely announce future action_. Thus, "I
_shall_ go to town to-morrow." "I _shall_ not; I _shall_ wait for
better weather." "We _shall_ be glad to see you." "I _shall_ soon be
twenty." "We _shall_ set out early, and _shall_ try to arrive by
noon." "You _will_ be pleased." "You _will_ soon be twenty." "You
_will_ find him honest." "He _will_ go with us."

SHALL, _in an affirmative sentence, in the second and third persons,
announces the speaker's intention to control_. Thus, "You _shall_ hear
me out." "You _shall_ go, sick or well." "He _shall_ be my heir."
"They _shall_ go, whether they want to go or not."

WILL, _in the first person, expresses a promise, announces the
speaker's intention to control, proclaims a determination_. Thus, "I
_will_ [I promise to] assist you." "I _will_ [I am determined to] have
my right." "We _will_ [we promise to] come to you in the morning."

SHALL, _in an interrogative sentence, in the first and third persons,
consults the will or judgment of another; in the second person, it
inquires concerning the intention or future action of another_. Thus,
"_Shall_ I go with you?" "When _shall_ we see you again?" "When
_shall_ I receive it?" "When _shall_ I get well?" "When _shall_ we get
there?" "_Shall_ he come with us?" "_Shall_ you demand indemnity?"
"_Shall_ you go to town to-morrow?" "What _shall_ you do about it?"

WILL, _in an interrogative sentence, in the second person, asks
concerning the wish, and, in the third person, concerning the purpose
or future action of others_. Thus, "_Will_ you have an apple?" "_Will_
you go with me to my uncle's?" "_Will_ he be of the party?" "_Will_
they be willing to receive us?" "When _will_ he be here?"

_Will_ can not be used interrogatively in the first person singular or
plural. We can not say, "_Will_ I go?" "_Will_ I help you?" "_Will_ I
be late?" "_Will_ we get there in time?" "_Will_ we see you again
soon?"

Official courtesy, in order to avoid the semblance of compulsion,
conveys its commands in the _you-will_ form instead of the strictly
grammatical _you-shall_ form. It says, for example, "You _will_
proceed to Key West, where you will find further instructions awaiting
you."

A clever writer on the use of _shall_ and _will_ says that whatever
concerns one's beliefs, hopes, fears, likes, or dislikes, can not be
expressed in conjunction with _I will_. Are there no exceptions to
this rule? If I say, "I think I _shall_ go to Philadelphia to-morrow,"
I convey the impression that my going depends upon circumstances
beyond my control; but if I say, "I think I _will_ go to Philadelphia
to-morrow," I convey the impression that my going depends upon
circumstances within my control--that my going or not depends on mere
inclination. We certainly must say, "I fear that I _shall_ lose it";
"I hope that I _shall_ be well"; "I believe that I _shall_ have the
ague"; "I hope that I _shall_ not be left alone"; "I fear that we
_shall_ have bad weather"; "I _shall_ dislike the country"; "I _shall_
like the performance." The writer referred to asks, "How can one say,
'I _will_ have the headache'?" I answer, Very easily, as every young
woman knows. Let us see: "Mary, you know you promised John to drive
out with him to-morrow; how _shall_ you get out of it?" "Oh, I _will_
have the headache!" We request that people _will_ do thus or so, and
not that they _shall_. Thus, "It is requested that no one _will_ leave
the room."

_Shall_ is rarely, if ever, used for _will_; it is _will_ that is used
for _shall_. Expressions like the following are common: "Where _will_
you be next week?" "I _will_ be at home." "We _will_ have dinner at
six o'clock." "How _will_ you go about it?" "When _will_ you begin?"
"When _will_ you set out?" "What _will_ you do with it?" In all such
expressions, when it is a question of mere future action on the part
of the person speaking or spoken to, the auxiliary must be _shall_,
and not _will_.

