Chapter XVI: The Isthmus Transit Schemes

By the second half of the last century the supply of gold and silver from Peru had much diminished, and the road across the isthmus almost fell into disuse. In 1780, during the great war, the British appear to have had some vague notion that it would be good policy to secure the track across Nicaragua, for which purpose an expedition was fitted out. Early in that year Nelson sailed from Jamaica with five hundred men, and after getting a number of Indians from the Mosquito shore and a reinforcement of British troops, the party made the difficult ascent of the San Juan river, and captured the fort of the same name. But, through ignorance, the whole affair proved disastrous--the fort was useless, and the losses through sickness very great. Of eighteen hundred men only three hundred and eighty survived, and Nelson himself nearly lost his life. He was obliged to go home to recruit, and it was only after spending two or three months at Bath that he recovered to continue that glorious career which made him so famous.

However, it was not long afterwards that a project for utilising the isthmus was brought under the consideration of the British Government by General Miranda, of whom we have spoken in another chapter. He wanted Pitt to assist him in his projects for the emancipation of the Spanish colonies, and, as a means to this end, in 1790, proposed that the British should take possession of Darien, and thus further their commerce in the Pacific. Nothing was done at that time, and a few years later Miranda made a second proposition that the United States should join with Great Britain, and open roads and canals for both nations.

Mr. Pitt seems to have agreed to this, and was only prevented from attempting to carry it out by the delay of President Adams. The United States were to furnish ten thousand men, and Great Britain money and ships. In 1801, under Lord Sidmouth, an expedition was actually set on foot, only to collapse at the Peace of Amiens. Again, in 1804, Pitt tried to carry out the project with Miranda, but the condition of Europe stood in the way of expeditions to the Spanish Main.

(_From Cullen's "Darien Canal."_)]

In enumerating the advantages likely to accrue from the emancipation of South America, a writer in the _Edinburgh Review_ of January, 1809, laid great stress upon a passage across the isthmus. It was the most important to the peaceful intercourse of nations of anything that presented itself to the enterprise of man. So far from being a romantic and chimerical project, it was not only practicable, but easy. The river Chagre, about eighteen leagues westward of Porto Bello, was navigable as far as Cruzes, within five leagues of Panama. But there was even a better route; at about five leagues from its mouth the Chagre received the river Trinidad, which was navigable to Embarcadero, from which Panama was only distant thirty miles through a level country. The ground had been surveyed, and not the practicability only, but the facility of the work _completely ascertained_. Further north was the grand lake of Nicaragua, which by itself almost extended the navigation from sea to sea. The Governor of St. John's Castle (Fort San Juan) had been instructed by the king of Spain to refuse permission to any British subject desirous of passing up or down this lake, "for if ever the English came to a knowledge of its importance and value they would soon make themselves masters of this part of the country."

But not only had the best places for a canal been selected at this early time, but the many advantages to be derived from its construction had been well considered. The same writer went on to say that from this splendid and not difficult enterprise, not merely the commerce of the western shores of America would be brought, as it were, to their doors, but that of the South Sea whalers, who would be saved the tedious and dangerous voyage round Cape Horn. Then the whole of the vast interests of Asia would increase in value to a degree that was then difficult to conceive, by having a direct route across the Pacific. It would be as if, by some great revolution of the globe, they were brought nearer. Immense would be the traffic which immediately would begin to cover the ocean--all the riches of India and China moving towards America. Then also the commodities of Europe and America would be carried towards Asia. As a result of this, vast depots would be formed at the two extremities of the canal, to soon develop into great commercial cities. Never before had such an opportunity been offered to a nation as Great Britain had then before her, owing to a wonderful combination of circumstances.

Mr. Robinson, a United States merchant, in 1821, said that the most ardent imagination would fail in an attempt to portray all the important and beneficial consequences of such a work, the magnitude and grandeur of which were worthy the profound attention of every commercial nation. The powers of the old and new world should discard all selfish considerations, and unite to execute it on a magnificent scale, so that when completed it might become, like the ocean, a highway of nations, the enjoyment of which should be guaranteed by all, and be exempt from the caprice or regulation of any one kingdom or state.

Such were the views promulgated at the beginning of this century, but nothing was done until about 1850, when the pressure of circumstances again brought the isthmus into note.

Darien and Panama are in the Republic of New Granada, but north of these come the small states of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, San Salvador, and Guatemala. All of these are inhabited by true Americans--native races who have to a considerable extent absorbed the slight admixture of European blood introduced by their conquerors. Some places are so inaccessible as to be virtually outside the pale of civilisation. The roads are nothing but mule tracks, full of quagmires where the animals have to wade up to their girths in mud--in fact, little better than the paths so well described by Lionel Wafer. The rivers are numerous, and, on account of the heavy rainfall, their currents are very strong, and all the more dangerous from the numerous sandbanks and rapids which obstruct their course. Since the states gained their independence they have passed through so many changes of government that at the beginning hardly a month passed without a revolution in one or the other. This went on until 1848 without interference from outside, but with the discovery of gold in California came an invasion of ruffians of all nations.

