Chapter VIII: Part 8

I have made enquiry among the French, who travel far into the country, concerning the food of the Indians. Those who live far north, I am told, cannot plant any thing, on account of the great degree of cold. They have, therefore, no bread, and do not live on vegetables; flesh and fish is their only food, and chiefly the flesh of beavers, bears, rein-deer, elks, hares, and several kinds of birds. Those Indians who live far southward, eat the following things. Of vegetables they plant maize, wild kidney beans [121] of several kinds, pumpions of different sorts, squashes, a kind of gourds, watermelons and melons [122]. All these plants have been cultivated by the Indians, long before the arrival of the Europeans. They likewise eat various fruits which grow in their woods. Fish and flesh make a very great part of their food. And they chiefly like the flesh of wild cattle, roe-bucks, stags, bears, beavers, and some other quadrupeds. Among their dainty dishes, they reckon the water-taregrass [123], which the French call folle avoine, and which grows in plenty in their lakes, in stagnant waters, and sometimes in rivers which flow slowly. They gather its seeds in October, and prepare them in different ways, and chiefly as groats, which taste almost as well as rice. They make likewise many a delicious meal of the several kinds of walnuts, chesnuts, mulberries, acimine [124], chinquapins [125], hazel-nuts, peaches, wild prunes, grapes, whortle-berries of several sorts, various kinds of medlars, black-berries, and other fruit and roots. But the species of corn so common in what is called the old world, were entirely unknown here before the arrival of the Europeans; nor do the Indians at present ever attempt to cultivate them, though they see the use which the Europeans make of the culture of them, and though they are fond of eating the dishes which are prepared of them.

September the 27th. Beavers are abundant all over North-America, and they are one of the chief articles of the trade in Canada. The Indians live upon their flesh during a great part of the year. It is certain that these animals multiply very fast; but it is no less so, that vast numbers of them are annually killed, and that the Indians are obliged at present to undertake distant journies, in order to catch or shoot them. Their decreasing in number is very easily accounted for; because the Indians, before the arrival of the Europeans, only caught as many as they found necessary to clothe themselves with, there being then no trade with the skins. At present a number of ships go annually to Europe, laden chiefly with beavers skins; the English and French endeavour to outdo each other, by paying the Indians well for them, and this encourages the latter to extirpate these animals. All the people in Canada told me, that when they were young, all the rivers in the neighbourhood of Montreal, the river St. Lawrence not excepted, were full of beavers and their dykes; but at present they are so far extirpated, that one is obliged to go several miles up the country before one can meet with one. I have already remarked above, that the beaver skins from the north, are better than those from the south.

Beaver-flesh is eaten not only by the Indians, but likewise by the Europeans, and especially the French, on their fasting days; for his holiness, in his system, has ranged the beaver among the fish. The flesh is reckoned best, if the beaver has lived upon vegetables, such as the asp, and the beaver-tree [126]; but when he has eaten fish, it does not taste well, To-day I tasted this flesh boiled, for the first time; and though every body present, besides myself, thought it a delicious dish, yet I could not agree with them. I think it is eatable, but has nothing delicious. It looks black when boiled, and has a peculiar taste. In order to prepare it well, it must be boiled in several waters from morning till noon, that it may lose the bad taste it has. The tail is likewise eaten, after it has been boiled in the same manner, and roasted afterwards; but it consists of fat only, though they would not call it so; and cannot be swallowed by one who is not used to eat it.

Much has already been written concerning the dykes, or houses of the beavers; it is therefore unnecessary to repeat it. Sometimes, though but seldom, they catch beavers with white hair.

Wine is almost the only liquor which people above the vulgar are used to drink. They make a kind of spruce beer of the top of the white fir [127], which they drink in summer; but the use of it is not general; and it is seldom drank by people of quality. Thus great sums go annually out of the country for wine; as they have no vines here, of which they could make a liquor that is fit to be drank. The common people drink water; for it is not yet customary here to brew beer of malt; and there are no orchards large enough to supply the people with apples for making cyder. Some of the people of rank, who possess large orchards, sometimes, out of curiosity, get a small quantity of cyder made. The great people here, who are used from their youth to drink nothing but wine, are greatly at a loss in time of war; when all the ships which brought wine are intercepted by the English privateers. Towards the end of the last war, they gave two hundred and fifty Francs, and even one hundred Ecus, for a barrique, or hogshead, of wine.

