Chapter I: Part 1

TRAVELS
INTO
NORTH AMERICA;

CONTAINING

Its Natural History, and
A circumstantial Account of its
Plantations and Agriculture in general,

WITH THE
CIVIL, ECCLESIASTICAL AND
COMMERCIAL STATE OF THE COUNTRY,

The MANNERS of the INHABITANTS, and several
curious and IMPORTANT REMARKS on various Subjects.

By PETER KALM,

Professor of Oeconomy in the University of Aobo in Swedish
Finland, and Member of the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences.

TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH

By JOHN REINHOLD FORSTER, F.A.S.

Enriched with a Map, several Cuts for the Illustration of Natural
History, and some additional Notes.

VOL. III.

LONDON:
Printed for the EDITOR;
And Sold by T. Lowndes, in Fleet-street.

MDCCLXXI.

PREFACE OF THE EDITOR.

I could have left this volume without preface, was it not for some circumstances, which I am going to mention.

The author of this account of North-America is a Swede, and therefore seems always to shew a peculiar way of thinking in regard to the English in general, and in regard to the first proprietors and inhabitants of Philadelphia in particular. The French, the natural enemies of the English, have, for upwards of a century, been the allies of the Swedes, who therefore are in general more fond of them than of the English. The external politeness of the French in Canada fully captivated our author, prejudiced him in their favour, and alienated his mind, though unjustly, from the English. I have therefore now and then, in remarks, been obliged to do the English justice, especially when I saw the author carried away either by prejudice, misinformation, or ignorance. He passed almost all the winter, between 1748 and 1749, at Raccoon, and conversed there with his countrymen; when he came to Philadelphia he likewise was in the company of the Swedes settled there: these, no doubt, furnished him with many partial and disingenuous accounts of the English, and gave his mind that unfavourable biass which he so often displays in prejudice of a nation, now at the head of the enlightened world, in regard to every religious, moral, and social virtue. The author frequently seems to throw an illiberal reflection on the first proprietors of Pensylvania, and the quakers; though they got that province not by force, but by a charter from the English government, to whom the Swedes gave it up by virtue of a public treaty. Prompted by such false insinuations of his countrymen, he likewise enters very minutely into the circumstances of the Swedes, and often omits, or misrepresents, more important points, relative to the legislator and father of Pensylvania, William Penn, who gave that province existence, laws, and reputation. The accounts in the first Volume, p. 32 and 33, 37, 42 and 46, seem to be founded on such misrepresentations. A philosopher should examine such accounts, hear both parties, and emancipate himself from narrowness of mind and prejudice.

The author, however, often does justice to the excellent constitution of Pensylvania, as may be seen Vol. I. p. 58, 59, and likewise pag. 270, 271.

The author speaks of stones attracting the moisture of the air; see Vol. I. p. 35; this is somewhat unphilosophically expressed. No stone attracts the moisture of the air, unless impregnated with saline particles; however, when the stones are colder than the atmosphere, they then condense the moisture of the air on their surface: the porous stones absorb it immediately, but those of a more solid texture, as marbles, &c. keep it on their surface till it evaporates.

Page 36. The author represents the white cedar-wood as almost entirely destroyed; though at present, above twenty years after his account, it is still used in Pensylvania, and quantities of it to be had, sufficient both for home consumption, and exportation to the West-India islands.

Page 48. The river Delaware is called one of the greatest rivers in the world; here, I suppose, the author forgot a great many its superiors.

For the tenor of the above remarks I am indebted to a worthy friend and benefactor.

To the Errata of the first Volume must be referred the following: page 117, note, line 5, easible, read, feasible. P. 247, line 3 and 4, forty seven, read, seventy four. P. 298, line 13, Originals, read, Orignals.

A word more I must add about the American Fauna and Flora, which I promised in my proposals. The author, who, as far as I know, is still living, has not yet finished this work; these three volumes contain all that he has hitherto published relative to America; the journal of a whole year’s travelling, and especially his expedition to the Iroquese, and fort Niagara, are still to come; which, as soon as they appear, if Providence spares my life and health, and if my situation allows of it, I will translate into English; and there are some hopes of obtaining the original from the author. He likewise often promises, in the course of this work, to publish a great Latin work, concerning the animals and plants of North-America, as far as he went through it; which would certainly make the small catalogue I could make, useless. It is likewise probable that the description of the animal kingdom will fall to the share of an abler pen than mine.

I here take the opportunity of returning my humble thanks to my friends, who have generously promoted this publication; as without this public manner of acknowledging their favours, I would think myself guilty of ingratitude, which, in my opinion, is one of the most detestable vices.

London,
Febr. the 15th, 1771.

PETER KALM’s TRAVELS.

July the 1st. 1749.