The old freebooters almost seemed to have come to life again. Hardy adventurers from all parts of the world rushed off to the new "El Dorado," woke the sleepy Nicaraguans on the San Juan river, and roused the people of Chagres. Over the isthmus of Panama or through the Nicaragua lake they flocked by thousands, necessitating the establishment of Transit Companies to provide them with mules, boats, and steamers. The easiest, although longest, route was through Nicaragua, which was controlled by the Vanderbilt Company, and during the time the "rush" lasted they took over two or three thousand per month. The Company had steamers on the lake to meet the throng of diggers as they arrived, and they passed through at regular intervals like a tide. The overland part of the route presented a strange spectacle, with their pack mules and horses. Men of all nationalities, armed with pistols and knives, which they were prepared to use on the Greasers (natives) at the slightest provocation, put these altogether in the background. A traveller has spoken of them as a string of romantic figures that could not be matched in any other part of the world. Some glowed with fervent passion, as if on fire, others were hard, cold, and rugged as the rocky passes they traversed, while a few were worn, old, and decaying, under the effects of the hardships and reverses of their stormy existence. Every line in their faces had a meaning, if it could only have been interpreted, telling of sin and suffering--of adventures more terrible than were ever portrayed by the pen of the romantic writer, and of experiences as fascinating as they had been dangerous.

Among the results of this rush through Nicaragua was the expedition of William Walker, the great filibuster of this century. With fifty-five men he went forth from California to conquer Central America, and in the end nearly succeeded. He got himself elected President of Nicaragua, but ultimately raised such a storm that he was brought to bay by some forces from Honduras and Costa Rica, and had to surrender to the captain of a British man-of-war, by whom he was handed over to his enemies to be shot.

With this wonderful traffic across the isthmus arose the old canal schemes, as well as a new one for a railway. Easy and rapid transit must be obtained in some way or other, and this time being in the age of steam, it naturally followed that the project for a railway gained immediate support. It was commenced in 1850, at which time the terminus on the Gulf side was settled, and the foundations of the new town of Aspinwall or Colon laid a few miles east of Chagres. The difficulties were enormous, on account of the marshy ground and the number of rivers to be crossed. The wooden bridges were almost immediately attacked by wood ants, floods carried away the timbers, but more distressing than all was the loss of life through sickness. Chinese labourers were imported in great numbers, only to fall victims to the same deadly climate which had given Porto Bello and the isthmus generally their evil reputation. However, the railway was completed in 1864, at the enormous cost of $7,500,000, although its length is only 47-1/2 miles. Thus one part of the great project was carried out, and a good road provided for passengers and light goods, the annual value of which latter is now about L15,000,000.

But those in favour of a canal were not sleeping all this time. The old routes were again mooted, that through Lake Nicaragua being put down at 194 miles in length, while the other, since known as the Panama, was only 51. Dr. Edward Cullen, however, in 1850 went out and made some surveys, with the result that he advocated the old Darien line as the shortest and most practicable. He would start from the same Port de Escoces that witnessed the downfall of William Paterson's scheme, and which he said was a most commodious harbour for the terminus of a canal. The isthmus was here only 39 miles across, and free from many of the difficulties which beset the other routes.

As a result of Dr. Cullen's reports, in 1852 it was proposed to establish "The Atlantic and Pacific Junction Company," with a capital of fifteen millions sterling. The prospectus stated that the period had arrived when the spread of commerce and the flow of emigration to the western shores of America, Australasia, and China, demanded a passage more direct than those by way of the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn. Various projects had been formed for uniting the two oceans, but all these were open to the objection that they fell short of supplying a continuous channel from sea to sea, for vessels of all dimensions, by which alone transhipment could be obviated. Sir Charles Fox, Mr. John Henderson, Mr. Thomas Brassey, and Dr. Cullen had received a concession of territory from New Ganada to the extent of 200,000 acres, on condition that a deposit of L24,000 be made within twelve months. It was believed that the work could be completed for twelve millions.

The _Times_ spoke disparagingly of the new Company, and this probably prevented its acceptance by the financial world. The line, it said, had not been actually surveyed, but only superficially examined, and, after all, if it were finished, it could only come into competition with the Nicaragua Canal, every foot of which had been the subject of precise estimates, and which would only cost _four millions_. Several letters from the projectors and supporters of the Company followed, with other leaders, the result being that the Darien Canal never went beyond a project. Presently also the rush for California abated, and the railway met the wants of the passengers; all the canal schemes were therefore again shelved for a time.

Then came an almost Utopian project for a ship railway, the cars of which would run down into the water, take up the largest vessel, and carry it over without trouble or difficulty. This met with little encouragement, and was soon dropped.

