Chapter XI: Part 11

The Bosnian soldiers built the three castles, or rather repaired the existing fabrics, at Assouan, Ibrim, and Say; and those who garrisoned the castles obtained certain privileges for themselves, and for such of their descendants as should continue to occupy the castles, and the territory attached to them; one of these privileges was an exemption from all kind of land tax, which Selym had then for the first time imposed throughout his dominions; and as the country was thought incapable of affording food sufficient for the soldiers, an annual pension was likewise assigned to them out of the Sultan’s treasury at Cairo; the pay of the garrison of Ibrim was four purses, now equal only to £100., but then probably worth four times that sum. They were also made independent of the Pashas of Egypt. While the Pashas had any influence in Egypt, these pensions were paid; but the Mamelouks generally withheld them. Hassan Coosy, with his forces, chiefly cavalry, governed Nubia, while he lived, and was constantly moving from place to place; he paid an annual Miry to the Pasha of Egypt, but in other respects was independent of him. The descendants of such of the Bosnian soldiers as intermarried with the Gharbye and Djowabere tribes still occupy the territories assigned to their ancestors at Assouan, Ibrim, and Say; and they continue to enjoy immunity from taxes and contributions of every kind. They call themselves Kaladshy, or the people of the castles, but are distinguished by the Nubians by the appellation of Osmanli (Turks). They have long forgotten their native language; but their features still denote a northern origin, and their skin is of a light brown colour, while that of the Nubians is almost black. They are independent of the governors of Nubia, who are extremely jealous of them, and are often at open war with them. They are governed by their own Agas, who still boast of the Firmauns that render them accountable only to the Sultan.

About fifty years ago, Hamman, chief of the Howara Arabs, having taken possession of the whole country from Siout to Assouan, extended also his authority over Nubia, which he several times visited, as far as Mahass; but, at present, the political state of the country may be said to be, nominally at least, the same as when Hassan Coosy took possession of it. The present governors, Hosseyn, Hassan, and Mohammed, are his descendants; their father was named Soleyman, and had acquired some reputation from his vigorous system of government. The title of Kashef, assumed by the three brothers, is given in Egypt to governors of districts. The brothers pay an annual tribute of about £120. into the treasury of the Pasha of Egypt, in lieu of the Miry of Nubia, for which the Pasha is accountable to the Porte. In the time of the Mamelouks, this tribute was seldom paid, but Mohammed Aly has received it regularly for the last three years. The three Kashefs have about one hundred and twenty horsemen in their service, consisting chiefly of their own relations, or of slaves; these troops receive no regular pay; presents are made to them occasionally, and they are considered to be upon duty only when their masters are upon a journey. Derr is the chief residence of the governors;[64] but they are almost continually moving about, for the purpose of exacting the taxes from their subjects, who pay them only on the approach of superior force. During these excursions, the Kashefs commit acts of great injustice, wherever they find that there is none to resist them, which is frequently the case. The amount of the revenue is shared equally amongst the three brothers; but they are all very avaricious, extremely jealous of each other, and each robs clandestinely as much as he can. I estimate their annual income at about £3,000. each,[65] or from 8 to £10,000. in the whole. None of them spends more than £300. a year. Their principal wealth consists in dollars and slaves. In their manners they affect the haughty mien and deportment of Turkish grandees; but their dress, which is worse than what a Turkish soldier would like to wear, ill accords with this assumed air of dignity.

The mode of estimating the revenue in Nubia is not from a certain extent of ground, like the Syrian and Egyptian Fedhan, but from every Sakie, or water-wheel employed by the natives, after the inundation, and during the summer, for the purposes of irrigation; the same mode prevails on the banks of the Nile as far as Sennaar. In poor villages one Sakie is the common property of six or eight peasants; but the wealthier inhabitants have several. The number of water-wheels between Assouan and Wady Halfa, or between the first and second cataract, is from six to seven hundred. The ground watered by one Sakie, which requires the alternate labour of eight or ten cows, comprises from three to five Egyptian Fedhans. In fruitful years, the winter wheat and barley irrigated by one wheel yields from eighty to one hundred Erdebs (twelve to fifteen hundred bushels); the proportions sown of these grains are generally one fourth wheat and three fourths barley.[66] The rate of taxation is different in different places; thus at Wady Halfa, each Sakie pays annually six fat sheep, and six Egyptian Mouds, or measures of Dhourra. In Mahass, the Malek, or king, takes from every wheel six sheep, two Erdebs, (twenty-six bushels) of Dhourra, and a linen shirt. The governors also take from every date tree two clusters of fruit, whatever may be the quantity produced, and levy a duty upon all vessels that load dates at Derr.[67] But the whole system of taxation is extremely arbitrary and irregular, and poor villages are soon ruined by it, from their inability to resist the exactions made upon them, while the richer ones pay much less in proportion, because the governors are afraid of driving the inhabitants to acts of open resistance. The Kashefs derive also a considerable income from their office of judges; the administration of justice being a mere article of merchandize.

If one Nubian happen to kill another, he is obliged to pay the debt of blood to the family of the deceased, and a fine to the governors of six camels, a cow, and seven sheep; or they are taken from his relations. Every wound inflicted has its stated fine, consisting of sheep and Dhourra, but varying in quantity, according to the parts of the body wounded. This is an ancient Bedouin custom, and prevails also among the people of Ibrim, with this difference, that the mulct is given to the sufferer himself, and not to the Aga. If one of the governor’s tribe, or an El Ghoz (الغُزّ a name given in Egypt and Nubia to the Mamelouks) or any of the people of Ibrim is slain by a Nubian, no debt of blood is paid to the family of the deceased, he being considered a soldier, and not an Arab; but the governor still exacts his fine. Much animosity exists between the Kenous, and their southern neighbours the Noubas; the latter upbraiding the former with avarice, and bad faith, while the Kenous call the Noubas filthy slaves, living like the people of Soudan. Disputes and sanguinary quarrels often take place, in consequence, between the inhabitants of neighbouring villages; if death ensues, the family of the deceased has the option of taking the fine stipulated on such occasions, or of retaliating upon the family of the slayer. The people of Ibrim generally claim the right of retaliation; but it is not considered as sufficient to retaliate upon any person within the fifth degree of consanguinity, as among the Bedouins of Arabia; the brother, son, or first cousin only can supply the place of the murderer, and such being the case, the whole family often flies.