At day break we got up, and rowed a good while before we got to the place where we left the true road. The country which we passed was the poorest and most disagreeable imaginable. We saw nothing but a row of amazing high mountains covered with woods, steep and dirty on their sides; so that we found it difficult to get to a dry place, in order to land and boil our dinner. In many places the ground, which was very smooth, was under water, and looked like the sides of our Swedish morasses which are intended to be drained; for this reason the Dutch in Albany call these parts the Drowned Lands. [1] Some of the mountains run from S. S. W. to N. N. E. and when they come to the river, they form perpendicular shores, and are full of stones of different magnitudes. The river runs for the distance of some miles together from south to north.

The wind blew north all day, and made it very hard work for us to get forwards, though we all rowed as hard as we could, for our provisions were eaten to-day at breakfast. The river was frequently an English mile and more broad, then it became narrow again, and so on alternately; but upon the whole it kept a good breadth, and was surrounded on both sides by high mountains.

About six o’clock in the evening, we arrived at a point of land, about twelve English miles from Fort St. Frederic. Behind this point the river is converted into a spacious bay; and as the wind still kept blowing pretty strong from the north, it was impossible for us to get forwards, since we were extremely weak. We were therefore obliged to pass the night here, in spite of the remonstrances of our hungry stomachs.

It is to be attributed to the peculiar grace of God towards us that we met the above mentioned Frenchmen on our journey, and that they gave us leave to take one of their bark boats. It seldom happens once in three years, that the French go this road to Albany; for they commonly pass over the lake St. Sacrement, or, as the English call it, lake George, which is the nearer and better road, and every body wondered why they took this troublesome one. If we had not got their large strong boat, and been obliged to keep that which we had made, we would in all probability have been very ill off; for to venture upon the great bay during the least wind with so wretched a vessel, would have been a great piece of temerity, and we should have been in danger of being starved if we had waited for a calm. For being without fire-arms, and these deserts having but few quadrupeds, we must have subsisted upon frogs and snakes, which, (especially the latter) abound in these parts. I can never think of this journey, without reverently acknowledging the peculiar care and providence of the merciful Creator.

July the 2d. Early this morning we set out on our journey again, it being moonshine and calm, and we feared lest the wind should change and become unfavourable to us if we stopped any longer. We all rowed as hard as possible, and happily arrived about eight in the morning at Fort St. Frederic, which the English call Crown Point. Monsieur Lusignan, the governor, received us very politely. He was about fifty years old, well acquainted with polite literature, and had made several journies into this country, by which he had acquired an exact knowledge of several things relative to its state.

I was informed that during the whole of this summer, a continual drought had been here, and that they had not had any rain since last spring. The excessive heat had retarded the growth of plants; and on all dry hills the grass, and a vast number of plants, were quite dried up; the small trees, which grew near rocks, heated by the sun, had withered leaves, and the corn in the fields bore a very wretched aspect. The wheat had not yet eared, nor were the pease in blossoms. The ground was full of wide and deep cracks, in which the little snakes retired and hid themselves when pursued, as into an impregnable asylum.

The country hereabout, it is said, contains vast forests of firs of the white, black, and red kind, which had been formerly still more extensive. One of the chief reasons of their decrease are, the numerous fires which happen every year in the woods, through the carelessness of the Indians, who frequently make great fires when they are hunting, which spread over the fir woods when every thing is dry.

Great efforts are made here for the advancement of Natural History, and there are few places in the world where such good regulations are made for this useful purpose, all which is chiefly owing to the care and zeal of a single person. From hence it appears, how well a useful science is received and set off, when the leading men of a country are its patrons. The governor of the fort, was pleased to shew me a long paper, which the then governor-general of Canada, the Marquis la Galissonniere had sent him. It was the same marquis, who some years after, as a French admiral, engaged the English fleet under admiral Byng, the consequence of which was the conquest of Minorca. In this writing, a number of trees and plants are mentioned, which grow in North-America, and deserve to be collected and cultivated on account of their useful qualities. Some of them are described, among which, is the Polygala Senega, or Rattle Snake-root; and with several of them the places where they grow are mentioned. It is further requested that all kinds of seeds and roots be gathered here; and, to assist such an undertaking, a method of preserving the gathered seeds and roots, is prescribed, so that they may grow, and be sent to Paris. Specimens of all kinds of minerals are required; and all the places in the French settlements are mentioned, where any useful or remarkable stone, earth, or ore has been found. There is likewise a manner of making observations and collections of curiosities in the animal kingdom. To these requests it is added, to enquire and get information, in every possible manner, to what purpose and in what manner the Indians employ certain plants and other productions of nature, as medicines, or in any other case. This useful paper was drawn up by order of the marquis la Galissonniere, by Mr. Gaulthier, the royal physician at Quebec, and afterwards corrected and improved by the marquis’s own hand. He had several copies made of it, which he sent to all the officers in the forts, and likewise to other learned men who travelled in the country. At the end of the writing is an injunction to the officers, to let the governor-general know, which of the common soldiers had used the greatest diligence in the discovery and collection of plants and other natural curiosities, that he might be able to promote them, when an opportunity occurred, to places adapted to their respective capacities, or to reward them in any other manner. I found that the people of distinction, in general here, had a much greater taste for natural history and other parts of literature, than in the English colonies, where it was every body’s sole care and employment to scrape a fortune together, and where the sciences were held in universal contempt. [2] It was still complained of here, that those who studied natural history, did not sufficiently enquire into the medicinal use of the plants of Canada.