The present price of several things, I have been told by some of the greatest merchants here, is as follows. A middling horse costs forty Francs [128] and upwards; a good horse is valued at an hundred Francs, or more. A cow is now sold for fifty Francs; but people can remember the time when they were sold for ten Ecus [129]. A sheep costs five or six livres at present; but last year, when every thing was dear, it cost eight or ten Francs. A hog of one year old, and two hundred, or an hundred and fifty pound weight, is sold at fifteen Francs. M. Couagne, the merchant, told me, that he had seen a hog of four hundred weight among the Indians. A chicken is sold for ten or twelve Sols [130]; and a turkey for twenty sols. A Minot [131] of wheat sold for an Ecu last year; but at present it cost forty Sols. Maize is always of the same price with wheat, because here is but little of it; and it is all made use of by those who go to trade with the Indians. A Minot of oats costs sometimes from fifteen to twenty Sols; but of late years it has been sold for twenty-six, or thirty Sols. Pease bear always the same price with wheat. A pound of butter costs commonly about eight or ten Sols; but last year it rose up to sixteen Sols. A dozen of eggs used to cost but three Sols; however, now are sold for five. They make no cheese at Montreal; nor is there any to be had, except what is got from abroad. A water-melon generally costs five or six Sols; but if of a large size, from fifteen to twenty.

There are as yet no manufactures established in Canada; probably, because France will not lose the advantage of selling off its own goods here. However, both the inhabitants of Canada, and the Indians, are very ill off for want of them, in times of war.

Those persons who want to be married, must have the consent of their parents. However, the judge may give them leave to marry, if the parents oppose their union, without any valid reason. Likewise, if the man be thirty years of age, and the woman twenty-six, they may marry, without farther waiting for their parents consent.

September the 29th. This afternoon I went out of town, to the south-west part of the isle, in order to view the country, and the œconomy of the people, and to collect several seeds. Just before the town are some fine fields, which were formerly cultivated, but now serve as pastures. To the north-west appears the high mountain, which lies westward of Montreal, and is very fertile, and covered with fields and gardens from the bottom to the summit. On the south-east side is the river St. Lawrence, which is very broad here; and on its sides are extensive corn-fields and meadows, and fine houses of stone, which look white at a distance. At a great distance south-eastward, appear the two high mountains near fort Chamblais, and some others near lake Champlain, raising their tops above the woods. All the fields hereabouts are filled with stones of different sizes; and among them, there is now and then a black lime-stone. About a French mile from the town, the high road goes along the river, which is on the left-hand; and on the right-hand all the country is cultivated and inhabited. The farm-houses are three, four, or five arpens distant from each other. The hills near the river are generally high and pretty steep; they consist of earth; and the fields below them are filled with pieces of rock-stone, and of black lime-slate. About two French miles from Montreal, the river runs very rapidly, and is full of stones; in some places there are some waves. However, those who go in boats into the southern parts of Canada, are obliged to work through such places.

Most of the farm-houses in this neighbourhood are of stone, partly of the black lime-stone, and partly of other stones in the neighbourhood. The roof is made of shingles or of straw. The gable is always very high and steep. Other buildings, such as barns and stables, are of wood.

Wild-geese and ducks, began now to migrate in great flocks to the southern countries.

October the 2d. The two preceding days, and this, I employed chiefly in collecting seeds.

The last night’s frost had caused a great alteration in several trees. Walnut-trees of all sorts flied their leaves in plenty now. The flowers of a kind of nettle [132] were all entirely killed by the frost. The leaves of the American lime-tree were likewise damaged. In the kitchen-gardens the leaves of the melons were all killed by the frost. However, the beech, oak, and birch, did not seem to have suffered at all. The fields were all covered with a hoar-frost. The ice in the pools of water was a geometrical line and a half in thickness.

The biennial oenothera [133] grows in abundance on open woody hills, and fallow fields. An old Frenchman, who accompanied me as I was collecting its seeds, could not sufficiently praise its property of healing wounds. The leaves of the plant must be crushed, and then laid on the wound.