Although the governors of Nubia extort large sums by the various means above-mentioned, yet their tyranny is exercised only upon the property of their subjects, who are never beaten or put to death, except when in a state of open rebellion, which happens not unfrequently.[68] If a Nubian, from whom money is to be extorted, flies, his wife, or his young children, are imprisoned till he returns. This practice is much complained of by the people, and is unknown even among the tyrannical Pashas of Syria and Egypt, who respect the persons of the wives and children of their greatest enemies. The following is a curious method which the governors of Nubia have devised, of extorting money from their subjects. When any wealthy individual has a daughter of a suitable age, they demand her in marriage; the father seldom dares to refuse, and sometimes feels flattered by the honour; but he is soon ruined by his powerful son-in-law, who extorts from him every article of his property under the name of presents to his own daughter. All the governors are thus married to females in almost every considerable village; Hosseyn Kashef has above forty sons of whom twenty are married in the same manner.

The inhabitants of the banks of the Nile, from the first Cataract to the frontiers of Dóngola, do not plough their fields, after the inundation has subsided, as is done in Egypt; the waters above the Cataract never rising sufficiently high to overflow the shore. In a few places, where the cultivable soil is broader than usual, as at Kostamne, Gyrshe, Wady Halfa, &c., there are canals which convey the water towards the fields on the side of the mountain, but the water in them is not sufficiently high, as in Upper Egypt, to irrigate the low grounds near the hills. Irrigation in Nubia, therefore, is carried on entirely by means of the Sakies, or water-wheels. Immediately after the river has subsided, the fields are watered by them, and the first Dhourra seed is sown, the crop from which is reaped in December and January; the ground is then again irrigated, and barley sown; and after the barley harvest, the ground is sometimes sown a third time for the summer crop. The barley is either sold in exchange for Dhourra, or eaten green in soups. The harvest suffers greatly from the ravages of immense flocks of sparrows, which the united efforts of all the children in the villages cannot always keep at a distance; and whole fields of Dhourra and barley are often destroyed by a species of small worm, which ascends the stalks of the plant. Tobacco is every where cultivated; it retains, when dried, its green colour, and exactly resembles that of the mountains on the east side of the Dead Sea. Tobacco forms the chief luxury of all classes, who either smoke it, or mixing it with nitre suck it, by placing it between the lower gums and the lip.

The habitations of the Nubians are built either of mud or of loose stones; those of stone, as I have already observed, stand generally on the declivity of the hills, and consist of two separate round buildings, one of which is occupied by the males, and the other by the females of the family. The mud dwellings are generally so low, that one can hardly stand upright in them: the roof is covered with Dhourra stalks, which last till they are eaten up by the cattle, when palm leaves are laid across. The houses at Derr, and those of the wealthy inhabitants of the larger villages, are well built, having a large area in the centre with apartments all round, and a separation between those of the men and of the women. The utensils of a Nubian’s house consist of about half a dozen coarse earthen jars, from one to two feet in diameter, and about five feet in height, in which all the provisions of the family are kept; a few earthen plates; a hand-mill; a hatchet; and a few round sticks, over which the loom is laid.

To the north of Derr, the dress is usually a linen shirt only, which the wealthier classes wear of a blue colour; or the woollen cloak of the peasants of Upper Egypt; the head dress is a small white linen cap, with sometimes a few rags twisted round it in the shape of a turban. Young boys and girls go naked: the women wrap themselves up in linen rags, or black woollen gowns; they wear ear-rings, and glass bracelets; and those who cannot afford to buy the latter, form them of straw. Their hair falls in ringlets upon the neck, and on the back part of the head they wear short tassels of glass or stones, both as an ornament and an amulet. The richer class wear copper or silver rings round their ankles. South of Derr, and principally at Sukkot and in Mahass, grown up people go quite naked, with the exception of the sexual parts, which the men conceal in a small sack. This sack resembles exactly what is seen in the figures of the Egyptian Priapus upon the walls of the temples. The hair of the people of Mahass is very thick, but not woolly. All the young men wear one ear-ring, either of silver or copper, in the right ear only, and men of all classes usually carry a rosary suspended round the neck, which they never remove; they also tie round one arm, above the elbow, a number of amulets covered with leather about three or four inches broad, consisting of mystical writings and prayers, which are sold to them by the Fokara.

The Nubians seldom go unarmed; as soon as a boy grows up, his first endeavour is to purchase a short, crooked knife, which the men wear tied over the left elbow, under their shirt, and which they draw upon each other on the slightest quarrel. When a Nubian goes from one village to another, he either carries a long heavy stick (نَبّوت) covered with iron at one of its extremities, or his lance and target. The lance is about five feet in length, including the iron point; the targets are of various sizes; some are round, with a boss in the centre; others resemble the ancient Macedonian shield, being of an oblong form, four feet in length, and with curved edges, covering almost the whole body. These targets, which are sold by the Sheygya Arabs, are made of the skin of the hippopotamus, and are proof against the thrust of a lance, or the blow of a sabre. Those who can afford it, possess also a sword, resembling in shape the swords worn by the knights of the middle ages, a long straight blade, about two inches in breadth, with a handle in the form of a cross; the scabbard, for fashion sake, is broader near the point, than at the top. These swords are of German manufacture, and are sold to the Nubians by the merchants of Egypt, at from four to eight dollars apiece. Fire-arms are not common; the richer classes possess match-locks. Hassan Kashef himself had no pistols. Ammunition is very scarce and highly valued; travellers therefore will do well to carry with them a few dozen cartridges, which are very acceptable presents. When I left the camp of Mohammed Kashef at Tinareh, his nephew ran after me for at least two miles, to obtain a single cartridge from me, telling me that he had shot off the only one he had, during the rejoicings of the preceding day.