In 1879 Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had achieved such a glorious success with the Suez Canal, took up the matter of a canal between the two oceans, and summoned a congress of savants, engineers and seamen, to inquire into and discuss the questions of its possibility, and of the most suitable place for its excavation. A number of projects were considered, among them that of Dr. Cullen, brought forward by M. de Puydt, which, however, did not receive much attention, as there was a difference of opinion as to the reliability of the figures.

The schemes were ultimately reduced to two--those for the Nicaragua and Panama routes. The position of the great lake caused the former to be thoroughly discussed; but there were several almost insurmountable difficulties in the way of its adoption. To clear the San Juan river, and make it into a great canal, would entail great labour and expense, and then seven or eight locks would be required. On the Pacific side locks would also be required for the Rivas, while the harbours of Greytown on the Gulf side, and Brito on the Pacific, were quite unsuited as termini for a canal. The total length would be 182-1/2 miles, and the time occupied in the passage four and a half days. There was also another great draw-back: Nicaragua was and is subject to earthquakes, which would be likely at times to interfere greatly with such heavy works as were required. It followed, therefore, that notwithstanding the powerful support of the Americans, this line was abandoned in favour of that from Port Simon to Panama, not far from the railway.

Two French officers, MM. Wyse and Reclus, had explored the country, and proposed to carry the canal through the Chagres river, and thence, by means of a great tunnel, into the valley of the Rio Grande; but, on consideration, the tunnel was abandoned in favour of a deep cutting, which would not exceed 290 feet. The great objection to this was the floods of the Chagres river, which sometimes rose twenty-five feet in a single night; but this was got over by arranging for a separate bed for the canal. There were a few other difficulties, but propositions were made to obviate them; and at last the sub-commission reported that "the Panama Canal on the level technically presents itself under the most satisfactory conditions, and ensures every facility, as it gives every security, for the transit of vessels from one sea to another."

Now came the question of cost. The Nicaragua Canal was estimated at L32,000,000, and that at Panama L40,000,000. (The reader will compare these with former estimates, especially that of Nicaragua as stated by the _Times_.) The former was rejected absolutely, on account of the necessity for locks, and all further discussion was concerned with the latter. It was then calculated that, with transit dues of fifteen francs per ton, the net annual profit would be L1,680,000.

M. de Lesseps was elected to the Academy in 1885, when M. Renan said he had been born to pierce isthmuses, and that antiquity would have made him a god. Carried away by enthusiasm, the great projector saw no difficulties; he had already completed a work which had been declared almost impossible, now he would carry out a project similar to that proposed by William Paterson. However, Panama was not Suez, a rainless desert, but a place where floods, marshes, and quagmires took the place of almost level sands.

M. Wyse had vainly tried to start a Company; but when Lesseps, with all the prestige of his Suez Canal, joined him, there was comparatively little difficulty. Personally, Lesseps seems to have known little of Panama--all his knowledge was gained at second hand. The first public subscription was invited in July, 1879, the capital being 400,000,000 francs (L16,000,000), in 800,000 shares at 500 francs each. This large sum, however, was not obtained at once, only L3,200,000 being applied for. However, Lesseps was not discouraged, but determined to go on with the work, trusting that money would flow in as it was wanted, which ultimately proved to be the case, until the project appeared hopeless. He visited the isthmus, and made a triumphal progress over the line; he even witnessed one of the great floods of the Chagres river, which rose forty feet and covered the railway. Undaunted by this, he went over to Panama, and on the 5th of January, 1880, inaugurated the great canal with a ceremony and _fete_. He then stated that success was assured, and declared, upon his word of honour, that the work would be much easier on the isthmus than in the desert of Suez.

In March following he visited New York, where he was but coldly received, on account of American jealousy of European influence. The President said that the capital invested in such an enterprise by corporations or citizens of other countries must be protected by one or more of the great Powers, but no European Power could intervene for such protection without adopting means which the United States would deem inadmissible. This did not damp his enthusiasm; if other countries would not assist, all the credit would go to France. The Company had a concession from the Columbian Republic for twelve years, and the United States would not be likely to interfere.

It will be interesting here to compare the estimates for the canal by different persons and at different times within two years:--

M. Wyse, 1879 L17,080,000
The Paris Congress, 1879 41,760,000
The Lesseps Commission, February, 1880 33,720,000
M. de Lesseps himself, " " 26,320,000
Rectified estimate, September, 1880 21,200,000

Lesseps said he had an offer from a contractor to complete the work for twenty millions. Backed by the press and the deputies, the Company's shares sold freely, and on the 3rd of March, 1881, it was fully established. It was promised that in the course of that year the line of the canal should be cleared, and dredging commenced. Lesseps expected to finish in 1887, but in 1884 and the two following years he was obliged to advance the time to 1890. The canal was to be 47 miles long, 70 feet wide at the bottom, and 29 feet deep.