_Should_ and _would_ follow the regimen of _shall_ and _will_. _Would_
is often used for _should_; _should_ rarely for _would_. Correct
speakers say, "I _should_ go to town to-morrow if I had a horse." "I
_should_ not; I _should_ wait for better weather." "We _should_ be
glad to see you." "We _should_ have started earlier, if the weather
had been clear." "I _should_ like to go to town, and _would_ go if I
could." "I _would_ assist you if I could." "I _should_ have been ill
if I had gone." "I _would_ I were home again!" "I _should_ go fishing
to-day if I were home." "I _should_ so like to go to Europe!" "I
_should_ prefer to see it first." "I _should_ be delighted." "I
_should_ be glad to have you sup with me." "I knew that I _should_ be
ill." "I feared that I _should_ lose it." "I hoped that I _should_ see
him." "I thought I _should_ have the ague." "I hoped that I _should_
not be left alone." "I was afraid that we _should_ have bad weather."
"I knew I _should_ dislike the country." "I _should_ not like to do
it, and _will_ not [determination] unless compelled to."

SHIMMY. "We derive from the French language our word _chemise_--pronounced _shemmeeze_. In French, the word denotes a man's shirt, as well as the under garment worn by women. In this country, it is often pronounced by people who should know better--_shimmy_. Rather than call it _shimmy_, resume the use of the old English words _shift_ and _smock_. Good usage unqualifiedly condemns _gents_, _pants_, _kids_, _gums_, and _shimmy_."--"Vulgarisms and Other Errors of Speech."

SHOULD. See OUGHT.

SICK--ILL. These words are often used indiscriminately. _Sick_, however, is the stronger word, and generally the better word to use. _Ill_ is used in England more than with us: there _sick_ is generally limited to the expressing of nausea; as, "sick at the stomach."

SIGNATURE, OVER OR UNDER? A man writes _under_, not _over_, a signature. Charles Dickens wrote _under_ the signature of "Boz"; Mr. Samuel L. Clemens writes _under_ the signature of "Mark Twain." The reason given in Webster's Dictionary for preferring the use of _under_ is absurd; viz., that the paper is _under_ the hand in writing. The expression is elliptical, and has no reference to the position either of the signature or of the paper. "Given under my hand and seal" means "under the guarantee of my signature and my seal." "Under his own signature" or "name" means "under his own character, without disguise." "Under the signature of Boz" means "under the disguise of the assumed name Boz." We always write _under_ a certain date, though the date be placed, as it often is, at the bottom of the page.

SIGNS. In one of the principal business streets of New York there is a sign which reads, "German Lace Store." Now, whether this is a store that makes a specialty of German laces, or whether it is a store where all kinds of lace are sold, kept by a German or after the German fashion, is something that the sign doubtless means to tell us, but, owing to the absence of a hyphen ("German-Lace Store," or "German Lace-Store"), does not tell us. Nothing is more common than erroneous punctuation in signs, and gross mistakes by the unlettered in the wording of the simplest printed matter.

The bad taste, incorrect punctuation, false grammar, and ridiculous nonsense met with on signs and placards, and in advertisements, are really surprising. An advertisement tells us that "a pillow which assists in procuring sleep is a _benediction_"; a placard, that they have "Charlotte _de_ Russe" for sale within, which means, if it means anything, that they have for sale somebody or something called Charlotte of Russian; and, then, on how many signs do we see the possessive case when the plural number is intended!

SIMILE. In rhetoric, a direct and formal comparison is called a _simile_. It is generally denoted by _like_, _as_, or _so_; as,

"I have ventured,
_Like_ little wanton boys that swim on bladders,
These many summers in a sea of glory."

"Thy smile is _as_ the dawn of vernal day."--Shakespeare.

"_As_, down in the sunless retreats of the ocean,
Sweet flow'rets are springing no mortal can see;
_So_, deep in my bosom, the prayer of devotion,
Unheard by the world, rises silent to thee."--Moore.

"'Tis with our judgments _as_ with our watches; none
Go just alike, yet each believes his own."--Pope.

