Chapter IV: Part 4

When he had sailed thitherward from Sciringes-heal, Denmark was on his left, and on his right a wide sea for three days, and two days before he came to Hæthum, he had on the right Gotland, Seeland, and many islands. In these lands the Angles dwelt before they came hither to this land. And then for two days he had on his left the islands which belong to Denmark.

EDWARD’S POLICY (907-925).

=Source.=—_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle._ Translated by J. A. Giles. Bohn’s
Library.

ANNO 907.—This year Chester was repaired.

ANNO 909.—This year Ethelfled built the fortress at Bromesberrow.

ANNO 912.—This year King Edward took possession of London and of Oxford, and of all the lands which owed obedience thereto. This year Ethelfled, lady of the Mercians, came to Scaergate on the holy eve, “Invention of the Cross,” and there built the fortress, and the same year, that at Bridgenorth.

ANNO 913.—In this year, about Martinmas, King Edward commanded the northern fortress to be built at Hertford, between the Memer, the Benewic, and the Lea. And then after that, during the summer, between Rogation days and midsummer, King Edward went with some of his forces to Maldon in Essex, and there encamped, whilst the fortress at Witham was wrought and built; and a good part of the people who were before under the dominion of the Danish men submitted to him; and in the meanwhile some part of his force constructed the fortress at Hertford, on the south side of the Lea. This year, by the help of God, Ethelfled, lady of the Mercians, went with all the Mercians to Tamworth, and there built the fortress early in the summer; and after this, before Lammas, that at Stafford.

ANNO 914.—Then after this, in the next year, that at Eddesbury, early in the summer; and afterwards, in the same year, late in harvest, that at Warwick. Then after this, in the next year, after Midwinter, that at Chirk, and that at Warburton; and that same year, before Midwinter, that at Runcorn.

ANNO 917.—This year, before Lammas, Ethelfled, lady of the Mercians, God helping her, got possession of the fortress which is called Derby, with all that owed obedience thereto.

ANNO 918.—This year, in the early part of the year, by God’s help, she got into her power, by treaty, the fortress at Leicester, and the greater part of the army which owed obedience thereto became subject to her; and the people of York had also covenanted with her, some having given a pledge, and some having bound themselves by an oath, that they would be at her command. But very shortly after they had become so (twelve nights before midsummer), she died at Tamworth, in the eighth year of her having rule and right lordship over the Mercians.... And then after that, in the same year, before Martinmas, King Edward went with his forces to Buckingham, and there sat down four weeks; and, ere he went thence, he erected both the forts on either side of the river. And Thurkytel the earl sought to him to be his lord, and all the captains, and almost all the chief men who owed obedience to Bedford, and also many of those who owed obedience to Northampton.

ANNO 919.—This year, before Martinmas, King Edward went with his forces to Bedford, and gained the town; and almost all the townsmen who formerly dwelt there submitted to him; and he sat down there four weeks, and commanded the town to be built on the south side of the river.

ANNO 920.—This year, before Midsummer, King Edward went to Maldon, and built the town, and fortified it.

ANNO 921.—This year, before Easter, King Edward gave orders to take possession of the town at Towcester, and to fortify it. And again, after that, in the same year, during Rogation days, he commanded the town at Wigmore to be built.... Then, shortly after, during the harvest, King Edward went with the forces of the West Saxons to Passoham, and sat down there while they encompassed the town at Towcester with a stone wall. And Thurferth the earl, and the captains, and all the army which owed obedience to Northampton, as far north as the Welland, submitted to him, and sought to him to be their lord and protector. And when one division of the forces went home, then another went out, and took possession of the town of Huntingdon, and repaired and rebuilt it, where it had been before demolished; and all who were left of the inhabitants of that country submitted to King Edward, and sought his peace and protection. And after this, still in the same year, before Martinmas, King Edward went with the forces of the West Saxons to Colchester, and repaired the town, and rebuilt it where it had been before broken down; and much people submitted to him, as well among the East Angles as among the East Saxons, who before were under the dominion of the Danes. And all the army among the East Angles swore union with him, that they would all that he would, and would observe peace towards all to whom the king should grant his peace, both by sea and by land. And the army which owed obedience to Cambridge chose him specially to be their lord and protector; and confirmed it with oaths, even as he then decreed it. This year King Edward built the town at the mouth of the Cleddau [in Pembrokeshire].

ANNO 922.—In this year, between Rogation days and Midsummer, King Edward went with his forces to Stamford, and commanded the town to be built upon the south side of the river: and all the people who owed obedience to the northern town submitted to him, and sought to him to be their lord.... And all the people of the land of Mercia, who before were subject to Ethelfled, submitted to him; and the kings of the North Welsh, Howel, and Cledauc, and Jothwel, and all the North Welsh race, sought to him to be their lord. Then went he thence [_i.e._, from Tamworth] to Nottingham, and took possession of the town, and commanded it to be repaired and occupied as well by English as by Danes. And all the people who were settled in Mercia, as well Danish as English, submitted to him.

ANNO 923.—In this year, after harvest, King Edward went with his forces to Thelwall, and commanded the town to be built, and occupied, and manned; and commanded another force also of Mercians, the while that he sat there, to take possession of Manchester in Northumbria, and repair and man it. This year King Raegnald won York.