Little was done in 1881, but the work was divided into five sections, and in the following year dredging and excavating were commenced. But, even thus early, it was found to be more difficult than had been expected. Up to March, 1883, only 659,703 metres had been excavated, which was reckoned to be about 1/130th of the whole. This would not do, as it meant that over a century would pass before its completion. About seven thousand labourers, mostly Jamaica negroes, were employed at that time, and this number was increased until, in 1888, there were 11,500. In 1884 the average amount excavated was 600,000 metres per month, against Lesseps' estimate of two millions. Yet, with all that, it was calculated that in this year only 1/180th of the material had been taken out.

The difficulties were enormous. First, there was trouble to find dumping places, where the earth would not be again washed into the excavations by heavy floods. Then came the rank vegetation, which was continually stretching from either side to choke the clearing. Weeds grew six to eight feet high in a rainy season, and these, with the straggling vines, kept a little army at work to clear them away from the embankments and tracks. The workmen suffered greatly from yellow and other fevers, and L600,000 was spent on hospitals and their appurtenances. Money was spent profusely on such things as grand offices and a magnificent house to lodge the President, if he should ever come to inspect the works. All along the route were ornamental bungalows, and the director-general at Panama had a salary of L20,000, besides a house and other allowances. Even he suffered from fever, and his wife and daughter died of it.

Up to 1888 about fifty millions sterling had been spent, and hardly a fifth of the work was finished. Then financial difficulties led to an arrangement for merging it in a new Company, which proposed to complete the canal on a new plan. Notwithstanding all the objections to locks, it was now proposed to save such an immense work of excavation by erecting four on either side, thus bringing the highest water level to 123 feet. Eighteen and a half miles were said to have been completed, of which five were on the Pacific side and the remainder on the Gulf. To carry out the new plan, L36,000,000 more were required, but, as a matter of fact, only a third of the work necessary for this revised scheme had been done.

Then came the downfall, which has been compared to that of the South Sea Bubble. When the Company went into liquidation, scores of shady transactions came to light. Editors of newspapers and deputies had been bribed to gain their support, and money had been wasted in almost every possible manner. In February, 1893, M. Ferdinand de Lesseps and four other directors were prosecuted, with the result that he, MM. C. de Lesseps, Fontaine, and Cottin, were convicted of breach of trust and swindling, the two former being sentenced to five years' imprisonment and 3,000 francs fines each, and the latter two years and 20,000 francs fines. M. Eiffel, the architect of the great tower of Paris, was found guilty of breach of trust, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment and a fine of 20,000 francs. Nine persons were then charged with receiving bribes, one of whom, M. Baihaut, admitted that he got 375,000 francs. Three were found guilty, sentenced to imprisonment, fines, and to pay the liquidators of the company the amount of M. Baihaut's bribe. Charles de Lesseps appealed against the charges of swindling, and these were quashed on the ground that the transactions had occurred more than five years before, thus getting the longer terms of imprisonment and fines of the three principals reduced.

Ferdinand de Lesseps hardly knew what was going on; he was old, feeble, and in a state of apathy and stupor. Pity for his condition prevented the carrying out of the sentence as far as he was concerned, and he died on the 7th of December, 1894. The _Times_, in noticing his death, said the story was a most pitiful one. The blame of the Panama affair must be laid upon the people and the public temper. Bribery and corruption were symptoms of a thoroughly unhealthy state of things. An infatuated public provided enormous sums; when these were spent, more went the same way, and to get these contributions everything possible was done. Lesseps was no engineer, but a diplomatist, planning great schemes and the means of carrying them out. He was the man of the moment in France. He was neither a financier nor an engineer, neither an impostor nor a swindler. He was a man of great originality, of indomitable perseverance, of boundless faith in himself, and of singular powers of fascination over others.

Meanwhile several attempts had been made to get money to carry on the work, one of which was by means of a lottery. But the French people were discouraged, and were no longer prepared to throw good money after bad. It followed, therefore, that although in 1894 a new company, with a capital of sixty-five million francs, was proposed, and that it was announced in August that eight hundred workmen were engaged, it does not appear that anything is being done. If, as has been stated, only a third of the work has been accomplished for, say, thirty millions, allowing for waste of money, it can hardly be expected that double this amount will ever be obtained. What with the heavy floods and rank vegetation, a great deal will have to be done to recover lost ground; in fact, some of the excavations must be filled up by this time. Those who know the country can easily understand that the handsome bungalows, hospitals, and workmen's houses must be overrun by wood-ants, and that the machinery is mostly spoilt by rust. Even if the canal is ever finished with locks, it is doubtful whether it could pay a dividend, as the work of keeping it open by dredging would be very expensive. No doubt it would be a boon to the world if it were finished, but capitalists expect profit, and will hardly be inclined to assist without such expectations.