The French, who are born in France, are said to enjoy a better health in Canada than in their native country, and to attain to a greater age, than the French born in Canada. I was likewise assured that the European Frenchmen can do more work, and perform more journies in winter, without prejudice to their health, than those born in this country. The intermitting fever which attacks the Europeans on their arrival in Pensylvania, and which as it were makes the climate familiar to them, [3] is not known here, and the people are as well after their arrival as before. The English have frequently observed, that those who are born in America of European parents, can never bear sea-voyages, and go to the different parts of South America, as well as those born in Europe. The French born in Canada have the same constitutions; and when any of them go to the West-India islands, such as Martinique, Domingo, &c. and make some stay there, they commonly fall sick and die soon after: those who fall ill there seldom recover, unless they are brought back to Canada. On the contrary, those who go from France to those islands can more easily bear the climate, and attain a great age there, which I heard confirmed in many parts of Canada.

July the 5th. Whilst we were at dinner, we several times heard a repeated disagreeable outcry, at some distance from the fort, in the river Woodcreek: Mr. Lusignan, the governor, told us this cry was no good omen, because he could conclude from it that the Indians, whom we escaped near fort Anne, had completed their design of revenging the death of one of their brethren upon the English, and that their shouts shewed that they had killed an Englishman. As soon as I came to the window, I saw their boat, with a long pole at one end, on the extremity of which they had put a bloody skull. As soon as they were landed, we heard that they, being six in number, had continued their journey (from the place where we had marks of their passing the night), till they had got within the English boundaries, where they found a man and his son employed in mowing the corn. They crept on towards this man, and shot him dead upon the spot. This happened near the very village, where the English, two years before, killed the brother of one of these Indians, who were then gone out to attack them. According to their custom they cut off the skull of the dead man, and took it with them, together with his clothes and his son, who was about nine years old. As soon as they came within a mile of fort St. Frederic, they put the skull on a pole, in the fore part of the boat, and shouted, as a sign of their success. They were dressed in shirts, as usual, but some of them had put on the dead man’s clothes; one his coat, the other his breeches, another his hat, &c. Their faces were painted with vermillion, with which their shirts were marked across the shoulders. Most of them had great rings in their ears, which seemed to be a great inconvenience to them, as they were obliged to hold them when they leaped, or did any thing which required a violent motion. Some of them had girdles of the skins of Rattle-snakes, with the rattles on them; the son of the murdered man had nothing but his shirt, breeches and cap, and the Indians had marked his shoulders with red. When they got on shore, they took hold of the pole on which the skull was put, and danced and sung at the same time. Their view in taking the boy, was to carry him to their habitations, to educate him instead of their dead brother, and afterwards to marry him to one of their relations. Notwithstanding they had perpetrated this act of violence in time of peace, contrary to the command of the governor in Montreal, and to the advice of the governor of St. Frederic, yet the latter could not at present deny them provisions, and whatever they wanted for their journey, because he did not think it adviseable to exasperate them; but when they came to Montreal, the governor called them to account for this action, and took the boy from them, whom he afterwards sent to his relations: Mr. Lusignan asked them, what they would have done to me and my companions, if they had met us in the desert? They replied, that as it was their chief intention to take their revenge on the Englishmen in the village where their brother was killed, they would have let us alone; but it much depended on the humour they were in, just at the time when we first came to their sight. However, the commander and all the Frenchmen said, that what had happened to me was infinitely safer and better.

Some years ago a skeleton of an amazing great animal had been found in that part of Canada, where the Illinois live. One of the lieutenants in the fort assured me, that he had seen it. The Indians, who were there, had found it in a swamp. They were surprised at the sight of it, and when they were asked, what they thought it was? They answered that it must be the skeleton of the chief or father of all the beavers. It was of a prodigious bulk, and had thick white teeth, about ten inches long. It was looked upon as the skeleton of an elephant. The lieutenant assured me that the figure of the whole snout was yet to be seen, though it was half mouldered. He added, that he had not observed, that any of the bones were taken away, but thought the skeleton lay quite perfect there. I have heard people talk of this monstrous skeleton in several other parts of Canada [4].