Sœurs de Congregation are a kind of religious women, different from nuns. They do not live in a convent, but have houses both in the town and country. They go where they please, and are even allowed to marry, if an opportunity offers; but this, I am told, happens very seldom. In many places in the country, there are two or more of them: they have their house commonly near a church, and generally the parsonage house is on the other side of the church. Their business is to instruct young girls in the Christian religion, to teach them reading, writing, needle-work, and other female accomplishments. People of fortune board their daughters with them for some time. They have their boarding, lodging, beds, instruction, and whatever else they want, upon very reasonable terms. The house where the whole community of these ladies live, and from whence they are sent out into the country, is at Montreal. A lady that wants to become incorporated among them, must pay a considerable sum of money towards the common stock; and some people reckon it to be four thousand livres. If a person be once received, she is sure of a subsistence during her life-time.

La Chine is a fine village, three French miles to the south-east of Montreal, but on the same isle, close to the river St. Lawrence. The farm-houses ly along the river-side, about four or five arpens from each other. Here is a fine church of stone, with a small steeple; and the whole place has a very agreeable situation. Its name is said to have had the following origin. As the unfortunate M. Salée was here, who was afterwards murdered by his own countrymen further up in the country, he was very intent upon discovering a shorter road to China, by means of the river St. Lawrence. He talked of nothing at that time but his new short way to China. But as his project of undertaking this journey, in order to make this discovery, was stopped by an accident which happened to him here, and he did not that time come any nearer China, this place got its name, as it were, by way of joke.

This evening I returned to Montreal.

October the 5th. The governor-general at Quebec is, as I have already mentioned before, the chief commander in Canada. Next to him is the intendant at Quebec; then follows the governor of Montreal, and after him the governor of Trois Rivieres. The intendant has the greatest power next to the governor-general; he pays all the money of government, and is president of the board of finances, and of the court of justice in this country. He is, however, under the governor-general; for if he refuses to do any thing to which he seems obliged by his office, the governor-general can give him orders to do it, which he must obey. He is allowed, however, to appeal to the government in France. In each of the capital towns, the governor is the highest person, then the lieutenant-general, next to him a major, and after him the captains. The governor-general gives the first orders in all matters of consequence. When he comes to Trois Rivieres and Montreal, the power of the governor ceases, because he always commands where he is. The governor-general commonly goes to Montreal once every year, and mostly in winter; and during his absence from Quebec, the lieutenant-general commands there. When the governor-general dies, or goes to France, before a new one is come in his stead, the governor of Montreal goes to Quebec to command in the mean while, leaving the major to command at Montreal.

One or two of the king’s ships are annually sent from France to Canada, carrying recruits to supply the places of those soldiers, who either died in the service, or have got leave to settle in the country, and turn farmers, or to return to France. Almost every year they send a hundred, or a hundred and fifty people over in this manner. With these people they likewise send over a great number of persons, who have been found guilty of smuggling in France. They were formerly condemned to the gallies, but at present they send them to the colonies, where they are free as soon as they arrive, and can choose what manner of life they please, but are never allowed to go out of the country, without the king’s special licence. The king’s ships likewise bring a great quantity of merchandizes which the king has bought, in order to be distributed among the Indians on certain occasions. The inhabitants of Canada pay very little to the king. In the year 1748, a beginning was, however, made, by laying a duty of three per cent on all the French goods imported by the merchants of Canada. A regulation was likewise made at that time, that all the furs and skins exported to France from hence, should pay a certain duty; but what is carried to the colonies pays nothing. The merchants of all parts of France and its colonies, are allowed to send ships with goods to this place; and the Quebec merchants are at liberty likewise to send their goods to any place in France, and its colonies. But the merchants at Quebec have but few ships, because the sailors wages are very high. The towns in France which chiefly trade with Canada, are Rochelle and Bourdeaux; next to them are Marseilles, Nantes, Havre de Grace, St. Malo, and others. The king’s ships which bring goods to this country, come either from Brest or from Rochefort. The merchants at Quebec send flour, wheat, pease, wooden utensils, &c. on their own bottoms, to the French possessions in the West-Indies. The walls round Montreal were built in 1738, at the king’s expence, on condition the inhabitants should, little by little, pay off the cost to the king. The town at present pays annually 6000 livres for them to government, of which 2000 are given by the seminary of priests. At Quebec the walls have likewise been built at the king’s expence, but he did not redemand the expence of the inhabitants, because they had already the duty upon goods to pay as above mentioned. The beaver trade belongs solely to the Indian company in France, and nobody is allowed to carry it on here, besides the people appointed by that company. Every other fur trade is open to every body. There are several places among the Indians far in the country, where the French have stores of their goods; and these places they call les postes. The king has no other fortresses in Canada than Quebec, Fort Chamblais, Fort St. Jean, Fort St. Frederic, or Crownpoint, Montreal, Frontenac, and Niagara. All other places belong to private persons. The king keeps the Niagara trade all to himself. Every one who intends to go to trade with the Indians must have a licence from the governor-general, for which he must pay a sum according as the place he is going to is more or less advantageous for trade. A merchant who sends out a boat laden with all sorts of goods, and four or five persons with it, is obliged to give five or six hundred livres for the permission; and there are places for which they give a thousand livres. Sometimes one cannot buy the licence to go to a certain trading place, because the governor-general has granted, or intends to grant it to some acquaintance or relation of his. The money arising from the granting of licences, belongs to the governor-general; but it is customary to give half of it to the poor: whether this is always strictly kept to or not, I shall not pretend to determine.