(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]

The Nicaragua canal has been in course of excavation for several years past by an American Company. As finally adopted, it is to have a total length of 169.4 miles, of which 56-1/2 will be through the lake, and 641/2 through the San Juan river. There are to be three locks on either side, which may cause trouble in case of a violent earthquake; and then, again, the length of the journey will be against it as compared with that of Panama. It has been attempted in the United States to make it a national work, and the sum of a hundred million dollars is asked from the American Government, or at least a guarantee on the issue of bonds to that amount. We believe that very little enthusiasm for the project has been shown. In August, 1893, the Company was unable to meet its obligations, and a receiver was appointed, since which time we believe the work is being continued, and that it has been decided to complete it as soon as possible. M. de Varigny, in _L'Illustration_ of June the 1st, 1895, gives the following opinion on the work and its political importance:--

"That the Washington statesmen take account of the fact that the cutting of the isthmus is difficult, costly, and, in case of a rupture with England, dangerous, we cannot doubt. But such is the fascination of great enterprises, of grand words and grand theories, that senators and representatives hesitate to oppose the current of opinion that is bearing along the masses.

"The work has begun, and we can only hope that it will succeed. There cannot be too many gates of communication between different peoples. The United States undertake to open this. Can they do it, and doing it, will they give up the advantages they will thereby acquire? The future will show."

INDEX.

Acosta, Pedro de, explorer of the Orinoco, 43

African slavery, 157

Aguirre the Tyrant, 38

Alfinger, Ambrosio de, searches for "El Dorado," 34

Altienza, Donna Inez de, murdered by Aguirre, 39

Amazon Company, 83

Amazon, expedition of Ursua and Aguirre, 38

American Indian, his character, 1

_Amis des Noirs_, 257

"Angel Gabriel," John Sayers Orr, rouses the negroes of Demerara, 335

Antigua, 165

Anti-slavery party, 289, 298

Apprenticeship, negro, 306

Araby, a leader of bush negroes, 227

Arawaks,
their character, 2;
Columbus tries to enslave them, 9;
the Spanish sovereign's good feeling for them, 9;
their treatment by the first colonists, 11;
did not lay up provisions, 12;
thinks Spaniards gods, 12;
refuse to be slaves, 18;
die off in great numbers, 18;
in Guiana, 23, 75

Araya, Dutch at, 75

Armada, Spanish, 63, 64

Aruba, 277

Aspinwall, 352

_Assiento_ contract to supply slaves, 196

Ayscue, Sir George, reduces Barbados for the Parliament, 124

Bahamas,
natives kidnapped, 19;
settled by English, 86;
resort of buccaneers, 96;
captured by Spaniards, 117

Baihaut, M., bribed by Panama Canal Company, 361

Bannister, Major, English Governor of Surinam, 169

Barbados,
first colonised, 85;
protests against grant to Earl of Carlisle, 117;
result of the English revolution, 117;
Charles II. proclaimed king, 122;
Sir George Ayscue arrives to subdue the island, 124;
attack on Hole Town, 126;
the island surrenders, 128;
sufferings of a bond-servant in, 151;
De Ruyter driven off from, 161;
its unique position, 208;
negro plots, 213;
anti-slavery insurrection, 293;
result of emancipation, 328;
confederation disturbances, 341

Barker, Andrew, a rover, 62

Baron, a bush negro chief, 229

Basco, Michael de, a buccaneer, 99, 102

Baskerville, Sir Thomas, a companion of Drake, 65

Beaudierre, Mons. de, a sympathiser with the coloured people of
Hayti, 259

Berbice,
supplies cut off during war, 170;
captured by French corsairs, 178, 179;
great slave insurrection, 218

Belize, 250

Berrie, one of Ralegh's captains, 74

Berrio, Antonio de, Spanish Governor of Trinidad, 69

Bolivar, Simon, Liberator of Venezuela, 279

Bond-servants, 149

Boyer, President of Hayti, 275

Brethren of the coast, 93

British Guiana, 328, 334

British Legion in Venezuela, 286

Bull of Partition,
its terms, 48;
disputed, 49;
practically revoked, 134

Bush negroes, 225

Buxton, Fowell, 300

Byam, Major, Governor of Surinam, 128

Byron, Admiral, 241, 242

Caciques of the Indians, their position, 4

California rush, 351

Campeachy, Bay of, 96, 200

Cannibals, 20, 31

Canning's declaration of neutrality, 285

Caribana, 75

Caribbee Islands, 20, 85

Caribs,
their character, 6;
cannibalism, 20, 31;
hatred of Spaniards, 20;
in Guiana, 23, 75;
in St. Kitt's, 88

Carlisle, Earl of, Grantee of Caribbee Islands, 85, 122

Carthagena,
taken by French, 178;
great fair, 184;
attacked by Admiral Vernon, 205