ANNO 924.—In this year before Midsummer, King Edward went with his forces to Nottingham, and commanded the town to be built on the south side of the river, over against the other, and the bridge over the Trent, between the two towns: and then he went thence into Peakland, to Bakewell, and commanded a town to be built nigh thereunto, and manned. And then chose him for father and for lord, the King of the Scots [Constantine II.] and the whole nation of the Scots, and Raegnald and the son of Eadulf and all those who dwell in Northumbria, as well English as Danes, and Northmen and others, and also the king of the Strathclyde Britons and all the Strathclyde Britons.

ANNO 925.—This year King Edward died, and Athelstan his son succeeded to the kingdom.

[NOTE.—The events of 921, 922, 923, 924 probably occurred three years earlier—_i.e._, in 918, 919, 920, 921.]

ATHELSTAN’S DOOM CONCERNING HOT IRON AND WATER (925-940).

=Source.=—Thorpe, _Ancient Laws and Institutes of England_.

And concerning the ordeal we enjoin by command of God, and of the archbishop, and of all the bishops, that no man come within the church after the fire is borne in with which the ordeal shall be heated, except the mass-priest, and him who shall go thereto: and let there be measured nine feet from the stake to the mark, by the man’s feet who goes thereto. And if it be water, let it be heated till it sings towards boiling. And let the vessel be iron or brass or lead or earthen. And if it be a single accusation, let the hand dive after the stone up to the wrist; and if it be threefold, up to the elbow. And when the ordeal is ready, then let two men of either side go in, and let them be agreed that it is as hot as we have said before. And let an equal number of men of either side go in, and let them stand on both sides of the ordeal, along the church; and let them all be fasting; ... and let the mass-priest sprinkle holy water over them all, and let them each taste of the holy water, and give them all the kiss-book [the Gospels or Pax] and the sign of the cross: and let no man mend the fire any longer when the consecration is begun, but let the iron lie upon the embers until the last collect: after that, let it be laid upon the stake, and let there be no other speaking within, except that they pray earnestly to God Almighty that he make manifest what is most true. And let him go thereto; and let his hand be sealed up: and let it be postponed till after the third day, whether it be foul or clean within the seal. And he who breaks this law, let the ordeal be void for him, and let him pay to the king 120 shillings as a fine.

THE BATTLE OF BRUNANBURH (937).

=Source.=—_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle._ Translated by W.

[Note that the lines are to be read across the page.]

Here the King Athelstan, of earls the ruler,
of heroes the ring-giver, and eke his brother,
Edmund the Atheling, long-lasting glory
won in the battle with edges of swords
near to Brunanburh: the shield-wall they clove,
they hewed the war-lindens with leavings of hammers,
the heirs of Eadweard; as was befitting them
from their forebears, that they in battle oft
against every foeman the land defended,
hoard and homesteads. The foeman cringed,
the Scottish people and the seamen,
fated to death, fell: the field grew wet
with blood of fighters, since the sun up
at morning tide, glorious star,
over lands glided, God’s shining candle,
the eternal Lord’s, till the excellent creature
sank to her seat. There lay many men
with spears done to death, heroes of Northmen
over their shield shot, as eke the Scottish,
weary, of war sad. Wessex men onwards
the live-long day in their companies
footprints followed of loathed peoples;
hewed they the runaways behind terribly
with swords milled to sharpness. Mercians refused not
the hardest of handplay to one of the heroes
of those who with Anlaf over the wave-mingler
in the ship’s bosom sought for the land
fated to fighting. Five there lay
on the battle-field kings all-youthful
by swords laid to sleep, as also seven
of the earls of Anlaf, countless of the army
seamen and Scottish. There was put to flight
of Northmen the chief, by need compelled
to his ship’s stem-piece with small company:
the ship pressed afloat; the king away went
on the yellow flood, his life he rescued.
So there eke the sage one came by fleeing
north to his kindred, Constantinus,
hoary fighter; he could not exult
in mingling of swords: he was reft of his kinsmen,
deprived of his friends on battle-field,
cut off in the contest, and he his son forsook
on place of fighting foredone with wounds,
young in the warfare. He could not boast him,
grizzly-haired hero, of clash of swords,
old wrong-doer, nor Anlaf the more,
with their leavings of armies; they could not laugh
that they in battle-work better men were
on the battle-field, in banner’s conflict,
in meeting of spears, in moot of heroes,
in weapon’s contest, that they on the death-place
with Eadweard’s children contended.
Failed him the Northmen with their nailed ships;
dreary those left by spears, on dashing ocean,
over deep water, Dublin they seek
and again Ireland in shameful wise.
Likewise the brethren the two together,
the king and Atheling, sought their kindred,
West Saxons’ land, in war exulting.
Left they behind them corpses to share
to old dusky-coat, to the swart raven,
with horny nib, and to the grey-coat,
the eagle white-tailed, the prey to enjoy,
to the greedy war-hawk, and the grey beast,
the wolf in the weald. Was not more slaughter
in this island ever till now
of folk cut down before this time
by swords’ edges as the books tell us,
and ancient wise men, since from east hitherwards
Angles and Saxons up to land came,
over broad oceans, Britain they sought,
proud smiths of war the Welsh overcame,
earls eager for fame they won this country.

A LAND BOC (940).

=Source.=—_Cott. Aug._, ii. 62. Earle, _Land-Charters, and other Saxonic
Documents_, Oxford, 1888, p. 175. Translated by W.