I have already mentioned the usual dishes of the Nubians. The Dhourra bread is extremely coarse, and is made without salt.[69] It is prepared upon the Sadj, or thin iron plate in use among the Bedouin Arabs; but as the whole operation of grinding, kneading, and baking does not occupy more than ten minutes, it may easily be supposed that it is never thoroughly baked. The Dhourra for the day’s use is ground early every morning by the women, for the Nubians never keep meal in store. In Sukkot and Mahass, the bread is made in very thin round cakes, which are placed upon each other when served up at meals. Animal food is rarely tasted by the Nubians; the governors even do not eat it every day. In the larger villages palm-wine is common; it is not unpleasant to the taste, though too sweet and thick, to be drank in any considerable quantity. It is obtained by the following process: as soon as the dates have come to maturity they are thrown into large earthen boilers, with water, and the whole is boiled for two days, without intermission; the liquid is then strained, and the clear juice is poured into earthen jars, which after being well closed, are buried under ground; here they are allowed to remain for ten or twelve days, during which the liquor ferments; the jars are then taken up, and their contents are fit to drink; but the wine will not keep longer than a year, or beyond the next date-harvest; if kept longer it turns sour. The Nubians also make a liquor called Bouza, much resembling beer; it is extracted from Dhourra or barley, but the best is furnished by the latter. It is of a pale muddy colour, and very nutricious. At Cairo, and in all the towns and larger villages of Upper Egypt, there are shops for the sale of Bouza, which are kept exclusively by Nubians. Great quantities both of the wine, and of the spirit distilled from dates, are drank at Derr, where they are sold in shops kept for the purpose, and where the upper classes are intoxicated with them every evening. From Siout, southward, through the whole of Upper Egypt, date spirits are made and publicly sold; and the Pasha levies a tax upon the venders. A kind of jelly or honey is also extracted from the date, which serves the rich as a sweet-meat. Except date trees, and a few grape vines which I saw at Derr, there are no fruit-trees in Nubia.

The climate of Nubia, though intensely hot in summer, particularly in the narrow rocky parts of the country, is very healthy, owing perhaps to the extreme aridity of the atmosphere. I do not recollect having seen a single person labouring under any disease, during the five weeks I was in the country. Occasionally, the small-pox, as I have already observed, makes dreadful ravages in every part except the Wady Kenous; inoculation being unknown, or at least unpractised, both here and in Upper Egypt; and the several attempts that have been made to introduce the vaccine into the latter country, or rather to establish it there, having entirely failed. Some travellers have supposed that the plague is communicated to Egypt from the south; but this is a very erroneous supposition, as it never prevails in Nubia so high as the second Cataract, and is unknown in Dóngola, and along the whole route to Sennaar.

The men in Nubia are generally well made, strong, and muscular, with fine features; in stature they are somewhat below the Egyptians; they have no mustachios, and but little beard, wearing it under the chin only, like the figures of the fugitives in the battle-pieces sculptured upon the walls of the Egyptian temples. In passing along the Wadys of Nubia, it often occurred to me to remark that the size and figure of the inhabitants was generally proportioned to the breadth of their cultivable soil; wherever the plain is broad, and the peasants from being enabled to carry on agriculture to a tolerable extent, are in comparatively easy circumstances, they are taller and more muscular and healthy; but in the rocky districts, where the plain is not more than twenty or thirty yards in breadth, they are poor meagre figures; in some places appearing almost like walking skeletons.

The women are all well made, and though not handsome, have generally sweet countenances, and very pleasing manners; I have even seen beauties among them. Denon has certainly not done justice to them; but they are worn down, from their earliest years, by continual labour; the whole business of the house being left to them, while the men are occupied exclusively in the culture of the soil. Of all the women of the East, those of Nubia are the most virtuous; and this is the more praiseworthy, as their vicinity to Upper Egypt, where licentiousness knows no bounds, might be expected to have some influence upon them. During my stay at Esne, girls came every morning to my lodging to offer milk for sale; the Egyptians boldly entered the court-yard and uncovered their faces, a behaviour equivalent to an offer of their persons; but the Nubians (of whom many families are settled at Esne) stood modestly before the threshold, over which nothing could induce them to step, and there they received the money for their milk without removing their veils.

The Nubians purchase their wives from the parents: the price usually paid by the Kenous is twelve Mahboubs, or thirty-six piastres. They frequently intermarry with the Arabs Ababde, some of whom cultivate the soil like themselves; an Ababde girl is worth six camels; these are paid to her father, who gives back three to his daughter, to be the common property of her and her husband; if a divorce takes place, half the value of the three camels goes to the latter.[70] In Upper Egypt, when a wife insists upon being divorced, her husband has the right to take all her wearing apparel from her, and to shave her head; nobody will then marry her till her hair be grown again. The Nubian is extremely jealous of his wife’s honour; and on the slightest suspicion of infidelity towards him, would carry her in the night to the side of the river, lay open her breast by a cut with his knife, and throw her into the water, “to be food for the crocodiles,” as they term it. A case of this kind lately happened at Assouan.

Public women, who are met with in thousands in every part of Egypt, are not tolerated in Nubia, except at Derr, and these are not natives, but emancipated female slaves, who being left destitute, betake themselves to this vile profession, to gain a subsistence. The execrable propensities which the Mamelouks have rendered so common in Egypt, even amongst the lowest peasants, are held in abhorrence in Nubia, except by the Kashefs and their relations, who endeavour to imitate the Mamelouks in every thing, even in their most detestable vices.