END OF THE THIRD VOLUME.

NOTES

[1] De verdronkene landen.

[2] It seems Mr. Kalm has forgotten his own assertions in the first volume. Dr. Colden, Dr. Franklin, and Mr. Bartram, have been the great promoters and investigators of nature in this country; and how would the inhabitants of Old England have gotten the fine collections of North-American trees, shrubs, and plants, which grow at present almost in every garden, and are as if it were naturalized in Old England, had they not been assisted by their friends, and by the curious in North-America. One need only cast an eye on Dr. Linnæus’s new edition of his Systema, and the repeated mention of Dr. Garden, in order to be convinced that the English in America have contributed a greater share towards promoting natural history, than any nation under heaven, and certainly more than the French, though their learned men are often handsomely pensioned by their great Monarque: on the other hand the English study that branch of knowledge, from the sole motive of its utility, and the pleasure it affords to a thinking being, without any of those mercenary views, held forth to the learned of other countries. And as to the other parts of literature, the English in America are undoubtedly superior to the French in Canada, witness the many useful institutions, colleges, and schools founded in the English colonies in North-America, and so many very considerable libraries now erecting in this country, which contain such a choice of useful and curious books, as were very little known in Canada, before it fell into the hands of the English; not to mention the productions of original genius written by Americans born. F.

[3] See Vol. I. p. 364.

[4] The country of the Illinois is on the river Ohio, near the place where the English have found some bones, supposed to belong to elephants. See Vol. I. p. 135. in the note.

[5] In France the young blanched leaves, which scarce peep out of molehills, and have yet a yellow colour, are universally eaten as a sallad, under the name of Pisenlit. F.

[6] See Vol. II.

[7] A sol in France is about the value of one half penny sterling.

[8] An Arpent in France contains 100 French perches, and each of those 22 French feet; then the French foot being to the English as 1440 to 1352, an arpent is about 2346 English feet and 8 inches long. See Ordonnances de Louis XIV. sur le fait des Eaux & Forêts. Paris, 1687. p. 112. F.

[9] Mr. Kalm says, in his original, that the length of an arpent was so determined, that they reckoned 84 of them in a French lieue or league; but as this does by no means agree with the statute arpent of France, which by order of king Lewis XIV, was fixed at 2200 feet, Paris measure, (see the preceding note) we thought proper to leave it out of the text. F.

[10] Marmor schistosum, Linn. Syst. III. p. 40. Marmor unicolor nigrum. Wall.. Min. pag. 61. n. 2. Lime-slates, schistus calcareus. Forst. Introd. to Min. p. 9. F.

[11] See the Memoirs of that Academy, for the year 1750, page 284.

The Stillingia Sylvatica is probably one of these roots. F.