✠ Our Lord Jesus Christ reigning for ever! Since by the providence of our Creator every creature was made altogether good in the beginning and was beautifully created and splendidly fashioned, above the heavens and below, as well in the case of angels as men and the manifold and diverse kinds of beasts of burden and fishes and birds: And since from the beginning of the world until the end they rightly keep the laws ordained by their Creator except man alone, who was formed in his image and set above every creature, who for his transgression is rushing headlong to death: Therefore I EADMUND, king of the Angles, burning for the heavenly country, have granted and given to a certain lady of a religious order, named Æthelswith, x hides in the place commonly known in the ancient tongue as AT OSWALDING TOWN: That she may enjoy it well and ever possess it so long as the spirit of life unharmed pursue the course of this declining age and dwell in flesh corruptible: and that she may leave it to whatever heir she will for ever after herself, as we said above, as an everlasting inheritance.

And let the aforesaid land with all things thereto rightly pertaining, fields, pastures, meadows, woods, and woodland groves be free from every worldly hindrance except these three, the fyrd, and bridge-work, and fortress-work. But if anyone shall try (what we do not desire) to infringe this our grant, entering thereupon through self-exaltation, may he endure the cold blasts of ice and the Pennine[2] troop of evil spirits unless he first make amends with the tearful sighs of repentance and by pure reform. These are the boundaries by which the aforesaid land is surrounded. These are the land boundaries at oswalding tun: first ælfgyth’s boundary on the east up to teting ford; then from there west up to done; then from there up to eadgifu’s boundary; then from there to the bishop’s boundary at cirring; from cirring north thence to emecing mere; to oswalding tun pertain holly hurst, and byrhttring den, and eoreding den, and liccing den, and hereferth’s lea, and dynning den, and cyrthring hurst, and trip hurst and insnadis into oswalding tun; and the meadow at brunes ford and the meadow at bee brook pertain to oswalding tun.

Footnote 2:

Meaning either feathered, or, belonging to the Great St. Bernard Pass
in the Pennine Alps, over which the writer had probably passed on a
journey to Rome.

This aforesaid donation was completed in the year from the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ DCCCCXL, Indiction XIII.

✠ I Eadmund king of the Angles have confirmed the aforesaid donation + with the sign of the holy cross.

✠ I Wulfhelm archbishop of the church of Canterbury have signed the + donation of the king with the mark of the holy cross.

✠ I Eadred the king’s brother have signed.

✠ I Theodred bishop of the church of London have signed.

✠ I Ælfheah bishop of the church of Winchester have made the triumphant + mark of the holy cross.

✠ I Cenwald bishop have assented to the aforesaid gift.

✠ I Oda bishop have confirmed.

✠ I Ælfric bishop have signed.

✠ I Wulfhun bishop have assented.

✠ I Wulfhelm bishop have signed.

✠ I Burgric bishop have assented.

✠ I Æthelgar bishop have corroborated.

✠ Ælfhere earl.

✠ Wulfgar earl.

✠ Æthelstan earl.

✠ Uhtred earl.

✠ Orda thegn.

✠ Ælfric thegn.

✠ Eadmund thegn.

✠ Wulfsige thegn.

✠ Wullaf thegn.

✠ Ordeah thegn.

✠ Eadric thegn.

✠ Ealhelm thegn.

✠ Ælfsige thegn.

✠ Æthered thegn.

✠ Athelmund thegn.

✠ Wulfhelm thegn.

✠ Wulfheah thegn.

✠ Wulfsige thegn.

✠ Wihtgar thegn.

✠ Æthelwold thegn.

✠ Ælfred thegn.

✠ Wulfgar thegn.

✠ Ælfsige thegn.

✠ Wulfnoth thegn.

✠ Æthelstan thegn.

✠ Æthelsige thegn.

✠ Eanulf thegn.

_On the back_: ✠ This is Oswalding tun’s boc which Eadmund the king booked to Æthelswith as a perpetual heritage.

DUNSTAN IS MADE ABBOT OF GLASTONBURY BY KING EDMUND (946).

=Source.=—_Life of St. Dunstan_, by B., a Saxon priest, written between
995 and 1006, §§ 13, 14. Stubbs’ _Memorials of St. Dunstan_ (Rolls
Series). Translated by W.

At length they [Dunstan’s opponents] bound around him the rope of their iniquity, destined therein to entangle themselves rather than him, that they might poison the heart of the king, infected by their wickedness, and make him credulous by their lies. The latter, as he had before been led on by evil men, moved with great anger, immediately ordered him to be deprived of every dignity and office, and to seek his sureties where he willed, without him or his. There were then dwelling with the king at Cheddar, where these events occurred, venerable ambassadors of the eastern kingdom, whom Dunstan, as if already condemned to exile, and unwitting of any other plan for himself, approached, begging that they would not desert one abandoned by the king, but would conduct him home with themselves although but for a sojourn. Taking compassion on his sorrow they promised him whatever advantages their kingdom afforded if he would accompany them.

So the next day the king went where he might enjoy himself in hunting with his followers according to his custom. And as they go to the wood a-hunting, they take in rivalry diverse tracks of the shady paths. And lo! with the uproar of the horns and the barking of the hounds many stags took to flight. The king by himself with his pack of hounds chose one to hunt, and wearied it for a long while through various by-paths by the swiftness of his horse and the eagerness of his hounds. Now there is close to Cheddar, among many other features of the steep mountain, a certain precipice which reaches down to a marvellous and unfathomable depth. At this the stag arrived in its flight, I know not how, unless by the hidden will of God, and threw itself headlong down to the depths of that precipice, together with the hounds that followed, and, dashed in pieces, they rushed upon death together. So too the king, following stag and hounds, came up with his horse at the gallop, and the moment he saw the precipice attempted with all his might to stay the course of his hurrying steed. But such was the strength and stiffness of its mouth and neck that he could not. What then? He gave up all hope of life and commended his soul into the hands of God, saying in his heart, “I thank thee, O most High, that I do not remember ever, to have injured anyone, save Dunstan alone, and this I will amend, reconciling myself to him with ready willingness if my life is spared.” As he spoke, by the merits of the saint, his horse stopped on the turf at the very edge of the cliff (I shudder to tell it), when its forefeet were almost about to dash into the depths of the abyss. Then the king with heart and voice alike gave thanks and praises to God for that his life was saved, plainly perceiving, and very often considering in the secrecy of his heart, that he had been almost doomed to a near death for his attack on such a man.