"Grace abused brings forth the foulest deeds,
_As_ richest soil the most luxuriant weeds."--Cowper.

"_As_ no roads are so rough as those that have just been mended, _so_ no sinners are so intolerant as those who have just turned saints."--"Lacon."

SIN. See CRIME.

SINCE--AGO. Dr. Johnson says of these two adverbs: "Reckoning time toward the present, we use _since_; as, 'It is a year _since_ it happened': reckoning from the present, we use _ago_; as, 'It is a year _ago_.' This is not, perhaps, always observed."

Dr. Johnson's rule will hardly suffice as a sure guide. _Since_ is often used for _ago_, but _ago_ never for _since_. _Ago_ is derived from the participle _agone_, while _since_ comes from a preposition. We say properly, "not long" or "some time _ago_ [agone]." _Since_ requires a verbal clause after it; as, "_Since_ I saw you"; "_Since_ he was here."

SING. Of the two forms--_sang_ and _sung_--for the imperfect tense of the verb to _sing_, the former--_sang_--is to be preferred.

SIT. See SET.

SLANG. The slang that is heard among respectable people is made up of genuine words, to which an arbitrary meaning is given. It is always low, generally coarse, and not unfrequently foolish. With the exception of _cant_, there is nothing that is more to be shunned. We sometimes meet with persons of considerable culture who interlard their talk with slang expressions, but it is safe to assert that they are always persons of coarse natures.

SMART. See CLEVER.

SMELL OF. See TASTE OF.

SO. See AS; SUCH; THAT.

SO MUCH SO. "The shipments by the coast steamers are very large, _so much so_ [large?] as to tax the capacity of the different lines."--"Telegram," September 19, 1881. The sentence should be, "The shipments by the coast steamers are very large, _so large_ as to tax," etc.

SOLECISM. In rhetoric, a solecism is defined as an offense against the rules of grammar by the use of words in a wrong construction; false syntax.

"Modern grammarians designate by _solecism_ any word or expression which does not agree with the established usage of writing or speaking. But, as customs change, that which at one time is considered a _solecism_ may at another be regarded as correct language. A _solecism_, therefore, differs from a _barbarism_, inasmuch as the latter consists in the use of a word or expression which is altogether contrary to the spirit of the language, and can, properly speaking, never become established as correct language."--"Penny Cyclopædia." See, also, BARBARISM.

SOME. This word is not unfrequently misused for _somewhat_; thus, "She is _some_ better to-day." It is likewise often misused for _about_; thus, "I think it is _some_ ten miles from here": read, "_about_ ten miles from here."

SPECIALTY. This form has within a recent period been generally substituted for _speciality_. There is no apparent reason, however, why the _i_ should be dropped, since it is required by the etymology of the word, and is retained in nearly all other words of the same formation.

SPECIOUS FALLACY. A _fallacy_ is a sophism, a logical artifice, a deceitful or false appearance; while _specious_ means having the appearance of truth, plausible. Hence we see that the very essence of a _fallacy_ is its _speciousness_. We may very properly say that a _fallacy_ is more or less _specious_, but we can not properly say that a fallacy _is_ specious, since without speciousness we can have no fallacies.

SPLENDID. This poor word is used by the gentler sex to qualify well-nigh everything that has their approval, from a sugar-plum to the national capitol. In fact, _splendid_ and _awful_ seem to be about the only adjectives some of our superlative young women have in their vocabularies.

STANDPOINT. This is a word to which many students of English seriously object, and among them are the editors of some of our daily papers, who do not allow it to appear in their columns. The phrase to which no one objects is, _point of view_.

STATE. This word, which properly means to make known specifically, to explain particularly, is often misused for _say_. When _say_ says all one _wants_ to say, why use a more pretentious word?

STOP. "Where are you _stopping_?" "At the Metropolitan." The proper word to use here is _staying_. _To stop_ means to cease to go forward, to leave off; and _to stay_ means to abide, to tarry, to dwell, to sojourn. We _stay_, not _stop_, at home, at a hotel, or with a friend, as the case may be.