[12] Saint Jean.

[13] Sea Wolves.

[14] See their Memoirs for the year 1752, p. 308, sect. 9.

[15] Abies foliis subtus argenteis.

[16] It seems, that for the future, the fair sex in the English colonies in North-America, will no longer deserve the reproaches Mr. Kalm stigmatizes them with repeatedly, since it is generally reported, that the ladies of late have vied one with another, in providing their families with linen, stockings, and home-spun cloath of their own making, and that a general spirit of industry prevails among them at this present time. F.

[17] Perdrix blanches.

[18] See Br. Zool. Suppl. plate XIII. f. 1. F.

[19] See a figure of this hare in its white state, in the Suppl. to Br. Zool. plate XLVII. f. 1. F.

[20] But by this means they would loose that superiority, which in their wild state they have over the tame cattle; as all the progenies of tamed animals degenerate from the excellence of their wild and free ancestors. F.

[21] See Vol. I. p. 207.

[22] Cotton-tree. Mr. Kalm mentions before, that this name is given to the Asclepias Syriaca. See Vol. III. p. 28. F.

[23] Mr. Kalm describes it thus: Poa culmo subcompresso, panicula tenuissima, spiculis trifloris minimis, flosculis basi pubescentibus.

[24] The sol is the lowest coin in Canada, and is about the value of a penny in the English colonies. A livre, or franc, (for they are both the same) contains twenty sols; and three livres, or francs, make an ecu, or crown.

[25] Tophus Tubalcaini, Linn. Syst. Nat. III. p. 187, n. 5. Minera ferri subaquosa nigro cærulescens. Wall. Mineral. p. 263. Germ. Ed. p. 340. n. 3. Iron ockres in the shape of crusts, are sometimes cavernous, as the Brush ore. Forster’s Mineral, p. 48.

[26] This lime-stone, seems to be a marle, or rather a kind of stone-marle: for there is a whitish kind of it in the Krim-Tartary, and near Stiva or Thebes, in Greece, which is employed by the Turks and Tartars for making heads of pipes, and that from the first place is called Keffekil, and in the latter, Sea-Scum: it may be very easily cut, but grows harder in time. F.

[27] La haute Ville & la basse Ville.

[28] A kind of Franciscan friars, called Ordo Sti. Franciscì strictioris observantiæ.

[29] Le Seminaire.

[30] Nitrum suillum, Linn. Syst. III. p. 86. Lapis suillus prismaticus Waller. Mineral. p. 59. a. 1. Stink-stone, Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy. p. 40.

[31] Meaning Quel bec.

[32] The river St. Lawrence, was no more a barrier to the victorious British fleets in the last war, nor were the fortifications of Quebec capable to withstand the gallant attacks of their land army, which disappointed the good Frenchmen in Canada of their too sanguine expectations, and at present, they are rather happy at this change of fortune, which has made them subjects of the British sceptre, whose mild influence they at present enjoy. F.

[33] Botanists know this plant by the name of Panax quinquefolium, foliis ternatis quinatis Linn. Mat. Med. § 116. Sp. plant. p. 15, 12. Gronov. Fl. Virg. p. 147. See like wise Catesby’s Nat. Hist. of Carolina. Vol. III. p. 16. t. 16. Laffitau Gins. 51. t. 1. Father Charlevoix Hist. de la Nouvelle France. Tom. IV. p. 308. fig. XIII. and Tom. V. p. 24.

[34] Peter Osbeck’s voyage to China, Vol. I. p. 223.

[35] Mr. Osbeck seems to doubt whether the Europeans reap any advantages from the Ginseng trade or not, because the Chinese do not value the Canada roots so much as those of the Chinese-Tartary and therefore the former bear scarce half the price of the latter. See Osbeck’s Voyage to China, Vol. I. p. 223. F.

[36] This is directly opposite to Mr. Osbeck’s assertion. See the preceding page, 114. note †. F.

[37] It is the Adiantum pedatum of Linn. sp. pl. p. 1557. Cornutus, in his Canadens. plant. historia, p. 7. calls it Adiantum Americanum, and gives together with the description, a figure of it, p. 6.

[38] Adiantum Capillus Veneris. True Maiden-hair.