When he arrived home, without delay he ordered the blessed Dunstan to be called to him in great haste. And when he was come the king said to him, “Get thee a horse ready as swiftly as may be, that thou mayest be able to go with me whither I am about to go with but small retinue.” And immediately they mounted and went straight along the road to Glastonbury. Arrived there, they entered the church of God, as was meet, to pray. And as soon as their prayers were ended, and the streaming tears wiped from their eyes, the king again called to him Dunstan the servant of God, and taking his right hand, for forgiveness, or perhaps to honour him, kissed it, and leading him to the abbot’s seat, and placing him therein, said: “Be thou ruler of this seat, and a mighty occupant, and most faithful abbot of this church; and whatsoever thou lackest of thine own substance for the increase of Divine worship or to supplement the sacred rule, that will I gladly supply of the royal munificence.” And so thereafter Dunstan the servant of God undertook the above-mentioned office at the king’s command, to rule it, and in the aforesaid manner, following the healthful rule of St. Benedict, shone forth as the foremost abbot of the English nation.

EDGAR’S CORONATION (WHITSUN DAY, 973).

=Source.=—_Anonymous Life of St. Oswald_, written between 995 and 1005.
Raine, _Historians of the Church of York_ (Rolls Series), p. 436.
Translated by W.

Then began the holy season in which according to custom there came the archbishops and all other pre-eminent ecclesiastics and famous abbots and religious abbesses and all dukes, rulers and judges.... They came ... that the most reverend bishops might bless, anoint, and hallow him, with Christ’s blessing.... Then commenced the splendour of great festivity, and the feast of the Holy Ghost. While this was being solemnised all came to hallow the glorious king whose sceptre-bearing glory then more brightly shone, whose golden diadem glittered so that its beauty could not be compared to gold. They led the king, crowned and elected, with glory and honour to the church, where all his counsellors were assembled, and where all the people awaited him. With him went and returned good men and noble abbots, clothed in snowy vestments and in purple. This noble company was followed by the abbesses, matrons of exalted virtue with glorious daughters. These were followed by a multitude of priests, whom our ancestors called elders, with ranks of clerks. Then two bishops took the king’s hands and led him into the church, all singing in a deep and modulated tone this antiphon; “Thou hast a mighty arm: strong is thy hand, and high is thy right hand. Righteousness and equity are the habitation of thy seat: mercy and truth shall go before thy face.” This antiphon finished, they added thereto, “Glory be to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Ghost.” And when they had entered the church and the king had prostrated himself before the altar, first putting off from his head his diadem, Dunstan, the chief bishop, began with a loud voice the hymn of glory, “We praise thee as God, we acknowledge thee to be the Lord.” But he could not refrain himself from tears for joy and for the humility of the king, because he knew that the nation had not deserved a king so humble and so wise. When the hymn was concluded the bishops raised the king from the ground. Three oaths, at the archbishop’s question, did he promise that he would observe: “First I promise that the church of God and all the Christian people shall always keep true peace in our dominion. Secondly I promise that I will forbid outrage and all wickedness in all ranks. Thirdly that I will command justice and mercy in all dooms, that the merciful and pitiful God may dispense his mercy to me and to you.” The promises made, the archbishop stood and prayed for him the prayers that were written in their books. Then Oswald, the minister of Christ, said the second Mass with great grace, as the Archbishop arranged, to whose commands all were obedient. When the hallowing was completed, they anointed him and sang nobly together the antiphon, “Sadoc the priest and Nathan the prophet anointed Salomon king over Sion,” and added, “May the king live for ever!” After anointing the king the bishop gave him the ring, then girded him with the sword, and after this gave him the crown upon his head and the blessing. He gave him the sceptre and the staff. The aforesaid bishop completed all these things, and finished Mass, and they declared a solemn feast-day. The sound of the trumpet was not heard there, nor the horn of the jester, but all things, after the manner of wisest Salomon were honourably accomplished, where each drank according to his age and his ability. The most eminent bishops, the venerable Dunstan and the reverend Oswald, were seated on a raised throne with the king, who was so graceful and comely in word and deed that nothing could be seen or heard except the honour and praise shown to him by pious dukes, and famous soldiers and chief men. The king, as we have said, crowned with laurel and adorned with roses, was with the bishops: with him glittered in glorious wise dukes and all the dignitaries of the English, rejoicing in the heavenly King, who had granted to them to have such a king “in whose mind were mercy and truth.” The queen had a banquet with the abbots and abbesses. She was clothed in a garment of linen, girt about with variety of jewels and pearls, raised higher than the other matrons as became her royal dignity, since after the death of the honoured duke, she had been honoured by marriage with the king. When the royal nuptials were completed, all returned to their own homes, blessing the king and queen, and wishing them the tranquillity of peace which ancient kings obtained.

THE MURDER OF KING EDWARD AT CORFE (MARCH 18, 978).