Cary, Colonel, favours the buccaneers, 165

Casas, Las, 46

Cassard, Jacques,
the corsair, 179;
captures St. Eustatius, 180;
Curacao, 181

Cattle, wild, 21

"Cavaliers" and "Roundheads" in Barbados, 119

Central American Republics, 288

Chagres, 352

Charbon, Jan Abraham, 219

Charles I. and the Colonies, 114

Charles II.
declared king in the Bermudas and Virginia, 117;
Barbados, 122;
his interest in the plantations, 135

Chinese labourers introduced, 327

Christianity forced on the natives, 8, 27

Christophe, a Haytian leader, 269, 274

Clervaux, a Haytian leader, 271

Clifford, Jeronomy, case of, 173

Cochrane, Admiral, 277

Codrington, Colonel, 119

Coffee, 143

Coffee, leader of rebel slaves in Berbice, 221, 223

Coke, John, 84

Colon, 352

Colonies, Spanish, in Hispaniola, 11, 14

Coloured people in Hayti, 257

Columbian Republic, 288

Columbus' opinion of the natives, 6

Confederation in Barbados, 341

Contraband trade with Spanish colonies, 53, 57, 201

Convict labour, 147

Coolies, East Indian, 327

Cooper, Anthony Ashley, 147

Corsairs, 49, 177

Corteso, Juan, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45

Costa Rica, 288

Cottin, M., 360

Cotton, 15, 18, 141

Council for Plantations, 135, 146

Cromwell and the West Indies, 129

Cudjo, a maroon chief, 215

Cuba, 20

Cullen, Dr. E., projector of the Darien Canal, 353

Curacao, 115, 152, 165, 180, 238

Darbey, John, an English prisoner in Cuba, 171

Darien Canal, 353

Darien scheme, 188

Delgado, Augustine, an "El Dorado" seeker, 46

Demerara, 213, 246, 252, 301

Dessalines,
a chief in the Haytian insurrection, 271;
crowned emperor, 274

Dogs,
hunt Indians, 16;
run wild, 22;
hunt maroons, 235;
hunt rebel negroes, 271

Dominica, 91, 116, 238, 241, 249

_Dominus Vobiscum_, one of the first English vessels in the West
Indies, 49

D'Oyley, Governor of Jamaica, 134

Drake, Sir Francis,
voyage with Hawkins, 57;
raid on Nombre de Dios, 59;
great expedition to the West Indies, 63;
captures St. Domingo, 64;
last voyage, 65;
death, 65

Drax, Colonel, 120

Du Casse, a French corsair, 177

Dudley, Sir Robert, 66

Dutch, 67, 75, 84, 86, 115, 129, 166

Edwards, Bryan, 157

Eiffel, M., 360

"El Dorado,"
the quest for, 23;
dangers, 24;
germ of the story, 32;
Martinez' report, 44

Elizabeth, Queen, 67

Emancipation,
Great Britain, 289;
France, 310;
Denmark, 312;
Holland, 313;
Spain, 313

Enambuc, M. d', first French settler, 87-8, 116

Enciso, Bachelor, 29

English and Dutch, 67, 68, 114

Essequebo, 213

Everson, a Dutch pirate, 177

Eyre, Governor of Jamaica, 339

Fedreman, Nicholas, an "El Dorado" seeker, 35

Ferdinand and Isabella,
kind feelings towards the Indians, 10;
grant from the Pope, 48

Fontaine, Father, a Catholic missionary, 134

Fontaine, M., a Panama defaulter, 360

Fourgeaud, Colonel, 227

Franklin, Washington, 294

Free trade, 324

French,
in the West Indies, 49-51, 87;
company for settling the islands, 116;
character of, 167;
revolution, its influence on Hayti, effect on the Spanish Main, 276

George of Spires, an "El Dorado" seeker, 35

German knights in Venezuela, 33

Gold-hunting, 11, 15, 23, 29, 73

Gordon, Mr., a Member of the Jamaica Assembly, executed, 340

Grasse, Count de, 241, 249

Grenada, 238

Groenwegel, Commander of Essequebo, 86

Guadeloupe, 238, 251

_Guanin_, 23

Guatavita, Lake of, 32

Guatemala, 288

Guiana, 23, 69

Guianians, 44

Guichen, Admiral de, 241, 249

Gueiria, 282

Guzman, Fernando de, 38

Haiti, Hayti, or Hispaniola,
its inhabitants, 3;
colonised, 11;
gold found, 11;
almost ruined by becoming depopulated, 21;
a resort of buccaneers, 91;
under the French, 251;
downfall, 257;
British invasion, 268;
republics and empires, 274

Hall, Captain, exploit of, 206

Harcourt, Robert, in Guiana, 76

Harry, a Guiana Indian, in London, 77, 78

Hartop, Job, a prisoner in Mexico, 58

Havana,
ransomed, 50;
sacked and burnt, 51

Hawkins, Sir John,
first voyage, 53;
second, 54;
third, 57;
final trip with Drake, and death, 65