Small looms are frequently seen in the houses of the Nubians; with these the women weave very coarse woollen mantles, and cotton cloth, which they make into shirts. From the leaves of the date-tree they also form mats, small drinking bowls, and large plates on which the bread is served at table; and though these articles are formed entirely by the hand, they are made in so very neat a manner, as to have every appearance of being wrought by instruments. The above are the only manufactures in Nubia; every thing else is imported from Egypt.

The only musical instrument I saw in Nubia was a kind of Egyptian tamboura, with five strings, and covered with the skin of a gazell: it is of the shape here represented. The girls are fond of singing; and the Nubian airs are very melodious.

The game of chess is common at Derr; and that called Beyadh is also frequently played. I have described the latter in my journal through Arabia Petræa, when speaking of the Arabs of Kerek.

I found the Nubians, generally, to be of a kind disposition, and without that propensity to theft so characteristic of the Egyptians, at least of those to the north of Siout. Pilfering indeed is almost unknown amongst them, and any person convicted of such a crime would be expelled from his village by the unanimous voice of its inhabitants; I did not lose the most trifling article during my journey through the country, although I always slept in the open air in front of the house where I took up my quarters for the night. They are in general hospitable towards strangers, but the Kenous and the people of Sukkot are less so than the other inhabitants. Curiosity seems to be the most prominent feature in their character, and they generally ask their guest a thousand questions about the place he comes from, and the business which brings him into Nubia.

If the government were not so extremely despotic, the Nubians might become dangerous neighbours to Egypt; for they are of a much bolder and more independent spirit than the Egyptians, and ardently attached to their native soil. Great numbers of them go yearly to Cairo, where they generally act as porters, and are preferred to the Egyptians, on account of their honesty. After staying there six or eight years, they return to their native Wady, with the little property they have realized, although well knowing that the only luxuries they can there expect, in exchange for those of Cairo, are Dhourra bread and a linen shirt. Such of them as do not travel into Egypt, hardly ever go beyond the precincts of their village, for, generally, the Nubians have no inclination towards commercial speculations. At Ibrim I met with two old men, who assured me that they had never visited Derr, though it is only five hours distant. Those Nubians who have resided in Egypt, and can speak Arabic, are for the most part good Mussulmen, and repeat their prayers daily: but in general the only prayer known to the others is the exclamation of Allahu Akbar. A few make the pilgrimage to Mekka, by the way of Suakin.

I estimate the whole population of Nubia, from Assouan to the southern limits of Mahass, an extent of country about five hundred miles long, with an average breadth of half a mile, at one hundred thousand souls.

* * * * *

I shall subjoin to this account of Nubia some notices upon the Bedouins who inhabit the mountains lying between that country and the Red sea. They consist of two principal tribes, the Ababde and Bisharye. The Ababde (عبابده) occupy the country south of Kosseir, nearly as far as the latitude of Derr. The Bisharye (بشاري) inhabit the mountains from thence southwards, as far as Suakin, where they find pasture for their camels and cattle in the wild herbage which grows in the beds of the winter torrents. Many of the Ababde have settled in Upper Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile from Kenne to Assouan, and from thence to Derr; but the greater part of them still live like Bedouins. They act as guides to the Sennaar caravans which depart from Daraou (دَراوُ), and were formerly conductors likewise of the trade from Kosseir to Kenne; but their enemies, the Arabs Maazyu (معازي) and Ataony (عَتاونه), who live to the north of Kosseir, have succeeded in depriving them of the profits arising from this employment, which the latter now farm from the Pasha of Egypt. The Ababde are possessed of considerable property, but have a bad character, being described by all those who deal with them as a faithless people, who betray their companions, thus rendering themselves unworthy of that origin from the Arabian Bedouins, of which they boast. No oath binds an Ababde; but I was informed that they dread breaking their word, if they give it with the expression, “by the hope I entertain of remaining in good health (وحياة العا فيه).” They are known in Upper Egypt for their excellent breed of camels, particularly dromedaries, and they trade largely in Senna-Mekke, and in charcoal of acacia wood, both of which are produced from the trees, growing abundantly in their mountains; the fuel is exported as far as Cairo. The Ababde have few horses; when at war with other Arab tribes they fight upon camels, armed with a target, lance, and sword. Their principal tribes are, El Fokara (فُقَره), El Ashabat (عشَابات), and El Meleykab (مليقاب). The Ashabat seldom descend from the mountains to the banks of the Nile, but many individuals of the tribe have settled on its banks near Mograt and Demar, on the route to Sennaar, where they have intermarried with the native inhabitants. Such of them as encamp with the Bisharye speak the language of the latter.

The Bisharye, who rarely descend from their mountains, are a very savage people, and their character is worse even than that of the Ababde. Their only cattle are camels and sheep, and they live entirely upon flesh and milk, eating much of the former raw; according to the relation of several Nubians, they are very fond of the hot blood of slaughtered sheep; but their greatest luxury is said to be the raw marrow of camels. A few of these Arabs occasionally visit Derr or Assouan, with Senna, sheep, and ostrich feathers, the ostrich being common in their mountains; and their Senna is of the best kind. In exchange for these commodities they take linen shirts and Dhourra, the grains of which they swallow raw, as a dainty, and never make it into bread. These traders do not remain long on the banks of the Nile, as the dread of the small-pox soon drives them back to their tents. The Bisharye are much addicted to theft, and will even rob the house of the person who receives them as guests. Their youth make plundering excursions as far as Dóngola, and along the route to Sennaar, mounted upon camels, of a breed superior to any other, that exists between the shores of the Mediterranean and Abyssinia. Few of the Bisharye speak Arabic. They fear none but the Ababde, who know their pasturing places in the mountains, and often surprise their encampments. When the two tribes are at peace, which happens to be the case at present, the mountains inhabited by the Bisharye may be crossed in the company of an Ababdi; but the latter is not to be trusted, unless one of his nearest relations is left behind as a hostage. Great numbers of the dispersed Mamelouks fell victims to the treachery of these Arabs, and the others escaped only by keeping together in considerable bodies.