=Source.=—_Anonymous Life of St. Oswald_, written between 995 and 1005.
Raine, _Historians of the Church of York_ (Rolls Series), p. 448.
Translated by W.

When the glory of leaders and emperor of all Albion [Edgar] was snatched away from the storm of this changing world and rescued from the salt shipwreck of the fluctuating sea, there arose everywhere, after the times of gladness which peacefully endured in his reign, dissension and tribulation which neither the bishops nor leaders of church and state could pacify.... For some of the leaders of this country wished to elect Edward, the elder son, as king, others of the chief men desired the younger, Ethelred, since he seemed to all in word and deed more gentle. For the elder filled all with fear and terror, for he scourged them with words, nay, more, with terrible stripes, especially those about his person. Meanwhile the ninth ... month had passed, and the tenth light was shining upon mortals after the election of Edward, against whom some thegns, zealous in his brother’s cause, formed a conspiracy, when he should come to talk with his beloved brother.... One day at evening, as we have said, the noble and elected king came to the house where dwelt his dearly-loved brother with the queen, desiring the consolation of a brother’s love. There came out to meet him, as was fitting, the chiefs and leaders who were staying with the queen his mother. They formed a wicked plot among themselves, who had such evil minds and so dark and devilish a gloom that they did not fear to lay hands on the Lord’s Anointed. He was surrounded on all sides by armed men, amongst them the butler ready to serve in his lowly office. Now the revered king had with him very few thegns, because he feared no man, trusting in the Lord and in the might of His goodness. He had been instructed in the divine law by bishop Sideman, and was strong and hardy in body. So when the conspirators surrounded him ... he remained fearlessly sitting on his horse. Madness was in them, and with it insanity. Then the worst wickedness and the bold madness of Beelzebub the enemy burst out in the minds of the treacherous thegns.... The thegns therefore held him, and one drew him to the right to himself, as though he wished to kiss him, while another roughly seized his left hand and wounded him. The king called out as loudly as he could, “What are you doing, breaking my right hand?” and suddenly fell from his horse, which also died. God’s martyr was taken away by the thegns to the house of a poor man. No Gregorian chant was heard, no dirge: but the famous king of all the land lay covered with a common garment, awaiting the light of day.... When twice six months of days of the solar and the lunar year were past, there came the glorious Duke Ælfhere with a multitude of people, who ordered his body to be raised from the ground. When this had been done, and the body exposed, they found and saw it free from all spot and decay, as it had been in life. When they saw this, all were astonished, with dances rejoicing in the Lord, who alone worketh marvels. Then the thegns washed the body of the revered king, and when they had clothed it with new garments they placed it in a coffin or tomb, put it on their shoulders, and conveyed it on a bier to the place where they buried him with honour, where Masses and holy oblations were celebrated for the redemption of his soul, at the command of the duke.

THE REDELESS KING AND THE DANES (980-1002).

=Source.=—_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle._ Translated by J. A. Giles. Bohn’s
Library.

ANNO 980.—In this year ... was Southampton ravaged by a ship-force, and the most part of the townsmen slain and led captive. And that same year was Thanet-land ravaged by a ship-force, and most part of the townsmen slain and led captive. And that same year was Legecester-shire [Cheshire] ravaged by a northern ship-force.

ANNO 981.—In this year St. Petroc’s-stowe [Padstow] was ravaged; and that same year was much harm done everywhere by the sea-coast, as well among the men of Devon as among the Welsh.

ANNO 982.—In this year landed among the men of Dorset three ships of pirates; and they ravaged in Portland.

ANNO 988.—This year was Watchet ravaged, and Goda, the Devonshire thegn, slain, and with him much slaughter made.

ANNO 991.—This year was Ipswich ravaged; and after that, very shortly, was Brihtnoth the ealdorman slain at Maldon. And in that year it was decreed that tribute, for the first time, should be given to the Danish men, on account of the great terror which they caused by the sea-coast. That was at first ten thousand pounds. This counsel was first given by Archbishop Siric.

ANNO 992.—Then decreed the king and all his witan that all the ships which were worth anything should be gathered together at London. And the king then committed the forces to the leading of Ælfric the ealdorman, and of Thorod the earl, and of Bishop Ælfstan [of London], and of Bishop Æscwy [of Dorchester]; and they were to try if they could anywhere betrap the army about. Then sent the ealdorman and directed the army to be warned; and then during the night of which they should have joined battle by day, then fled he by night from the forces, to his great disgrace: and the army then escaped, except one ship, whose crew was there slain. And then the ships from East Anglia and from London met the army, and there they made great slaughter of them; and took the ship, all armed and equipped, in which the ealdorman was.

ANNO 993.—In this year was Bamburgh entered by storm, and much booty there taken. And after that the army came to the mouth of the Humber, and there wrought much evil, as well in Lindsey as in Northumbria. Then a very large force was gathered together; and as they should have joined battle, then the leaders, first of all, began the flight; that was Frene, and Godwin, and Frithgist.