[39] This is a kind of cabbage, with large round eatable roots, which grow out above the ground wherein it differs from the turnep-cabage (Brassica Napobrassica) whose root grows in the ground. Both are common in Germany, and the former likewise in Italy.

[40] This amount seems to be highly probable, for we find in Marco Paolo, that Kublai-Khan, one of the successors of Genghizkhan, after the conquest of the southern part of China, sent ships out, to conquer the kingdom of Japan, or, as they call it, Nipan-gri, but in a terrible storm the whole fleet was cast away, and nothing was ever heard of the men in that fleet. It seems that some of these ships were cast to the shores, opposite the great American lakes, between forty and fifty degrees north latitude, and there probably erected these monuments, and were the ancestors of some nations, who are called Mozemlecks, and have some degree of civilization. Another part of this fleet, it seems, reached the country opposite Mexico, and there founded the Mexican empire, which, according to their own records, as preserved by the Spaniards, and in their painted annals, in Purchas’s Pilgrimage, are very recent; so that they can scarcely remember any more than seven princes before Motezuma II. who was reigning when the Spaniards arrived there, 1519, under Fernando Cortez; consequently the first of these princes, supposing each had a reign of thirty-three years and four months, and adding to it the sixteen years of Motezuma, began to reign in the year 1270, when Kublai-Khan, the conqueror of all China and of Japan, was on the throne, and in whose time happened, I believe, the first abortive expedition to Japan, which I mentioned above, and probably furnished North-America, with civilized inhabitants. There is, if I am not mistaken, a great similarity between the figures of the Mexican idols, and those which are usual among the Tartars, who embrace the doctrines and religion of the Dalaï-Lama, whose religion Kublai-Khan first introduced among the Monguls, or Moguls. The savage Indians of North-America, it seems, have another origin, and are probably descended from the Yukaghiri and Tchucktchi, inhabitants of the most easterly and northerly part of Asia, where, according to the accounts of the Russians, there is but a small traject to America. The ferocity of these nations, similar to that of the Americans, their way of painting, their fondness of inebriating liquors, (which the Yukaghiri prepare from poisonous and inebriating mushrooms, bought of the Russians) and many other things, show them plainly to be of the same origin. The Esquimaux seem to be the same nation with the inhabitants of Greenland, the Samoyedes, and Lapponians. South-America, and especially Peru, is probably peopled from the great unknown south continent, which is very near America, civilized, and full of inhabitants of various colours: who therefore might very easily be cast on the American continent, in boats, or proas. F.

[41] This part has not yet been published.

[42] What bookseller in Sweden could undertake to print such a work at his own expence, without losing considerably by it?

[43] Remèdes Souverains.

[44] Pour faire un récollet il faut une hachette, pour un prêtre un cijeau, mais pour un Jesuite il faut un pinceau.

[45] A French acre.

[46] A French coin, value about a crown English.

[47] Pasteur.

[48] Sorbus aucuparia.

[49] Poa angustifolia. Linn.

[50] Spiculæ tri vel quadri-floræ minimæ; semina basi pubescentia.

[51] Agrostis. Linn.

[52] Trifolium repens. Linn. Trifolium pratense album. C. B.

[53] Here follows, in the original, an account of the enclosures made use of near Quebec, which is intended only for the Swedes, but not for a nation that has made such progress in agriculture and husbandry, as the English. F.

[54] The kind called Cerisier by the French, I described thus in my journal: Cerasus foliis ovatis serratis, serraturis profundis fere subulatis, fructu racemoso. The other thus: Cerasus foliis lanceolatis, crenato-serratis, acutis, fructu fere solitario.

[55] Helleborus trifolius.

[56] Oxalis Acetesilla, Linn.

[57] Circæa alpina, Linn.

[58] Betula nigra, Linn.

[59] Viburnum dentatum, Linn.

[60] Helianthus annuus.