Bears are plentiful hereabouts, and they kept a young one, about three months old, at the fort. He had perfectly the same shape, and qualities, as our common bears in Europe, except the ears, which seemed to be longer in proportion, and the hairs which were stiffer; his colour was deep brown, almost black. He played and wrestled every day with one of the dogs. A vast number of bear-skins are annually exported to France from Canada. The Indians prepare an oil from bear’s grease, with which in summer they daub their face, hands, and all naked parts of their body, to secure them from the bite of the gnats. With this oil they likewise frequently smear the body, when they are excessively cold, tired with labour, hurt, and in other cases. They believe it softens the skin, and makes the body pliant, and is very serviceable to old age.

The common Dandelion (Leontodon Taraxacum, Linn.) grows in abundance on the pastures and roads between the fields, and was now in flower. In spring when the young leaves begin to come up, the French dig up the plants, take their roots [5], wash them, cut them, and prepare them as a common sallad; but they have a bitter taste. It is not usual here to make use of the leaves for eating.

July the 6th. The soldiers, which had been paid off after the war, had built houses round the fort, on the grounds allotted to them; but most of these habitations were no more than wretched cottages, no better than those in the most wreched places of Sweden; with that difference, however, that their inhabitants here were rarely oppressed by hunger, and could eat good and pure wheat bread. The huts which they had erected consisted of boards, standing perpendicularly close to each other. The roofs were of wood too. The crevices were stopped up with clay, to keep the room warm. The floor was commonly clay, or a black limestone, which is common here. The hearth was built of the same stone, except the place were the fire was to ly, which was made of grey sandstones, which for the greatest part consist of particles of quartz. In some hearths, the stones quite close to the fire-place were limestones; however, I was assured that there was no danger of fire, especially if the stones, which were most exposed to the heat, were of a large size. They had no glass in their windows.

July the 8th. The Galium tinctorium is called Tisavojaune rouge by the French throughout all Canada, and abounds in the woods round this place, growing in a moist but fine soil. The roots of this plant are employed by the Indians in dying the quills of the American porcupines red, which they put into several pieces of their work; and air, sun, or water seldom change this colour. The French women in Canada sometimes dye their clothes red with these roots, which are but small, like those of Galium luteum, or yellow bedstraw.

The horses are left out of doors during the winter, and find their food in the woods, living upon nothing but dry plants, which are very abundant; however they do not fall off by this food, but look very fine and plump in spring.

July the 9th. The skeleton of a whale was found some French miles from Quebec, and one French mile from the river St. Lawrence, in a place where no flowing water comes to at present. This skeleton has been of a very considerable size, and the governor of the fort said, he had spoke with several people who had seen it.

July the 10th. The boats which are here made use of, are of three kinds. 1. Bark-boats, made of the bark of trees, and of ribs of wood. 2. Canoes, consisting of a single piece of wood, hollowed out, which I have already described before [6]. They are here made of the white fir, and of different sizes. They are not brought forward by rowing, but by paddling; by which method not half the strength can be applied; which is made use of in rowing; and a single man might, I think, row as fast as two of them could paddle. 3. The third kind of boats are Bateaux. They are always made very large here, and employed for large cargoes. They are flat bottomed, and the bottom is made of the red, but more commonly of the white oak, which resists better, when it runs against a stone, than other wood. The sides are made of the white fir, because oak would make the Bateau too heavy. They make plenty of tar and pitch here.