ANNO 994.—In this year came Olave and Sweyn to London, on the nativity of S. Mary, with ninety-four ships; and they then continued fighting stoutly against the city, and would also have set fire to it. But they there sustained more harm and evil than they ever supposed that any citizens would be able to do unto them. But the holy mother of God, on that day, showed her mercy to the citizens and delivered them from their foes. And they then went thence, and wrought the utmost evil that ever any army could do, by burning, and plundering, and man-slaying, both by the sea-coast, and among the East Saxons, and in the land of Kent, and in Sussex, and in Hampshire. And at last they took to themselves horses, and rode as far as they would, and continued doing unspeakable evil. Then the king and his witan decreed that they should be sent to, and promised tribute and food, on condition that they should cease from their plundering: which terms they accepted. And then all the army came to Southampton, and there took up their winter quarters: and there they were victualled from all the realm of the West Saxons, and they were paid sixteen thousand pounds of money. Then the king sent Bishop Ælphege [of Winchester] and Æthelweard the ealdorman after King Olave, and, the while, hostages were delivered to the ships; and they then led Olave with much worship to the king at Andover. And King Ethelred received him at the bishop’s hands, and royally gifted him. And then Olave made a covenant with him, even as he also fulfilled, that he never again would come in hostile wise to the English nation.

ANNO 997.—In this year the army went about Devonshire in Severn-mouth, and there ravaged, as well among the Cornishmen as among the North Welsh, and among the men of Devon; and then landed at Watchet, and there wrought much evil by burning and man-slaying. And after that they went again about Penwithstert, on the south side, and went then into the mouth of the Tamar, and then went up until they came to Liddyford, and burned and destroyed everything which they met with; and they burned Ordulf’s minster at Tavistock, and brought unspeakable booty with them to their ships.

ANNO 998.—This year the army went again eastward into Frome-mouth, and everywhere there they went up as far as they would into Dorset. And forces were often gathered against them; but, as soon as they should have joined battle, then was there ever, through some cause, flight begun; and in the end they ever had the victory. And then at another time they sat down in the Isle of Wight, and got their food the while from Hampshire and from Sussex.

ANNO 999.—This year the army again came about into the Thames, and went then up along the Medway, and to Rochester. And then the Kentish forces came there to meet them, and they there stoutly joined battle: but alas! that they too quickly yielded and fled; for they had not the support which they should have had. And the Danish men had possession of the place of carnage. And then they took horse and rode wheresoever they themselves would, and full nigh all the West Kentish men they ruined and plundered. Then the king, with his witan, decreed that with a ship force and also with a land force they should be attacked. But when the ships were ready, then the miserable crew delayed from day to day, and distressed the poor people who lay in the ships: and ever as it should have been forwarder, so was it later, from one time to another; and ever they let their enemies’ forces increase, and ever the people retired from the sea, and they ever went forth after them. And then in the end, these expeditions both by sea and land effected nothing, except the people’s distress and waste of money, and the emboldening of their foes.

ANNO 1000.—In this year the king went into Cumberland, and ravaged it well nigh all. And his ships went out about Chester, and should have come to meet him, but they were not able: then ravaged they Anglesey. And the hostile fleet went this summer to Richard’s dominions [Normandy].

ANNO 1001.—In this year was much hostility in the land of the English through the ship force, and well nigh everywhere they ravaged and burned, so that they advanced in one course until they came to the town of Alton; and then there came against them the men of Hampshire, and fought against them.... And they went thence west until they came to Devon; and there Paley came to meet them, with the ships which he could gather, because he had fled from King Ethelred, contrary to all the plighted troth that he had given him; and the king had also well gifted him with houses, and with gold and with silver. And they burned Teignton, and also many other good towns which we are unable to name; and there, afterwards, peace was made with them. And they then went thence to Exmouth, so that they proceeded upwards in one course until they came to Pen: and there Cole, the king’s high reeve, and Edsy, the king’s reeve, went against them with the forces which they were able to gather together; and they there were put to flight, and there were many slain: and the Danish men had possession of the place of carnage. And the morning after, they burned the village of Pen and at Clifton, and also many goodly towns which we are unable to name, and then went again east until they came to the Isle of Wight; and on the morning after, they burned the town at Waltham, and many other small towns, and soon after a treaty was entered into with them, and they made peace.

ANNO 1002.—In this year the king decreed, and his witan, that tribute should be paid to the fleet, and peace made with them, on condition that they should cease from their evil-doings. Then sent the king to the fleet Leofsy the ealdorman; and he then settled a truce with them by the king’s word, and his witan’s, and that they should receive food and tribute. And that they then accepted: and then were they paid twenty-four thousand pounds. Then during this, Leofsy the ealdorman slew Eafy the king’s high steward; and the king then banished him the land.... And in that year the king ordered all the Danish men who were in England to be slain. This was done on St. Brice’s mass day; because it was made known to the king that they would treacherously bereave him of his life, and afterwards all his witan; and after that have his kingdom without any gainsaying.

THE BATTLE OF MALDON (991).

=Source.=—_Anglo-Saxon Poem_, lines 481-637. Translated by E. A.
Freeman.

[Note that the lines are to be read across the page.]