Encampments of the Bisharye are found on the northern frontier of Abyssinia; and the sea-coast from Suakin to Massuah is peopled by their tribes, the most noted of which are, Hammedab, Batra, Alyab, Amerab, Kamhetab, Hamdora, Eryab, Hazz, Modourab, Kameylab, el Amarer, all of whom live in separate encampments, and are often at war with each other. They have no fire-arms; towards the frontiers of Abyssinia some of the tribes use the bow and arrow, and, as I was informed, speak the Abyssinian language, or rather understand the Abyssinians, who are said to have greater difficulty in comprehending the Bisharye. The two languages are probably derived from the same source, like many others of the numerous dialects which prevail towards the northern frontiers of Abyssinia.

The Bisharye are kind, hospitable, and honest towards each other; their women, who are said to be as handsome as those of Abyssinia, mix in company with strangers, and are reported to be of very depraved habits. After long and fruitless enquiries for a Bisharye Arab, I at last met with a youth who had come to Esne to sell leather thongs, for the manufacture of which these Bedouins are famous. I enticed him to my dwelling by bargaining for his goods, and made him breakfast with me; but when I began to question him about his language he would stay no longer, although I offered him a shirt as a present. He imagined that I dealt in spells, which I meant to put in practise to the injury of his nation; he forced his way out of the court-yard of my house, and I could never afterwards prevail upon him to return. The words in the annexed vocabulary,[71] were procured from a Negro slave who had been educated among the Bisharye, and sold by them to the chief of a village near Esne.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: Single men are always easily found, to act as guides, but few are willing to expose their own beasts to the chances of a dangerous journey.]

[Footnote 2:

The different items of expense during my journey
were as follow:

Piast. Par.

To the guide from Assouan to Derr 6 20

Present to him 0 10

Dhourra, bought at Assouan 1 30

Bread and onions, bought at Assouan 0 25

Present to the servant of the governor, at Derr 1 0

Present to the secretary, for writing a letter
to Sukkot, which induced him to recommend
me in strong terms 1 0

Provisions of Dhourra from Derr to Mahass 6 0

Tobacco bought at Derr 1 0

Shoes repaired at Derr 0 5

Paid on the way to my guide to Mahass 1 0

Paid wages to my guide on my return to Derr 6 20

Present to my guide 2 0

Paid to Nubians, for shewing me the ruins,
on the road from Derr to Assouan 1 10

Ferry-boat at Debot 0 10

To the guide from Derr to Assouan 6 20

Present to him 0 20
------------
36 10

or, £1. 15s. sterling.]

[Footnote 3: Anas el Wodjoud; i. e. “the social pleasures of Wodjoud.” Wodjoud, say the Arabs, was the name of the mighty king who built the temples of Philæ.]

[Footnote 4: There are two species of Holcus cultivated in Egypt, nearly resembling one another in appearance before they ripen, but bearing a very different kind of grain, the one being that which we commonly call Maize or Indian corn, the other a small grain like millet, the same which is known in the West Indies by the name of Guinea corn. Maize being suited to a more northerly climate, is little grown in Upper Egypt, where it is known by the name of Dhourra es-Shamy (Syrian Dhourra). In Nubia the millet-grained Dhourra is exclusively cultivated.]

[Footnote 5: Since the Mamelouks have retired to Dóngola, Mohammed Aly, the Pasha of Egypt, has prohibited the sale of gunpowder in every part of Upper Egypt. He has thus cut off his enemies’ ammunition, who pay at present, in Dóngola, one slave for every six dozen of musquet cartridges.]

[Footnote 6: Vide infra.]

[Footnote 7: From March till June the waters of the Nile are quite limpid. Volney, who exclaims against its muddy stream, saw it only in autumn and winter.]

[Footnote 8: Vide infra.]

[Footnote 9: This is the only spot, where I know the Nile to be fordable.]

[Footnote 10: A Highlander, who had been taken prisoner in the unfortunate affair at Rosetta, in 1807, and had afterwards joined the Mamelouks, has lately arrived at Cairo. He left the Mamelouks at Dongola, and traced his way back, alone, through Nubia and Upper Egypt, notwithstanding the spies of the Pasha.]

[Footnote 11: One of the servants of these Begs, a Greek Christian of Brusa, in Asia Minor, assured me afterwards, at Derr, that their party, being unable to forego the habit of smoking, had, in a total want of tobacco, in the mountains, filled their pipes with the dry dung of the Gazells.]

[Footnote 12: Concerning this tribe, and their language, vide infra.]

[Footnote 13: I have since been in the mountains of Sinai, where I found another tribe of Bedouins, called Aleykat, settled in the southern valleys of that province. They all affirmed that the Aleykat of Nubia were their brethren, and originally a colony from them. Some years since, a poor man of the Sinai Aleykat took the resolution of visiting those of Nubia, and of collecting a few presents: he was well received at Wady Seboua, as one of their brethren, and returned with several camels, purchased with the alms he had obtained from every family in that place.]

[Footnote 14: A caravan of from thirty to forty laden camels proceeds every winter from Seboua to Cairo. The merchants of Seboua are accustomed to enter into partnership with the poor Nubians; to whom they advance sums of money, to induce them to try a trading journey to Berber, and on their return take half the profits. There are families who have thus been mutually travelling partners from time immemorial. The distance between Seboua and Mograt, on the Nile, north of Berber (vide infra), is seven days easy travelling. Three days from Seboua is a large well called Rebt (ربت); and another at five days journey.]

[Footnote 15: In all these parts soap is a very acceptable present, none being made in Egypt, except at Siout, which is of a very inferior quality. It is imported from Syria, and principally from Palestine. At Esne, one pound of soap is worth 1_s_. 6_d_.]

[Footnote 16: This grain is not sown in Egypt, but is a principal food in Darfour, Sennaar, and on the coast of the Red Sea, from Djidda to Mokha.]