Hawkins, William, voyage to Brazil, 52

Hennessy, Governor John Pope, of Barbados, 341, 345

Henri I. (Christophe), Emperor of Hayti, 274

Henry VIII. of England sends an expedition to the West Indies, 49

Herera, Alonzo de, 45

Hogs naturalised in Hispaniola, see Haiti

Hondo river, 250

Hood, Sir Samuel, 238

Hoogenheim, Wolfert Simon van, Governor of Berbice, 218

Huten, Philip von, an "El Dorado" seeker, 36

Iala, Father, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45

Indian, character of, 1

Jackson, Colonel, captures Santiago de la Vega, 116

Jacques I. (Dessalines), Emperor of Hayti, 274

Jamaica,
Valdivia wrecked off the coast, 30;
attacked by Colonel Jackson, 116;
captured by English, 131;
Spanish attempt to recapture, 133;
the first real British colony, 136;
progress of, 155;
authorities refuse help to the Darien colony, 193;
slave revolts, 214;
serious negro insurrection, 338

James I.,
friendship for Spain, 82, 114;
dispute with Spain about the West Indies and Virginia, 113

Jeffreys, Judge, sends prisoners to Barbados, 150

Jenkins, Captain, and his ear, 202

Jervis, Admiral Sir John, 251

Jews in the West Indies, 239, 245

Keymis, Captain, a follower of Ralegh, 74, 77-9, 81

Kyk-over-al, Dutch fort in Essequebo, 76

Labour difficulties, 14, 137, 321

Lafayette, 260

Lawrence, Captain, an English pirate, 99

Legrand, Pierre, a French pirate, 99

Leigh, Charles, first English settler in Guiana, 76

Lesseps, Ferdinand de, and his Panama scheme, 356

Lolonois, the great pirate, 101

Macatoa, reported a very rich city, 36

Madeirans imported into British Guiana, 327

Maltese imported into British Guiana, 327

Manoa, city of, fabulous residence of "El Dorado," 44

Margarita, 114, 152

Marino, Dictator of Venezuela, 283

Maroons or Simarons, 59, 211, 232

Martinez, Juan de, his report of "El Dorado," 43

Martinique, 116, 182, 238, 251, 259

Mauduit, Captain, murdered in the Haytian revolt, 262

Merrifield, Ralph, one of the first settlers in St. Kitt's, 85

Methodists, 295

Miranda, Francisco, leader of the revolution in Venezuela, 277, 347

Missionaries, Protestant, 295, 327

Montbar, the French pirate, 100

Montserrat, 161, 165, 249

Morgan, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry), the English buccaneer, 102, 177

Morgan, Colonel, 162

Morillo, Marshal, Spanish leader in Venezuela, 284

_Navio de permisso_, 199

Negro slavery, 52, 59, 139, 156, 210

Negroes, free, difficulties with, 329

Nelson, Lord,
flying trip to the West Indies, 254;
his expedition to Nicaragua, 346

Nevis, 161, 249

New Edinburgh, 192

New Granada, 32, 33, 281, 288

New World, 1

Nicaragua and the canal scheme, 288, 346, 351, 355, 362

North, Roger, a settler in Guiana, 83, 85

_Nueva Dorado_, 70

Ojeda, Alonzo de, 27

Omaguas, reported a rich nation, 36

Ophir, 15, 23

Ordas, Diego de, explores the Orinoco, 43

Orders in Council, 300

Orr, John Sayers, "the Angel Gabriel," creates a disturbance in
Demerara, 335

Ouverture, Toussaint L', leader of the Haytian negroes, 268

Oxenham or Oxnam, John, crosses the Isthmus, 61

Oyapok, English colonies in the, 76, 83

Panama, 186, 347, 350

Panama Canal, 347, 353, 355

Panama Railway, 352

Parima Lake, 33

Paterson, William, and the Darien scheme, 188

Penn and Venables, Generals, expedition to the West Indies, 130

Perez, Diego, a gallant Spaniard, 50

Petion, President of Hayti, 274, 285

Philips, Miles, an English prisoner in Mexico, 58

Pirates in the West Indies, 49, 90

Pitman, Henry, a bond-servant, 150

Pitt, in favour of a Panama Canal, 347

Plantations, 143, 154, 291

Pointis, de, a leader of buccaneers, 178

Pomeroon, 75, 161

Pope, The,
issues Bull of Partition, 48;
acknowledges French rights in the West Indies, 134