Leofsuna spake out, and his linden heaved,
his board to guard him; he to the warrior quoth,
“I this promise thence that I nill
flee a footstep, but will further go,
to wreak in the fight my lord and comrade.
Nor by Stourmere any steadfast hero
with words need twit me that I lordless
homeward should go, and wend from the fight;
but me shall weapons meet point and iron.”
Full of ire he waded, fought he steadfastly,
on flight he thought not. Dunnere then quoth,
his dart he made quake, the valiant churl,
over all he cleped; he bade that warriors each
Brihtnoth should wreak; “Nought may he fear
who to wreak thinketh his lord among the folk,
nor for his life mourn.” Then they forth went,
for life they recked not. Began then the house-men
hardly to fight, fiercely spears bearing,
and to God they prayed that they might wreak
their lord and comrade, and on their foes
a fall might work. Then there a hostage gan
gladly to help; he was in Northumberland
of a hard kin, Ecglaf’s bairn,
Æscferth was his name. Nought then feared he
in the war-play, and he poured forth
arrows enough; one while he on board shot,
one while a warrior teased, ever and anon he sold
some wounds, the while he weapons
still might wield. Then yet in rank stood
Eadward the Long, ready and yearnful;
bold words spake he that he would not flee
a footstep of land, overback to bow,
while his better lay. He broke the board-wall
and with the warriors fought, till he his gift-giver
on the seamen worthily wreaked,
ere he in slaughter lay. So did Ætheric,
noble comrade, eager forth to go,
fought he earnestly, Sibriht’s brother,
and so many other clave the keeled board,
keen they were, burst they the boards,
and the hauberk sang a grisly lay.
There in the fight slew Offa the seamen,
till he on earth fell, and Gadda’s kinsman
the ground sought; rath was in battle
Offa down hewn, yet had he furthered
that he his lord had pledged, as he ere agreed
with his ring-giver that they should both
to the borough ride hale to home,
or in the host cringe on the slaughter-place,
of their wounds die. He lay thegnlike
his lord hard by. Then were boards broken,
seamen waded on, in the fight wrathful.
The spear oft waded through the fey man’s life-house.
Forth then went Wistan Thurstan’s son,
with the warmen fought he, he was in the throng,
banesman of three of them, ere him Wigeline’s bairn
in slaughter low laid. There was stern meeting;
stood they fast fighters in battle;
fighting they cringed, with their wounds weary;
slaughter fell on earth. Oswold and Ealdwold
all the while, both brethren,
the warriors trimmed; their fellow-kinsmen
with words they bade, that they there at need
them should bear up, and unweakly
their weapons use. Brihtwold then spake,
his board heaving; he was an old comrade;
his ash he made quake; he full boldly
the warriors learned; “Mind shall the harder be,
heart shall the keener be, mood shall the more be,
as our main lessens. Here lies our Elder,
all down hewn, a good man in the dust;
ever may he groan who now from this war-play
of wending thinketh. I am old of life;
hence stir will I not, and I by the half
of my lord, by such a loved man
to lie am thinking.” So Æthelgar’s bairn
then all cheered on, Godric to battle:
Oft he the dart let go, the death spear wound he
on the wikings.

COUNTRY LIFE AT THE END OF THE TENTH CENTURY.

A MASTER IN A MONASTERY SCHOOL QUESTIONS HIS PUPIL’S COMPANIONS AND HIS
PUPIL.

=Source.=—_Ælfric’s Colloquy._ Thorpe’s _Analecta Anglo-Saxonica_.
Translated by W.

THE PLOUGHMAN.

_Master._—Well, ploughman, how do you do your work?

_Ploughman._—O sir, I work very hard. I go out in the dawning, driving the oxen to the field, and I yoke them to the plough. Be the winter never so stark, I dare not stay at home, for fear of my lord; but, every day I must plough a full acre or more, after having yoked the oxen, and fastened the share and the coulter to the plough.

_Master._—Have you any mate?

_Ploughman._—I have a boy, who drives the oxen with a goad, who is now however hoarse from cold and shouting.

_Master._—What more do you do in the day?

_Ploughman._—Truly I do more. I must fill the mangers of the oxen with hay, and water them, and carry out the dung.

_Master._—Well, well, it is very hard work!

_Ploughman._—Yes, indeed, it is very hard work, because I am not free.

THE SHEPHERD.

_Master._—How say you, shepherd? Have you any work to do?

_Shepherd._—Yes, indeed I have. Very early in the morning I drive my sheep to the lea, and stand over them in heat and in cold with my dogs, lest the wolves eat them up. And I drive them back to their folds, and milk them twice a day. And besides this, I move their folds, and I make cheese and butter, and I am true to my lord.

THE OXHERD.

_Master._—And what is your work, oxherd?

_Oxherd._—O, my lord, I work hard. When the ploughman unyokes the oxen, I lead them to the lea, and all the night I stand over them watching for thieves, and again, very early in the morning, I hand them over to the ploughman, well fed and watered.

THE HUNTSMAN.

_Master._—How do you set about your craft?

_Huntsman._—I make me nets, and set them in a likely place, and drive on my hounds to chase the wild beasts until they come to the nets unawares, and so they are ensnared and I slay them in the nets.... Yes, I can hunt without nets. I follow the wild beasts with swift hounds.... I take hart, and boars, and does, and roes, and sometimes hares....

_Master._—What do you do with the spoils of your hunting?

_Huntsman._—What I take I give to the king, because I am his huntsman.

_Master._—What does he give you?

_Huntsman._—He clothes me well and feeds me, and sometimes gives me a horse or a bracelet, that I may the more joyfully set about my craft.

THE FISHERMAN.

_Master._—What do you get by your craft?

_Fisherman._—Food, and clothing, and money.

_Master._—How do you catch fish?

_Fisherman._—I get into my boat, and place my nets in the river, and I cast a hook and baskets, and I take whatever they hold.

_Master._—What if they are unclean fishes?

_Fisherman._—The unclean I cast out, and take the clean for food.

_Master._—Where do you sell your fish?

_Fisherman._—In the town.... The townsmen buy them. I cannot catch as many as I can sell.

_Master._—What sorts of fish do you catch?

_Fisherman._—Eels, and pike, minnows, eelpout, trout, and lamprey, and such sprats as swim in a river.

_Master._—Why don’t you fish in the sea?