[61] It has been observed by several experiments, that any liquor dipt into another liquor, and then exposed into the air for evaporation, will get a remarkable degree of cold; the quicker the evaporation succeeds, after repeated dippings, the greater is the cold. Therefore spirit of wine evaporating quicker than water, cools more than water; and spirit of sal ammoniac, made by quick-lime, being still more volatile than spirit of wine, its cooling quality is still greater. The evaporation succeeds better by moving the vessel containing the liquor, by exposing it to the air, and by blowing upon it, or using a pair of bellows. See de Mairan, Dissertation sur la Glace, Prof. Richman in Nov. Comment. Petrop. ad an. 1747, & 1748. p. 284. and Dr. Cullen in the Edinburgh physical and literary Essays and Observations. Vol. II. p. 145. F.

[62] Thuja occidentalis, Linn.

[63] Lichen, Bryum, Hypnum.

[64] Of these rings or circles, it is well known all trees get but one every year, so that they serve to ascertain the age of the tree, and the quickness, or slowness of its growth. F.

[65] The bark is not included, when I speak of the diameters of these trees.

[66] Polypodium fronde pinnata, pinnis alternis ad basin superne appendicularis.

[67] Formica nigra. Linn.

[68] Probably Onidoes.

[69] Venus mercenaria. Linn.

[70] Triglochin.

[71] It was probably impregnated with particles of copper ore.

[72] Vitis labrusca & vulpina.

[73] Saxum micaceo quarzoso-calcarium.

[74] Salicornia, Glaux, Pisum maritimum.

[75] See p. 24. of this volume.

[76] See p. 24. of this volume.

[77] Tipula hortorum. Linn.

[78] See p. 92. of this volume.

[79] The famous moose-deer is accordingly nothing but an elk; for no one can deny the derivation of moose-deer from moosu. Considering especially, that before the Iroquese or Five Nations grew to that power, which they at present have all over North-America, the Algonkins were then the leading nation among the Indians, and their language was of course then a most universal language over the greater part of North-America; and though they have been very nearly destroyed by the Iroquese, their language is still more universal in Canada, than any of the rest. F.

[80] See his Histoire de la Nouvelle France, Tom. II. p. m. 125.

[81] Sterna hirundo, Linn.

[82] Arundo arenaria Linn.

[83] Elymus arenarius Linn.

[84] Sea-rye.

[85] Vinland det goda, or the good wine-land, is the name which the old Scandinavian navigators gave to America, which they discovered long before Columbus. See Torsæi Historia Vinlandiæ antiquæ s. partis Americæ septentrionalis. Hasniæ 1715, 4to. and Mr. George Westmann’s, A. M. Dissertation on that Subject. Abo 1747. F.

[86] Plantago maritima Linn.

[87] Arbutus uva ursi Linn.

[88] Myrica gale Linn.

[89] Bunias cakile Linn.

[90] See Wallerius’s Mineralogy, Germ. ed. p. 87, Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 13.

[91] It is a cubic lead ore, or lead glance. Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 51.

[92] Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 50. Zincum sterilum, Linn. Syst. Nat. III. p. 126. Ed. XII.

[93] Typha latifolia, Linn.

[94] Pinus foliis geminis longis; ramis triplici fasciculo foliorum terminatis, conis ovatis lævibus. Flor. Canad.

[95] Myrica gale. Linn.

[96] See his Histoire de la Nouv. France, tom. v. p. m. 100.

[97] Gypsum amiantiforme, Waller. Min. Germ. ed. p. 74. Fibrous or radiated gypsum, Forst. Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 16.

[98] All over Poland, Russia, Turky, and Tartary, they smoke out of pipes made of a kind of stone marle, to which they fix long wooden tubes; for which latter purpose, they commonly employ the young shoots of the various kinds of spiræa, which have a kind of pith easily to be thrust out. The stone-marle is called generally sea-scum, being pretty soft; and by the Tartars in Crimea, it is called keffekil. And as it cuts so easily, various figures, are curiously carved in it, when it is worked into pipe-heads, which often are mounted with silver. F.

[99] The Moravian brethren in Greenland, coming once over with some Greenlanders to Terra Labrador, the Esquimaux ran away at their appearance; but they ordered one of their Greenlanders to call them back in his language. The Esquimaux hearing his voice, and understanding the language, immediately stopped, came back, and were glad to find a countryman, and wherever they went, among the other Esquimaux, they gave out, that one of their brethren was returned. This proves the Esquimaux to be of a tribe different from any European nation, as the Greenland language has no similarity with any language in Europe. F.