The soldiery enjoy such advantages here, as they are not allowed in every part of the world. Those who formed the garrison of this place, had a very plentiful allowance from their government. They get everyday a pound and a half of wheat bread, which is almost more than they can eat. They likewise get pease, bacon, and salt meat in plenty. Sometimes they kill oxen and other cattle, the flesh of which is distributed among the soldiers. All the officers kept cows, at the expence of the king, and the milk they gave was more than sufficient to supply them. The soldiers had each a small garden without the fort, which they were allowed, to attend, and plant in it whatever they liked, and some of them had built summer-houses in them, and planted all kind of pot-herbs. The governor told me, that it was a general custom to allow the soldiers a spot of ground for kitchen-gardens, at such of the French forts hereabouts as were not situated near great towns, from whence they could be supplied with greens. In time of peace the soldiers have very little trouble with being upon guard at the fort; and as the lake close by is full of fish, and the woods abound with birds and animals, those amongst them who choose to be diligent, may live extremely well, and very grand in regard to food. Each soldier got a new coat every two years; but annually, a waistcoat, cap, hat, breeches, cravat, two pair of stockings, two pair of shoes, and as much wood as he had occasion for in winter. They likewise got five sols [7] a piece every day; which is augmented to thirty sols when they have any particular labour for the king. When this is considered, it is not surprising to find the men are very fresh, well fed, strong and lively here. When a soldier falls sick he is brought to the hospital, where the king provides him with a bed, food, medicines, and people to take care of, and serve him. When some of them asked leave to be absent for a day or two, to go abroad, it was generally granted them, if circumstances would permit, and they enjoyed as usual their share of provisions and money, but were obliged to get some of their comrades to mount the guard for them as often as it came to their turns, for which they gave them an equivalent. The governor and officers were duly honoured by the soldiers; however, the soldiers and officers often spoke together as comrades, without any ceremonies, and with a very becoming freedom. The soldiers who are sent hither from France, commonly serve till they are forty or fifty years old, after which they are dismissed and allowed to settle upon, and cultivate a piece of ground. But if they have agreed on their arrival to serve no longer than a certain number of years, they are dismissed at the expiration of their term. Those who are born here, commonly agree to serve the crown during six, eight, or ten years; after which they are dismissed, and set up for farmers in the country. The king presents each dismissed soldier with a piece of land, being commonly 40 arpens [8] long and but three broad, if the soil be of equal goodness throughout; but they get somewhat more, if it be a worse ground [9]. As soon as a soldier settles to cultivate such a piece of land, he is at first assisted by the king, who supplies himself, his wife and children, with provisions, during the three or four first years. The king likewise gives him a cow, and the most necessary instruments for agriculture. Some soldiers are sent to assist him in building a house, for which the king pays them. These are great helps to a poor man, who begins to keep house, and it seems that in a country where the troops are so highly distinguished by the royal favour, the king cannot be at a loss for soldiers. For the better cultivation and population of Canada, a plan has been proposed some years ago, for sending 300 men over from France every year, by which means the old soldiers may always be dismissed, marry, and settle in the country. The land which was allotted to the soldiers about this place, was very good, consisting throughout of a deep mould, mixed with clay.

July the 11th. The harrows which they make use of here are made entirely of wood, and of a triangular form. The ploughs seemed to be less convenient. The wheels upon which the plough-beam is placed, are as thick as the wheels of a cart, and all the wood-work is so clumsily made that it requires a horse to draw the plough along a smooth field.

Rock-stones of different sorts lay scattered on the fields. Some were from three to five feet high, and about three feet broad. They were pretty much alike in regard to the kind of the stone, however, I observed three different species in them.

1. Some consisted of a quartz, whose colour resembled sugar candy, and which was mixed with a black small grained glimmer, a black horn-stone, and a few minute grains of a brown spar. The quartz was most abundant in the mixture; the glimmer was likewise in great quantity, but the spar was inconsiderable. The several kinds of stones were well mixed, and though the eye could distinguish them, yet no instrument could separate them. The stone was very hard and compact, and the grains of quartz looked very fine.

2. Some pieces consisted of grey particles of quartz, black glimmer, and horn-stone, together with a few particles of spar, which made a very close, hard, and compact mixture, only differing from the former in colour.

3. A few of the stones consisted of a mixture of white quartz and black glimmer, to which some red grains of quartz were added. The spar (quartz) was most predominant in this mixture, and the glimmer appeared in large flakes. This stone was not so well mixed as the former, and was by far not so hard and so compact, being easily pounded.

The mountains on which fort St. Frederic is built, as likewise those on which the above kinds of stone are found, consisted generally of a deep black lime-stone, lying in lamellæ as slates do, and it might be called a kind of slates, which can be turned into quicklime by fire [10]. This lime-stone is quite black in the inside, and, when broken, appears to be of an exceeding fine texture. There are some grains of a dark spar scattered in it, which, together with some other inequalities, form veins in it. The strata which ly uppermost in the mountains consist of a grey lime-stone, which is seemingly no more than a variety of the preceding. The black lime-stone is constantly found filled with petrefactions of all kinds, and chiefly the following:

Pectinites, or petrefied Ostreæ Pectines. These petrefied shells were more abundant than any others that have been found here, and sometimes whole strata are met with, consisting merely of a quantity of shells of this sort, grown together. They are generally small, never exceeding an inch and a half in length. They are found in two different states of petrefaction; one shews always the impressions of the elevated and hollow surfaces of the shells, without any vestige of the shells themselves. In the other appears the real shell sticking in the stone, and by its light colour is easily distinguishable from the stone. Both these kinds are plentiful in the stone; however, the impressions are more in number than the real shells. Some of the shells are very elevated, especially in the middle, where they form as it were a hump; others again are depressed in the middle; but in most of them the outward surface is remarkably elevated. The furrows always run longitudinally, or from the top, diverging to the margin.