_Fisherman._—Sometimes I do, but seldom, for it is a long row for me to the sea.

_Master._—What do you catch in the sea?

_Fisherman._—Herrings, and salmon, porpoises, and sturgeon, oysters and crabs, mussels, periwinkles, cockles, plaice, and soles, and lobsters, and many such things.

_Master._—Do you wish to catch a whale?

_Fisherman._—No.

_Master._—Why?

_Fisherman._—Because it is a dangerous thing to catch a whale. It is safer for me to go to the river with my boat than to go with many boats on a whale-hunt.

_Master._—Why so?

_Fisherman._—Because I would sooner catch a fish that I can slay than one who can sink or kill not me only but also my mates with one blow.

_Master._—But, still, many catch whales, and escape the dangers, and obtain a great price therefor.

_Fisherman._—That’s true, but I dare not, on account of the cowardliness of my mind.

THE FOWLER.

_Master._—What do you say, fowler? How do you snare birds?

_Fowler._—I snare them in many ways: sometimes with nets, sometimes with nooses, sometimes with lime, sometimes by whistling, sometimes with a hawk, sometimes with traps....

_Master._—How do you feed your hawks?

_Fowler._—In winter they feed themselves and me; in Lent I let them fly away to the wood; and in autumn I catch young birds and tame them.

_Master._—And why do you let those that you have tamed fly away from you?

_Fowler._—Because I do not wish to feed them in the summer, as they eat too much.

_Master._—But many men do feed tame hawks through the summer, so that they may have them ready again.

_Fowler._—Yes, so they do; but I do not wish to be so bothered with them, because I know how to catch many more.

THE TRADER.

_Master._—What do you say, trader?

_Trader._—I say that I am needful to the king, and ealdormen, and wealthy men, and to all the folk.

_Master._—How?

_Trader._—I get into my boat with my load, and I row over the waters and sell my things, and I buy things of great price which this land does not bring forth, and I bring them hither to you, with great danger, over the sea, and sometimes I suffer shipwreck, with the loss of all my things, barely escaping with my life.

_Master._—What sorts of things do you bring to us?

_Trader._—Cloaks, and silk, stones of great price, and gold, wonderful garments, and perfumes, wine and oil, ivory, and brass, copper and tin, sulphur and glass, and many things like them.

_Master._—Will you sell your things here, for as much as you bought them there?

_Trader._—I will not. For then what gain is there in my toil? But I will sell them here dearer than I bought them there, that I may get me some profit to feed me and my wife and my children.

THE SHOEMAKER.

_Master._—Shoemaker, what useful work do you do for us?...

_Shoemaker._—I buy hides and fells, and by my craft I prepare them, and from them I make shoes of several kinds, slippers, and shoes, leather hose, and bottles, bridle-thongs, and trappings, and flasks, flagons, and purses, spur-leathers, and halters, bags, and sacks; and not one of you wishes to pass a winter without my craft.

THE REST.

_Master._—Whom have we here?

_Pupil._—I have smiths, iron-smiths, a goldsmith, a silversmith, a coppersmith, a carpenter, and many other craftsmen.

_Master._—Have you a learned counsellor?

_Pupil._—Truly I have. How can our fellowship be ruled without a man of wisdom?

THE PUPIL.

_Master._—Well, boy, what have you done to-day?

_Pupil._—I have done many things. Last night, when I heard the tolling, I arose from my bed, and went to the church, and sang nocturns with the brethren, and morning lauds ... after that prime, and the seven psalms, with litanies, and chapter-mass, then terce and the mass of the day; after this we sang sext, and ate, and drank, and slept, and again we arose, and sang nones, and now here we are before you, ready to hear what you say to us.

_Master._—When will you sing vespers or compline?

_Pupil._—When it is time.

_Master._—Were you threshed to-day?

_Pupil._—Not I, for I behaved myself warily.

_Master._—And how about your school-fellows?

_Pupil._—Why do you ask me about that? I daren’t tell you our secrets. Each one knows whether he was threshed or not.

_Master._—What do you eat every day?

_Pupil._—I still eat flesh-meat, because I am a child living under the rod.

_Master._—What more do you eat?

_Pupil._—Vegetables, and eggs, fish, and cheese, butter, and beans, and all clean things I eat, with great thankfulness.

_Master._—Surely you are gluttonous, since you eat everything that is put before you.

_Pupil._—I am not so greedy as to be able to eat all kinds of food at one meal.

_Master._—How then?

_Pupil._—Sometimes I eat some kinds of food, sometimes others, in moderation, as a monk should do, without greediness, because I am not a glutton.

_Master._—And what do you drink?

_Pupil._—Ale, if I have it, or water, if I have no ale.

_Master._—Don’t you drink wine?

_Pupil._—I am not rich enough to be able to buy wine for myself: and wine is no drink for children or the foolish, but for those who are older and wiser.

_Master._—Where do you sleep?

_Pupil._—In the dormitory with the brethren.

_Master._—Who wakes you for nocturns?

_Pupil._—Sometimes I hear the tolling and arise, sometimes my master awakes me sternly with the rod.

_Master._—My good children and agreeable pupils, your master bids you obey the divine teaching and that you behave yourselves well in every place. Go obediently when you hear the church bells into the church, and humbly bow before the holy altars, and stand reverently, and sing in time and tune, and pray for your sins, and go out thoughtfully to the cloister or the school.

EDMUND AND CANUTE (1016).

=Source.=—_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle._ Translated by J. A. Giles. Bohn’s
Library.