[Footnote 17: All Orientals have a delicate taste of water, and generally describe its qualities by the words light and heavy. The Greeks in like manner distinguished waters into κοῦφα and βαρέα.]

[Footnote 18: The Doum (Palma Thebaica) is a common tree in Egypt as far north as Dendera.]

[Footnote 19: Vide my Journal in Hauran.]

[Footnote 20: The inhabitants of Nouba, and Wady Kenous, as far as Dongola, are known in Egypt under the name of Berábera (sing. Berbery); but that appellation is seldom made use of by the inhabitants themselves, when speaking of their own nation. It is probably derived from the name of the country called Berber, which lies in the direction of Bruce’s Goos. The people of Berber are sometimes considered as belonging to the Nouba.]

[Footnote 21: The descendants of many Bedouin tribes are found in every part of Egypt north of Minia; the greater part of the peasants of Upper Egypt are of Bedouin origin; and branches of several Syrian tribes, have even settled on the banks of the Nile.]

[Footnote 22: Statues are met with in the adyta of all the ancient temples in Nubia which are cut out of the rock; and the distribution of the apartments in those temples is much the same as in the one here described.]

[Footnote 23: Vide infra.]

[Footnote 24: Vide infra.]

[Footnote 25: See p. 12.]

[Footnote 26: I never heard the Nubians speak of crocodiles of a monstrous size; I conceive that the largest I saw was about twenty-five feet in length. Crocodiles as large as that in the British Museum, are met with on the Nile only in the latitude of Shendy and Sennaar.]

[Footnote 27: Akabe is a term very frequently met with in Arabian geography; it generally designates a mountainous district, or a rocky descent, over which the road lies.]

[Footnote 28: Vide my Journal through Arabia Petræa.]

[Footnote 29: See p. 31.]

[Footnote 30: Vide infra.]

[Footnote 31: There is no _village_ bearing the name of Sukkot; it is a mere territorial appellation.]

[Footnote 32: The few Nubians who know how to write, and who serve the governors in the capacity of secretaries, are taught by the Fokara of Damer, south of Goos, (vide Bruce’s Map), who are all learned men, and travel occasionally to Cairo as already mentioned, to visit the mosque El Azhar. On their way thither they alight at the houses of the rich inhabitants, and teach their children to read and write. Many of the children of Sukkot and Mahass are likewise sent to the school of the Arabs Sheygya, where they remain for ten years and upwards, and are fed and taught gratuitously by the Olema of that tribe.]

[Footnote 33: See p. 39.]

[Footnote 34: M. Rosetti has, for many years, had the trade in Senna exclusively in his own hands; and has factors at Esne and Assouan. Since Mohammed Aly has farmed out almost all the articles of commerce, both foreign and domestic, M. Rosetti has paid for the monopoly of Senna 150 purses per annum, or about £3,500.]

[Footnote 35: I have already observed, that the water of the wells in Upper Egypt is of the worst kind, although dug in the neighbourhood of the river, from which the wells are no doubt supplied, by the water filtrating through the ground after the inundation, and collecting at a depth of from twenty to thirty feet. See p. 22, 3.]

[Footnote 36: In the mountains east of the Dead Sea are Bedouins called Beni Hamyde.]

[Footnote 37: See p. 29.]

[Footnote 38: The Mhoury is a measure corresponding with twelve Mouds of Cairo, or about eight bushels.]

[Footnote 39: The whips known in the East under the name of Korbadj, are made of the skin of the hippopotamus, and form an article of commerce with the Sennaar and Darfour caravans.]

[Footnote 40: I found the reports of distances to be very contradictory; the only mode of reckoning is by days journeys; but the daily rate of camels, when not travelling in caravans, is subject to great variation.]

[Footnote 41: Merawe is seven days journeys distant from Demar (vide Bruce’s Map). Between Merawe and Bruce’s Goos lies the country of Mograt مُقراط, whose chief, Naym, is a robber; he often attacks the caravans which travel from Goos to Egypt, if their numbers are not sufficient to overawe him. Mograt is three days journeys from Goos. This latter name is not known to the Africans of those parts which I visited; but they are well acquainted with the county called Berber, which lies one day’s journey north of Demar, and therefore corresponds with Bruce’s Goos. The caravans from Berber arrive, at present, almost every month in Upper Egypt.]

[Footnote 42: See p. 21.]

[Footnote 43: I saw this chief at Siout, a naked black, without the smallest sign of royalty about him.]

[Footnote 44: When at Esne in the June following, I saw persons from Dóngola, who brought intelligence that the Mamelouks had failed in their attempt against Merawe, and had returned to Dóngola.]

[Footnote 45: See p. 55.]

[Footnote 46: See p. 52.]

[Footnote 47: See p. 47.]

[Footnote 48: The Arabian historians and geographers give the cataracts of the Nile the appellation of Shellal, or Djenadel (شلّال), (جنادل). Of the latter generic term, the proper name, Jan Adel, has been framed, and applied exclusively to this cataract, on European maps.]

[Footnote 49: The reports of my guide, and of many other persons, had made me very anxious to see the second Cataract, the water of which, I was told, “fell down, as if from heaven!” When, after seeing it, I reprimanded my guide for his extravagant description, he replied, “Why, have you seen a finer cataract, from Cairo to Mahass?” But the reports of these people are still less to be depended upon than even those of the Syrian Arabs. I was told by many Nubians that the distance from Derr to Mahass was sixteen days and nights journeys; but I found it to be only ten; they in like manner endeavoured to deceive me, in numberless other instances, whenever I asked questions which appeared to them out of the common course of conversation, the continual topic of which is, the price of dates and Dhourra, the taxes on the water-wheels, and complaints on the injustice of the governors.]

[Footnote 50: The word dromedary is here used (according to a custom general among the _Franks_ in the Levant), to distinguish the camel of lighter make, fit for riding, from the camel of burthen.]