Petrefied Cornua Ammonis. These are likewise frequently found, but not equal to the former in number: like the pectinitæ, they are found really petrefied, and in impressions; amongst them were some petrefied snails. Some of these Cornua Ammonis were remarkably big, and I do not remember seeing their equals, for they measured above two feet in diameter.

Different kinds of corals could be plainly seen in, and separated from, the stone in which they lay. Some were white and ramose, or Lithophytes; others were starry corals, or Madrepores; the latter were rather scarce.

I must give the name of Stone-balls to a kind of stones foreign to me, which are found in great plenty in some of the rock-stones. They were globular, one half of them projecting generally above the rock, and the other remaining in it. They consist of nearly parallel fibres, which arise from the bottom as from a center, and spread over the surface of the ball and have a grey colour. The outside of the balls is smooth, but has a number of small pores, which externally appear to be covered with a pale grey crust. They are from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter.

Amongst some other kinds of sand, which are found on the shores of lake Champlain, two were very peculiar, and commonly lay in the same place; the one was black, and the other reddish brown, or granite coloured.

The black sand always lies uppermost, consists of very fine grains, which, when examined by a microscope, appear to have a dark blue colour, like that of a smooth iron, not attacked by rust. Some grains are roundish, but most of them angular, with shining surfaces; and they sparkle when the sun shines. All the grains of this sand without exception are attracted by the magnet. Amongst these black or deep blue grains, they meet with a few grains of a red or garnet coloured sand, which is the same with the red sand which lies immediately under it, and which I shall now describe. This red or garnet coloured sand is very fine, but not so fine as the black sand. Its grains not only participate of the colour of garnets, but they are really nothing but pounded garnets. Some grains are round, others angulated; all shine and are semipellucid; but the magnet has no effect on them, and they do not sparkle so much in sunshine. This red sand is seldom found very pure, it being commonly mixed with a white sand, consisting of particles of quartz. The black and red sand is not found in every part of the shore, but only in a few places, in the order before mentioned. The uppermost or black sand lay about a quarter of an inch deep; when it was carefully taken off, the sand under it became of a deeper red the deeper it lay, and its depth was commonly greater than that of the former. When this was carefully taken away, the white sand of quartz appeared mixed very much at top with the red sand, but growing purer the deeper it lay. This white sand was above four inches deep, had round grains, which made it entirely like a pearl sand. Below this was a pale grey angulated quartz sand. In some places the garnet coloured sand lay uppermost, and this grey angulated one immediately under it, without a grain of either the black or the white sand.

I cannot determine the origin of the black or steel-coloured sand, for it was not known here whether there were iron mines in the neighbourhood or not. But I am rather inclined to believe they may be found in these parts, as they are common in different parts of Canada, and as this sand is found on the shores of almost all the lakes, and rivers in Canada, though not in equal quantities. The red or garnet coloured sand has its origin hereabouts; for though the rocks near fort St. Frederic contained no garnets, yet there are stones of different sizes on the shores, quite different from the stones which form those rocks; these stones are very full of grains of garnets, and when pounded there is no perceptible difference between them and the red sand. In the more northerly parts of Canada, or below Quebec, the mountains themselves contain a great number of garnets. The garnet-coloured sand is very common on the shores of the river St. Lawrence. I shall leave out several observations which I made upon the minerals hereabouts, as uninteresting to most of my readers.

The Apocynum androsæmifolium grows in abundance on hills covered with trees, and is in full flower about this time; the French call it Herbe à la puce. When the stalk is cut or tore, a white milky juice comes out. The French attribute the same qualities to this plant, which the poison-tree, or Rhus vernix, has in the English colonies; that its poison is noxious to some persons, and harmless to others. The milky juice, when spread upon the hands and body, has no bad effect on some persons; whereas others cannot come near it without being blistered. I saw a soldier whose hands were blistered all over, merely by plucking the plant, in order to shew it me; and it is said its exhalations affect some people, when they come within reach of them. It is generally allowed here, that the lactescent juice of this plant, when spread on any part of the human body not only swells the part, but frequently corrodes the skin; at least there are few examples of persons on whom it had no effect. As for my part, it has never hurt me, though in presence of several people I touched the plant, and rubbed my hands with the juice till they were white all over; and I have often rubbed the plant in my hands till it was quite crushed, without feeling the least inconvenience, or change on my hand. The cattle never touch this plant.

July the 12th. Burdock, or Arctium Lappa, grows in several places about the fort; and the governor told me, that its tender shoots are eaten in spring as raddishes, after the exterior peel is taken off.

The Sison Canadense abounds in the woods of all North-America. The French call it cerfeuil sauvage, and make use of it in spring, in green soups, like chervil. It is universally praised here as a wholesome, antiscorbutic plant, and as one of the best which can be had here in spring.