STORM. Many persons indulge in a careless use of this word, using it when they mean to say simply that it rains or snows. To a _storm_ a violent commotion of the atmosphere is indispensable. A very high wind constitutes a storm, though it be dry.

STRAIGHTWAY. Here is a good Anglo-Saxon word of _two_ syllables whose place, without any good reason, is being usurped by the Latin word _immediately_, of _five_ syllables.

STREET. We live _in_, not _on_--meet our acquaintances _in_, not _on_--things occur _in_, not _on_--houses are built _in_, not _on_, the street, and so forth.

STYLE. This is a term that is used to characterize the peculiarities that distinguish a writer or a composition. Correctness and clearness properly belong to the domain of _diction_; simplicity, conciseness, gravity, elegance, diffuseness, floridity, force, feebleness, coarseness, etc., belong to the domain of _style_.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. This mood is unpopular with not a few now-a-day grammarians. One says that it is rapidly falling into disuse; that, in fact, there is good reason to suppose it will soon become obsolete. Another says that it would, perhaps, be better to abolish it entirely, as its use is a continual source of dispute among grammarians and of perplexity to schools. Another says that it is a universal stumbling-block; that nobody seems to understand it, although almost everybody attempts to use it.

That the subjunctive mood is much less used now than it was a hundred years ago is certain, but that it is obsolescent is very far from certain. It would not be easy, I think, to find a single contemporary writer who does not use it. That it is not always easy to determine what form of it we should employ is very true; but if we are justified in abolishing it altogether, as Mr. Chandler suggests, because its correct use is not always easy, then we are also justified in abolishing the use of _shall_ and _will_, and of the prepositions, for surely their right use is likewise at times most puzzling. Meanwhile, most persons will think it well to learn to use the subjunctive mood properly. With that object in view, one can not, perhaps, do better than to attend to what Dr. Alexander Bain, Professor of Logic in the University of Aberdeen, says upon the subject. In Professor Bain's "Higher English Grammar" we find:

"In subordinate clauses.--In a clause expressing a condition, and introduced by a conjunction of condition, the verb is sometimes, but not always, in the subjunctive mood: 'If I _be_ able,' 'if I _were_ strong enough,' 'if thou _should_ come.'

"The subjunctive inflexions have been wholly lost. The sense that something is wanting appears to have led many writers to use indicative forms where the subjunctive might be expected. The tendency appears strongest in the case of 'wert,' which is now used as indicative (for 'wast') only in poetical or elevated language.

"The following is the rule given for the use of the subjunctive mood:

"When in a conditional clause it is intended to express doubt or denial, use the subjunctive mood.[30] 'If I _were_ sure of what you tell me, I would go.'

"When the conditional clause is _affirmative_ and _certain_, the verb is _indicative_: 'If that _is_ the case' (as you now tell me, and as I believe), 'I can understand you.' This is equivalent to a clause of assumption, or supposition: 'That being the case,' 'inasmuch as that is the case,' etc.

"As _futurity_ is by its nature uncertain, the subjunctive is extensively used for future conditionality: 'If it _rain_, we shall not be able to go'; 'if I _be_ well'; 'if he _come_ shortly'; 'if thou _return_ at all in peace'; 'though he _slay_ me, yet will I trust in him.' These events are all in the uncertain future, and are put in the subjunctive.[31]

"A future result or consequence is expressed by the subjunctive in such instances as these: 'I will wait till he _return_'; 'no fear lest dinner _cool_'; 'thou shalt stone him with stones, that he _die_'; 'take heed lest at any time your hearts _be_ overcharged with surfeiting.'