[Footnote 51: A sort of shawl worn about the neck and shoulders by the Egyptians.]

[Footnote 52: See p. 17.]

[Footnote 53: It is a curious fact, which has been attested to me by many persons, that the small-pox has never been known to visit the Wady Kenous or the narrow shore from the Cataract up to Korosko. This disease is well known at Derr, where it is much dreaded.]

[Footnote 54: This narrow room behind the pronaos is peculiar to some of the temples of Nubia; I have not seen it in Egypt; nor do I know whether I should be right in calling it the cella.]

[Footnote 55: In Nubia the figure of Briareus has the hair of the head cut like that of the Arabs and the Noubas, with rings in the ears, exactly resembling the Noubas and inhabitants of Mahass at the present day. It is possible that the Briareus may have originated in some great chieftain of the desert, vanquished by the king of Egypt, and converted by the priests into a many-headed monster, in conformity with an adage current in the East, in speaking of the Bedouin robbers, “Cut off one head and a hundred will spring up in its stead:” (اقطع راس الواحد تطلع ماية عَوضَه).]

[Footnote 56: In the little room, in one of the tombs of the kings at Thebes, where articles of furniture are represented on the walls, I observed a heap of similarly shaped blocks of wood, a proof that it was made use of in the manufacture of the choicest articles of furniture.]

[Footnote 57: In countries where camels are bred in great numbers, land-carriage is almost as cheap as that by water. The carriage for a camel-load of goods, weighing from six to seven hundred pounds English, from Bagdad to Aleppo, a distance of six hundred miles, is £4. What is the freight by sea of seven quintals, from London to Hull?]

[Footnote 58: See p. 110.]

[Footnote 59: Near the western avenue of sphinxes at Karnac a monolith temple lies on the ground, resembling the one at Gaou, but smaller.]

[Footnote 60: One para is the usual fare of a ferry-boat in Egypt.]

[Footnote 61: The secretary of Hassan Kashef at Derr, told me that there were details on the history of Nubia, in the history of the city of Béhnese (Oxyrinchus), which work is among the Arabic manuscripts sent by me to England from Aleppo. The best Arabian historian of Nubia is Ibn Selym el Assouany (ابن سليم الاصواني في اخبار النوبة); but I never saw his book either in Syria or Egypt.]

[Footnote 62: The greater part of the Egyptian peasants north of Benisouef have the same origin: they are the descendants either of Moggrebyn or Arabian tribes. In Egypt I have even met with the descendants of Syrian Bedouins.]

[Footnote 63: See p. 26.]

[Footnote 64: When the Turkish troops, under Ibrahim Beg, after driving the Mamelouks into the eastern mountains, occupied Nubia as far as Wady Halfa, the three princes retired with their followers into Dóngola, and remained there till the Turks withdrew towards Assouan, when they returned to Derr.]

[Footnote 65: In November 1813, Mohammed Kashef arrived at Esne, in his way to Siout, for the purpose of visiting Ibrahim Pasha, the governor of Upper Egypt, who, it was well known, entertained hostile designs against Nubia. Being anxious to conciliate the Pasha, he had brought with him presents of slaves, dromedaries, and Dóngola horses; but the chief object of the Kashef’s journey was to complain against Hosseyn, his eldest brother, who had lately invested his two eldest sons, Daoud and Khalil, with a share of the government of Nubia, and had obliged his two brothers to divide the revenue equally, with their nephews, thus creating five governors of the country. At Esne, Mohammed met a troop of about one hundred soldiers, who had been dispatched by Ibrahim Pasha, against Nubia; deeming it useless, therefore, to proceed farther, he returned towards his home with the Turks, at whose approach his two brothers fled to the island of Okme, beyond the second cataract at Wady Halfa, notwithstanding every promise of safety. The Turks pursued their march as far as Wady Halfa, collecting from every Sakie in the name of Ibrahim Pasha, the land-tax, of which they allowed Mohammed Kashef about one-twelfth of the whole amount, for his own subsistence. It was evidently the object of this expedition to seize the persons of all the governors; but in this it failed. After staying nearly a year in the country, in the course of which they collected the land-tax, from the summer seed also, the Turks returned to Upper Egypt. In 1815, the Turks again visited Nubia, and compelled the peasants to furnish the amount of the imposts in camels, instead of grain; as soon as they withdrew, the Kashefs returned to Derr, and, in their turn also exacted the land-tax from their subjects, who are now exposed both to the rapacity of the Turks and to that of their own governors, all equally merciless, owing to the uncertain duration of their respective powers.]

[Footnote 66: In 1813, the taxes levied upon the above produce from every Sakie, was eight Erdebs; and wherever the governors of Nubia repaired in person to the village, to collect it, an additional assessment of four fat sheep and one Erdeb was made, as provision for the governor’s followers and horses.]

[Footnote 67: The quantity of dates imported from Nubia, by way of Assouan, into Egypt varies, according to the harvest, from fifteen hundred to two thousand Erdebs annually; every Erdeb weighing about two hundred weight. The freight from Assouan to Cairo is five piastres per Erdeb, from each of which the governor of Assouan takes half a piastre, as transit duty. The date trade, which is extremely profitable, is now, for the greater part, in the hands of the government.]

[Footnote 68: The Arab tribe called by the Nubians Amenelab (probably اُمَّة الاب, for they pronounce the Arabic very badly) who inhabit the villages about Gyrshe are known frequently to oppose the governors; they are the most independent tribe of the Kenous Arabs, and never give their daughters in marriage to any of the followers of the governors.]

[Footnote 69: The people who live in the vicinity of ancient habitations, or mounds of rubbish, procure, by digging, a substance called Mabouk, which they put into their bread as a substitute for salt.]

[Footnote 70: See p. 34 for the marriage customs of the people at Ibrim.]

[Footnote 71: Vide infra, p. 160.]