[100] Phoca vitulina. Linn.

[101] Trichechus rosmarus. Linn.

[102] The above account of the Esquimaux may be compared with Henry Ellis’s Account of a Voyage to Hudson’s Bay, by the Dobbs Galley and California, &c. and The Account of a Voyage for the Discovery of a North West Passage by Hudson’s Straights, by the Clerk of the California. Two Vols. 8vo. And lastly, with Crantz’s History of Greenland. Two Vols. 8vo. F.

[103] It is not only the clearing of woods, but cultivation, and population, that alter the climate of a country, and make it mild. The Romans looked upon the winters of Germany and England as very severe, but happily both countries have at present a much more mild climate than formerly, owing to the three above mentioned reasons. Near Petersburg, under sixty degrees north latitude, the river Neva was covered with ice 1765, in the beginning of December, and cleared of it April the 11th 1766. At Tsaritsin, which is under forty-eight degrees forty minutes north latitude, the river Volga was covered with ice the 26th of November 1765, and the ice broke in the river April the 27th 1766, (all old stile). Is it not almost incredible, that in a place very near twelve degrees more to the south, the effects of cold should be felt longer, and more severely, than in the more northern climate. And though the neighbourhood of Petersburg has a great many woods, the cold was, however, less severe, and lasting; Tsaritsin on the contrary has no woods for many hundred miles in its neighbourhood, if we except some few trees and bushes, along the Volga and its isles, and the low land along it. Wherever the eye looks to the east, there are vast plains without woods, for many hundred miles. The clearing a country of woods, cannot therefore alone contribute so much to make the climate milder. But cultivation does more. On a ploughed field the snow will always sooner melt, than on a field covered with grass. The inflammable warm perticles brought into the field, by the various kinds of manure, contribute much to soften the rigours of the climate; but the exhalations of thousands of men and cattle, in a populous country, the burning of so many combustibles, and the dispersion of so many caustic particles, through the whole atmosphere; these are things which contribute so much towards softening the rigours of a climate. In a hundred square miles near Tsaritsin, there is not so much cultivated land as there is within ten near Petersburg; it is in proportion to the number of the inhabitants of both places, and this makes the chief difference of the climate. There is still another consideration, Petersburg lies near the sea, and Tsaritsin in an inland country; and, generally speaking, countries near the sea have been observed to enjoy a milder climate. These few remarks will be, I believe, sufficient to enable every body to judge of the changes of the climate in various countries, which, no doubt, grow warmer and more temperate, as cultivation and population increase. F.

[104] Cornus sanguinea, Linn.

[105] Pontederia cordata Linn.

[106] Nymphææ.

[107] Cucurbita citrullus Linn.

[108] Orignacs.

[109] Cariboux.

[110] Loup cerviers.

[111] In his Hist. de la Nouv. France, Tom, V. p. 158.

[112] Loups cerviers.

[113] Originacs verts.

[114] Cerfs verts.

[115] Originacs et cerfs passés.

[116] See his Hist. de la Nouv. Fr. Tom. VI. p. 415.

[117] Avoir beaucoup d’esprit.

[118] Rhus glabrum. Linn.

[119] See the Volume for the year 1751, p. 143, &c.

[120] Asteres. Solidagines. Achillea millefolium. Prunella vulgaris. Carduus crispus. Oenothera biennis. Rudbeckia triloba. Viola Canadensis. Gentiana Saponaria.

[121] Phaseoli.

[122] Cucumis melo, Linn.

[123] Zizania aquatica, Linn.

[124] Annona muricata, Linn.

[125] Fagus pumila, Linn.

[126] Magnolia glauca, Linn.

[127] Epinette blanche. The way of brewing this beer is described at large in the Memoirs of the Royal Acad. of Sciences, for the year 1751, p. 190.

[128] Franc is the same as Livre; and twenty-two Livres make a pound sterling.

[129] An Ecu is three Francs.

[130] Twenty Sols make one Livre.

[131] A French measure, about the same as two bushels in England.

[132] Urtica divaricata, Linn.

[133] Oenothera biennis, Linn.