Popham, Captain, captures Spanish letters, 69

Porto Bello,
its fair, 185;
captured by Vernon, 204

Porto Rico, 20, 49

Prince of Orange in England, 252

Privateers, 96, 98

Proclamations to the Indians, 27, 30

Providence Island, 86

Puerto Cabello, 277

Quesada, Herman de, an "El Dorado" seeker, 36

Ralegh Sir Walter,
at Trinidad, 66;
his "Letters Patent," 68;
his interest in Guiana, 69;
captures Trinidad, 70;
searches for "El Dorado," 72;
sent to the Tower, 76;
liberated, 77;
goes again to Guiana, 78;
capture of St. Thome, 79;
his execution, 82

Reclus, M., a Panama Canal projector, 356

Regapo, Leonard, a Guiana Indian, in London, 77

_Repartimientos_, 15

Robespierre, 260

Rodney, Admiral, 237, 242

Rossy, Sieur du, 116

Route of Spanish trade, 49

Rovers to the Main, 49, 66

Royal African Company for introducing slaves, 149

Rupert, Prince, 124

Ruyter, Admiral de, attacks Barbados, 161

St. Christopher's, or St. Kitt's,
settled by Thomas Warner, 84;
granted to the Earl of Carlisle, 85;
d'Enambuc arrives, 87;
divided between English and French, 88;
attacked by Spaniards, 114;
granted to a French Company, 116;
bond-servants in, 153;
quarrels between English and French, 162, 177, 207;
captured by French, 249

St. Croix or Santa Cruz, riots in, 311, 329

St. Domingo,
captured by Drake, 64;
attempted by Penn and Venables, 131

St. Eustatius, 86, 161, 181, 238, 243

St. Lucia, 238, 241, 251

St. Martin's, 115, 116

St. Thomas, 239

St. Vincent, 238

Salle, General de la, French Governor of St. Kitt's, 162

San Juan river, 346

Santa Martha, captured by French pirates, 51

Santiago de Cuba, gallant fight at, 50

Santiago de la Vega captured by English, 116

Savile, Henry, his "Libel of Spanish Lies," 66

Sedenno, Antonio, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45

Serfdom, 137, 145

Shelley, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, 121

Simarons, _see_ Maroons

Slaves,
Indian, 19;
negro, 52, 59, 139, 156, 210, 289;
white (bond-servants), 146;
insurrections, 213, 294, 302;
abolition of the African trade, 255, 289;
runaways, 210;
Registrar and Protector of, 293;
emancipation of, 309;
reviews of slavery, 289

Smith, Rev. John, a missionary sentenced to death in connection with
a slave revolt, 303-6

South Sea Bubble, 187, 196

Spain,
character of her people, 9;
introducing Christianity, 9;
wanton cruelty to the natives, 18;
hardiness of Spaniards, 25;
their audacity, 30;
Spanish claim to supremacy, 114;
interference with their trade, 133;
Spanish cruelty to prisoners of war, 171

"Spiriting" or kidnapping white servants, 146;
made felony 147

Sugar cane, 19, 141

Suicides, 18

Surinam, 161, 165, 167, 171, 179

Sylva, Gaspar de, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45

Tison, Thomas, first English trader to West Indies, 49

Tobacco, 141

Tobago, 115, 238, 251

Toledo, Don Frederic de, captures St. Kitt's, 114

Tortuga, the great rendezvous of the buccaneers, 95, 102, 165

Trade forced upon the Spanish settlers, 53, 57

Transported convicts, 147

Treasure seeking, 23

Trelawny Town, 232

Tribute imposed on natives, 15

Trinidad, 70, 328

Ursua, Pedro de, murdered by the tyrant Aguirre, 38

Utrecht, treaty of, 196

Valdivia, his shipwreck, 30

Van Horn the pirate, 103

Vanderbilt Transit Company, 351

Venables and Penn, Generals, their expedition, 130

Venezuela,
the treasure seekers in, 23;
her struggle for independence, 277

Vernon, Admiral, 204, 205, 337

Virgin Islands, 96

Virginia, 113

Wafer, Lionel, his journey across the Isthmus, 105

Walker, William, the modern filibuster, 352

Walrond, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, 121

Warner, Thomas, founder of the colony of St. Kitt's, 84, 85, 88

Wars,
England and Spain, 63, 114, 130;
Holland and Spain, 87, 114;
France and Spain, 116;
England and Holland, 129, 160;
England and France against Holland and Spain, 170;
France against England and Holland, 177;
Spain, England, and Holland against France, 178;
England and Holland against France and Spain, 195;
England and Spain, 203;
England and her revolted colonies, 241;
France, Spain, and Holland join in the quarrel, 243;
commencement of the great French war, 251;
England and the United States, 255

Watts, Governor, of St. Kitt's, 162

Welsers of Augsburg, 33

West India Company of Holland, 87

William III. and the Darien scheme, 194

Willoughby, Lord, Governor of Barbados, 122, 124-8, 164

Wyse, M., a Panama Canal projector, 356

The Gresham Press,

UNWIN BROTHERS,

WOKING AND LONDON.