"Uncertainty as to a past event may arise from our own ignorance, in which case the subjunctive is properly employed, and serves the useful purpose of distinguishing our ignorance from our knowledge. 'If any of my readers _has_ looked with so little attention upon the world around him'; this would mean--'as I know that they have.' The meaning intended is probably--'as I do not know whether they have or not,' and therefore the subjunctive 'have' is preferable. 'If ignorance _is_ bliss,' which I (ironically) admit. Had Gray been speaking seriously, he would have said, 'if ignorance _be_ bliss,' he himself dissenting from the proposition.

"A wish contrary to the fact takes the subjunctive: 'I wish he _were_ here' (which he is not).

"An intention not yet carried out is also subjunctive: 'The sentence is that you _be_ imprisoned.'

"The only correct form of the future subjunctive is--'if I should.' We may say, 'I do not know whether or not I _shall_ come'; but 'if I shall come,' expressing a condition, is not an English construction. 'If he will' has a real meaning, as being the present subjunctive of the verb 'will': 'if he be willing,' 'if he have the will.' It is in accordance with good usage to express a future subjunctive meaning by a present tense; but in that case the form must be strictly subjunctive, and not indicative. 'If any member _absents_ himself, he shall forfeit a penny for the use of the club'; this ought to be either 'absent,' or 'should absent.' 'If thou _neglectest_ or _doest_ unwillingly what I command thee, I will rack thee with old cramps'; better, 'if thou _neglect_ or _do_ unwillingly,' or 'if thou should neglect.' The indicative would be justified by the speaker's belief that the supposition is sure to turn out to be the fact.

"The past subjunctive may imply denial; as, 'if the book _were_ in the library (as it is not), it should be at your service.'

"'If the book _be_ in the library,' means, 'I do not know whether it be or not.' We have thus the power of discriminating _three_ different suppositions. 'If the book _is_ in the library' (as I know it is); 'if it _be_' (I am uncertain); 'if it _were_' (as I know it is not). So, 'if it rains,' 'if it rain,' 'if it rained.' 'Nay, and the villains march wide between the legs, as if they _had_ gyves on,' implying that they had not.

"The same power of the past tense is exemplified in 'if I _could_, I would,' which means, 'I can not'; whereas, 'if I can, I will,' means 'I do not know.'

"The past subjunctive may be expressed by an inversion: '_Had_ I the power,' '_were_ I as I have been.'

"In Principal Clauses.--The principal clause in a conditional statement also takes the subjunctive form when it refers to what is future and contingent, and when it refers to what is past and uncertain, or denied. 'If he should try, he _would_ succeed'; 'if I had seen him, I _should_ have asked him.'

"The usual forms of the subjunctive in the principal clause are 'would,' 'should,' 'would have,' 'should have'; and it is to be noted that in this application the second persons take the inflexional ending of the indicative: 'shouldst,' 'wouldst.'

"'If 'twere done when 'tis done, then 't_were_ (would be) well
It _were_ (should be) done quickly.'

"The English idiom appears sometimes to permit the use of an indicative where we should expect a subjunctive form. 'Many acts, that _had_ been otherwise blamable, were employed'; 'I _had_ fainted, unless I had believed,' etc.

"'Which else _lie_ furled and shrouded in the soul.'

"In 'else' there is implied a conditional clause that would suit 'lie'; or the present may be regarded as a more vivid form of expression. 'Had' may be indicative; just as we sometimes find pluperfect indicative for pluperfect subjunctive in the same circumstances in Latin. We may refer it to the general tendency, as already seen in the uses of 'could,' 'would,' 'should,' etc., to express conditionality by a past tense; or the indicative may be used as a more direct and vivid mode. 'Had' may be subjunctive; 'I _had_ fainted' is, in construction, analogous to 'I _should_ have fainted'; the word for futurity, 'shall,' not being necessary to the sense, is withdrawn, and its past inflexion transferred to 'have.' Compare Germ. _würde haben_ and _hätte_."

In addition to the foregoing, we find in Professor Bain's "Composition Grammar" the following:

"The case most suited to the subjunctive is _contingent futurity_, or the expression of an event unknown absolutely, as being still in the future: 'If to-morrow _be_ fine, I will walk with you.'