VOCABULARY
OF THE
KENSY AND NOUBA LANGUAGES:

[Decoration] [The words derived from the Arabic, and especially
from the dialect of Upper Egypt, are marked A.]

* * * * *

KENSY. NOUBA.

Heaven Semeyg, A. Sema, A.

World Duinat, A. Duniatyka, A.

Day Ougresk Aly

Night Ougouk Awaka

Stars Woussik Windjega

Sun Masilk Mashakka

Shade Noogy Norga

Moon Ounatig Inatiga

Wind Tourouk Tonga

Rain Anessik Omorka

Clouds Ghaimk, A. Korungad

Water }
}
Sea } Essig Amanga
}
River }

Inundation Mossirk Dahmyre, A.

North Kalonger Kaloga

South Ongoger Oroga

East Maltigi Mattoga

West Tingaro Tinoga

Year Djeng Gemga

Last year Nyg Gemdjorok

Year before last Nisetti Nisidadjorok

Month Zoueyg Shaher, A.

Ramadhan (month) Dirtek Misse

Rabya el awal (do) Timangy Timanga

Summer Bogong Fagonga

Winter Otty Oronga

Morning Tedjerky, A. Mashanak

Evening Mogrebky, A. Megrebeddo. A.

Earth Aryd, A. Gourka

Shore or mountain Koloug Kitta

Sand Seevky Seevka

Wood Berk Koygga

Trees Djaoug Djollaga

Dust Kodeya Toka

Fire Yk Eeka

Coals Olutti Girgeeta

Cattle Orti Ortyga

Camel Kamk Kamikka

She camel Bakerak, A. Bakerakka, A.

Cow Tyg Tyga

Ox Gourky Gorondyga

Calf Gortot Gortoga

Buffalo Djamous, A. Djamous, A.

Horse Koky Mortyga

Ass Hanoub Kadja

Saddle Dogerk Dogerka

Sheep Eget Egedryga

Lamb Doyerk Egenandyga

Goat Bertigy Fakka

Dog Welk Mokka

Cat Sabky Kadeeska

Gazelle Gālk Kedjatta

Male Ondo Onda

Female Karou Karēa

Hare Wozla Doynga

Hyena Eddik Aadyga

Serpent Aayagy Ouslangyga

Scorpion Ikinki Segetka

Bird Kowertag Kowertyga

Feathers Ryshky, A. Ryshga, A.

Fowl Derbatti Derbatta

Cock Derbanondigy Derbanonda

Goose Allotti Kellayga

Raven Kok Koka

Partridge — —

Pigeon Mynek Hamamga, A.

Eagle Aboukodro Abakodro

Sparrow Sasurky, A. Sar Soura, A.

Fish Karāg Angissiga

Crocodile Elong Olonga

Nile horse (hippopotamus) Errid, ird Eritta, irta

Frog Golgodegyr Amankorkyga

Flies Kultigi Kuttiga

Mosquitos Namouski, A. Namousga, A.

Lice Issig Issiga

Worm Wigitty Wirkyga

Date tree }
} Bentyg Fentyga
Dates }

Acacia tree Saleyg Gandeyga

Tamarisk tree Shereg Moorka

Doum date Amboug Ambiga

Wheat Illeyk Illega

Dhourra Mareyg Mareyga

Dhourra stalks when dry Ageyk Ageyga

Barley Sering Seringa

The bitter horse-bean called in Angallag Agindeyga
Egypt Turmus

Straw Siltiga Seetyga

The French bean or Louby Ogotty Tigeteyga

Common horse-bean Foulki, A. Foulga, A.

Chick pea Homosky, A. Homoska, A.

Lentils Nerk Adeska, A.

The Egyptian Gortum Koushag Kousheyga

A species of Dhourra called
in Arabic dokhen Erdeyg Foulouga

Cotton Gottong, A. Koshmaka

Silk Haryrki, A. Haryrka, A.

Tobacco Dokhang, A. Toulyga

Grapes Anebky, A. Anebga, A.

Water melon Batyhky, A. Batyhga, A.

Coloquintida Oorky Tatourga

Senna plant Abyreyga

Lettuce Khasky, A. Khaska, A.

Wine Nebyg, A. Nebyd, A.

Oil Zeity, A. Zeyta, A.

Date spirits Aragyk, A. Aragyk, A.

Salt Ombotti Emetta

Pepper Falfelki, A. Felfelga, A.

Coffee Kahwagi, A. Gahwa, A.

Snuff Neshouki, Neshouka, A.

Cheese Djebenki, A. Djebenka, A.

Butter Desk Noyga

Honey Asselki, A. Asselga, A.

Milk Iddje Souga

Bread Kalk Kabaka

Meat Kosoug Arykka

Eggs Gasgantyk Komboug

Wool Aboky Faka

Horns Neshyg Nishyga

Dung Osel Osyga

Ship Koubki Sigirka

Sail Sariki, A. Kelaga, A.

Oars Wauadyk Soubeyga

A man Ogedj Itga

A woman Ing Ideynga

Son or boy Tot Tota

Girl or daughter Beroug Borouga

Husband Edy Etta

Wife Eyngy Adeynga

Father Ambabki Abouga, A.

Mother Eneygy Aneynga

Sister Anesyk Anessyga

Brother Ambeski Anyngaga

Uncle Ambanak Abanyngaga

Cousin Ambanentoti Abanyngagantato

Grandfather Anouky Annonga

Master Tirtyg Noranga

Servant Khadamky, A. Ashanga

Male slave Nogoutty Osheyga

Female slave Nogogy Oshaga

Virgin Fetagy Borou Beker, A.

Life Enougou Agni

Death Diark Dyakka

Disease Oddy Oddy

Small-pox Djedryki, A. Djedryka, A.

Plague Kobbaki, A. Kobbaga, A.

Old age Samelgy Gortyga

The head Ork Ourka

Eye Messik Maynga

Nose Soring Soringa

Mouth Agilk Akka