The Asclepias Syriaca, or, as the French call it, le Cotonier, grows abundant in the country, on the sides of hills which ly near rivers and other situations, as well in a dry and open place in the woods, as in a rich, loose soil. When the stalk is cut or broken it emits a lactescent juice, and for this reason the plant is reckoned in some degree poisonous. The French in Canada nevertheless use its tender shoots in spring, preparing them like asparagus; and the use of them is not attended with any bad consequences, as the slender shoots have not yet had time to suck up any thing poisonous. Its flowers are very odoriferous, and, when in season, they fill the woods with their fragrant exhalations, and make it agreeable to travel in them; especially in the evening. The French in Canada make a sugar of the flowers, which for that purpose are gathered in the morning, when they are covered all over with dew. This dew is expressed, and by boiling yields a very good brown, palatable sugar. The pods of this plant when ripe contain a kind of wool, which encloses the seed, and resembles cotton, from whence the plant has got its French name. The poor collect it, and fill their beds, especially their children’s, with it instead of feathers. This plant flowers in Canada at the end of June and beginning of July, and the seeds are ripe in the middle of September. The horses never eat of this plant.

July the 16th. This morning I crossed lake Champlain to the high mountain on its western side, in order to examine the plants and other curiosities there. From the top of the rocks, at a little distance from fort St. Frederic, a row of very high mountains appear on the western shore of lake Champlain, extending from south to north; and on the eastern side of this lake is another chain of high mountains, running in the same direction. Those on the eastern side are not close to the lake, being about ten or twelve miles from it; and the country between it and them is low and flat, and covered with woods, which likewise clothe the mountains, except in such places, as the fires, which destroy the forests here, have reached them and burnt them down. These mountains have generally steep sides, but sometimes they are found gradually sloping. We crossed the lake in a canoe, which could only contain three persons, and as soon as we landed we walked from the shore to the top of the mountains. Their sides are very steep, and covered with a mould, and some great rock-stones lay on them. All the mountains are covered with trees; but in some places the forests have been destroyed by fire. After a great deal of trouble we reached the top of one of the mountains, which was covered with a dusty mould. It was none of the highest; and some of those which were at a greater distance were much higher, but we had no time to go to them; for the wind encreased, and our boat was but a little one. We found no curious plants, or any thing remarkable here.

When we returned to the shore we found the wind risen to such a height, that we did not venture to cross the lake in our boat, and for that reason I left the fellow to bring it back, as soon as the wind subsided, and walked round the bay, which was a walk of about seven English miles. I was followed by my servant, and for want of a road, we kept close to the shore where we passed over mountains and sharp stones; through thick forests and deep marshes, all which were known to be inhabited by numberless rattle-snakes, of which we happily saw none at all. The shore is very full of stones in some places, and covered with large angulated rock-stones, which are sometimes roundish, and their edges as it were worn off. Now and then we met with a small sandy spot, covered with grey, but chiefly with the fine red sand which I have before mentioned; and the black iron sand likewise occurred sometimes. We found stones of a red glimmer of a fine texture, on the mountains. Sometimes these mountains with the trees on them stood perpendicular with the water-side, but in some places the shore was marshy.

I saw a number of petrefied Cornua Ammonis in one place, near the shore, among a number of stones and rocks. The rocks consist of a grey limestone, which is a variety of the black one, and lies in strata, as that does. Some of them contain a number of petrefactions, with and without shells; and in one place we found prodigious large Cornua Ammonis, about twenty inches in breadth. In some places the water had wore off the stone, but could not have the same effect on the petrefactions, which lay elevated above, and in a manner glued on the stones.

The mountains near the shore are amazingly high and large, consisting of a compact grey rock-stone, which does not ly in strata as the lime-stone, and the chief of whose constituent parts are a grey quartz, and a dark glimmer. This rock-stone reached down to the water, in places where the mountains flood close to the shore; but where they were at some distance from it, they were supplied by strata of grey and black lime-stone, which reached to the water side, and which I never have seen covered with the grey rocks.

The Zizania aquatica grows in mud, and in the most rapid parts of brooks, and is in full bloom about this time.

July the 17th. The distempers which rage among the Indians are rheumatisms and pleurisies, which arise from their being obliged frequently to ly in moist parts of the woods at night; from the sudden changes of heat and cold, to which the air is exposed here; and from their being frequently loaded with too great a quantity of strong liquor, in which case they commonly ly down naked in the open air, without any regard to the season, or the weather. These distempers, especially the pleurisies, are likewise very common among the French here; and the governor told me he had once had a very violent fit of the latter, and that Dr. Sarrasin had cured him in the following manner, which has been found to succeed best here. He gave him sudorifics, which were to operate between eight and ten hours; he was then bled, and the sudorifics repeated; he was bled again, and that effectually cured him.

Dr. Sarrasin was the royal physician at Quebec, and a correspondent of the royal academy of sciences at Paris. He was possessed of great knowledge in the practice of physic, anatomy, and other sciences, and very agreeable in his behaviour. He died at Quebec, of a malignant fever, which had been brought to that place by a ship, and with which he was infected at an hospital, where he visited the sick. He left a son, who likewise studied physic, and went to France to make himself more perfect in the practical part of it, but he died there.

The intermitting fevers sometimes come amongst the people here, and the venereal disease is common here. The Indians are likewise infected with it; and many of them have had it, and some still have it; but they likewise are perfectly possessed of the art of curing it. There are examples of Frenchmen and Indians, infected all over the body with this disease, who have been radically and perfectly cured by the Indians, within five or six months. The French have not been able to find this remedy out; though they know that the Indians employ no mercury, but that their chief remedies are roots, which are unknown to the French. I have afterwards heard what these plants were, and given an account of them at large to the royal Swedish academy of sciences [11].

We are very well acquainted in Sweden with the pain caused by the Tæniæ, or a kind of worms. They are less abundant in the British North-American colonies; but in Canada they are very frequent. Some of these worms, which have been evacuated by a person, have been several yards long. It is not known, whether the Indians are afflicted with them, or not. No particular remedies against them are known here, and no one can give an account from whence they come, though the eating of some fruits contributes, as is conjectured, to create them.

July the 19th. Fort St. Frederic is a fortification, on the southern extremity of lake Champlain, situated on a neck of land, between that lake and the river, which arises from the union of the river Woodcreek, and lake St. Sacrement. The breadth of this river is here about a good musket shot. The English call this fortress Crownpoint, but its French name is derived from the French secretary of state, Frederic Maurepas, in whose hands the direction and management of the French court of admiralty was, at the time of the erection of this fort: for it is to be observed, that the government of Canada is subject to the court of admiralty in France, and the governor-general is always chosen out of that court. As most of the places in Canada bear the names of saints, custom has made it necessary to prefix the word Saint to the name of the fortress. The fort is built on a rock, consisting of black lime-slates, as aforesaid; it is nearly quadrangular, has high and thick walls, made of the same lime-stone, of which there is a quarry about half a mile from the fort. On the eastern part of the fort, is a high tower, which is proof against bombshells, provided with very thick and substantial walls, and well stored with cannon, from the bottom almost to the very top; and the governor lives in the tower. In the terre-plein of the fort is a well built little church, and houses of stone for the officers and soldiers. There are sharp rocks on all sides towards the land, beyond a cannon-shot from the fort, but among them are some which are as high as the walls of the fort, and very near them.

The soil about fort St. Frederic is said to be very fertile, on both sides of the river; and before the last war a great many French families, especially old soldiers, have settled there; but the king obliged them to go into Canada, or to settle close to the fort, and to ly in it at night. A great number of them returned at this time, and it was thought that about forty or fifty families would go to settle here this autumn. Within one or two musket-shots to the east of the fort, is a wind-mill, built of stone with very thick walls, and most of the flour which is wanted to supply the fort is ground here. This wind-mill is so contrived, as to serve the purpose of a redoubt, and at the top of it are five or six small pieces of cannon. During the last war, there was a number of soldiers quartered in this mill, because they could from thence look a great way up the river, and observe whether the English boats approached; which could not be done from the fort itself, and which was a matter of great consequence, as the English might (if this guard had not been placed here) have gone in their little boats close under the western shore of the river, and then the hills would have prevented their being seen from the fort. Therefore the fort ought to have been built on the spot where the mill stands, and all those who come to see it, are immediately struck with the absurdity of its situation. If it had been erected in the place of the mill, it would have commanded the river, and prevented the approach of the enemy; and a small ditch cut through the loose limestone, from the river (which comes out of the lake St. Sacrement) to lake Champlain, would have surrounded the fort with flowing water, because it would have been situated on the extremity of the neck of land. In that case the fort would always have been sufficiently supplied with fresh water, and at a distance from the high rocks, which surround it in its present situation. We prepared to-day to leave this place, having waited during some days for the arrival of the yacht, which plies constantly all summer between the forts St. John [12] and St. Frederic: during our stay here, we had received many favours. The governor of the fort, Mr. Lusignan, a man of learning and of great politeness, heaped obligations upon us, and treated us with as much civility as if we had been his relations. I had the honor of eating at his table during my stay here, and my servant was allowed to eat with his. We had our rooms, &c. to ourselves, and at our departure the governor supplied us with ample provisions for our journey to fort St. John. In short, he did us more favours than we could have expected from our own countrymen, and the officers were likewise particularly obliging to us.