Chapter I: Part 1

This picture explains and is symbolic of the most progressive one
hundred years in history. In the center stands the beautiful
female figure typifying Industry. To the right are the goddesses
of Music, Electricity, Literature and Art. Navigation is noted in
the anchor and chain leaning against the capstan; the Railroad,
in the rails and cross-ties; Machinery, in the cog-wheels,
steam governor, etc.; Labor, in the brawny smiths at the anvil;
Pottery, in the ornamented vase; Architecture, in the magnificent
Roman columns; Science, in the figure with quill in hand. In the
back of picture are suggestions of the progress and development
of our wonderful navy. Above all hovers the angel of Fame ready
to crown victorious Genius and Labor with the laurel wreaths of
Success.
]

TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS
OF THE
19TH CENTURY

THE
TRUE MIRROR OF A PHENOMENAL ERA

A VOLUME OF ORIGINAL, ENTERTAINING AND INSTRUCTIVE HISTORIC
AND DESCRIPTIVE WRITINGS, SHOWING THE MANY AND
MARVELLOUS ACHIEVEMENTS WHICH DISTINGUISH

AN HUNDRED YEARS
OF
Material, Intellectual, Social and Moral Progress

EMBRACING AS SUBJECTS ALL THOSE WHICH BEST TYPE THE GENIUS,
SPIRIT AND ENERGY OF THE AGE, AND SERVE TO BRING INTO
BRIGHTEST RELIEF THE GRAND MARCH OF IMPROVEMENT
IN THE VARIOUS DOMAINS OF
HUMAN ACTIVITY.

BY
JAMES P. BOYD, A.M., L.B.,

_Assisted by a Corps of Thirty-Two Eminent and Specially Qualified
Authors._

Copiously and Magnificently Illustrated.

PHILADELPHIA
A. J. HOLMAN & CO.

COPYRIGHT, 1899, BY W. H. ISBISTER.
_All Rights Reserved._

COPYRIGHT, 1901, BY W. H. ISBISTER.

INTRODUCTORY

Measuring epochs, or eras, by spaces of a hundred years each, that which embraces the nineteenth century stands out in sublime and encouraging contrast with any that has preceded it. As the legatee of all prior centuries, it has enlarged and ennobled its bequest to an extent unparalleled in history; while it has at the same time, through a genius and energy peculiar to itself, created an original endowment for its own enjoyment and for the future richer by far than any heretofore recorded. Indeed, without permitting existing and pardonable pride to endanger rigid truth, it may be said that along many of the lines of invention and progress which have most intimately affected the life and civilization of the world, the nineteenth century has achieved triumphs and accomplished wonders equal, if not superior, to all other centuries combined.

Therefore, what more fitting time than at its close to pass in pleasing and instructive review the numerous material and intellectual achievements that have so distinguished it, and have contributed in so many and such marvelous ways to the great advance and genuine comfort of the human race! Or, what could prove a greater source of pride and profit than to compare its glorious works with those of the past, the better to understand and measure the actual steps and real extent of the progress of mankind! Or, what more delightful and inspiring than to realize that the sum of those wonderful activities, of which each reader is, or has been, a part, has gone to increase the grandeur of a world era whose rays will penetrate and brighten the coming centuries!

Amid so many and such strong reasons this volume finds excellent cause for its being. Its aims are to mirror a wonderful century from the vantage ground of its closing year; to faithfully trace the lines which mark its almost magical advance; to give it that high and true historic place whence its contrasts with the past can be best noted, and its light upon the future most directly thrown.

This task would be clearly beyond the power of a single mind. So rapid has progress been during some parts of the century, so amazing have been results along the lines of discovery and invention, so various have been the fields of action, that only those of special knowledge and training could be expected to do full justice to the many subjects to be treated.

Hence, the work has been planned so as to give it a value far beyond what could be imparted by a single mind. Each of the themes chosen to type the century’s grand march has been treated by an author of special fitness, and high up in his or her profession or calling, with a view to securing for readers the best thoughts and facts relating to the remarkable events of an hundred years. In this respect the volume is unique and original. Its authorship is not of one mind, but of a corps of minds, whose union assures what the occasion demands.

The scope, character, and value of the volume further appear in its very large number and practical feature of subjects selected to show the active forces, the upward and onward movements, and the grand results that have operated within, and triumphantly crowned, an era without parallel. These subjects embrace the sciences of the century in their numerous divisions and conquests; its arts and literature; industrial, commercial, and financial progress; land and sea prowess; educational, social, moral, and religious growth; in fact, every field of enterprise and achievement within the space of time covered by the work.

A volume of such variety of subject and great extent affords fine opportunity for illustration. The publishers have taken full advantage of this, and have beautified it in a manner which commends itself to every eye and taste. Rarely has a volume been so highly and elegantly embellished. Each subject is illuminated so as to increase the pleasure of reading and make an impression which will prove lasting.

As to its aim and scope, its number of specially qualified authors, its vigor and variety of style and thought, its historic comprehensiveness and exactness, its great wealth of illustration, its superb mechanism, its various other striking features, the volume may readily rank as one of the century’s triumphs, a wonder of industrious preparation, and acceptable to all. At any rate, no such volume has ever mirrored any previous century, and none will come to reflect the nineteenth century with truer line and color.

Not only is the work a rare and costly picture, filled in with inspiring details by master hands, but it is equally a monument, whose solid base, grand proportions, and elegant finish are in keeping with the spirit of the era it marks and the results it honors. Its every inscription is a glowing tribute to human achievement of whatever kind and wherever the field of action may lie, and therefore a happy means of conveying to twentieth century actors the story of a time whose glories they will find it hard to excel. May this picture and monument be viewed, studied, and admired by all, so that the momentous chapters which round the history of a closing century shall avail in shaping the beginnings of a succeeding one.

AUTHORS AND SUBJECTS

JAMES P. BOYD, A. M., L. B.,
WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY.

REAR-ADMIRAL GEORGE WALLACE MELVILLE,
_Chief of Bureau of Steam Engineering, Navy Department,
Washington, D. C._
THE CENTURY’S NAVAL PROGRESS.

SELDEN J. COFFIN, A. M.,
_Professor of Astronomy, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa._
ASTRONOMY DURING THE CENTURY.

THOMAS MEEHAN,
_Vice-President Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia_.
STORY OF PLANT AND FLOWER.

MARY ELIZABETH LEASE,
_First Woman President of Kansas State Board of Charities_.
PROGRESS OF WOMEN WITHIN THE CENTURY.

ROBERT P. HAINS,
_Principal Examiner of Textiles, United States Patent Office,
Washington, D. C._
THE CENTURY’S TEXTILE PROGRESS.

GEORGE EDWARD REED, S. T. D., LL. D.,
_President of Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa._
THE CENTURY’S RELIGIOUS PROGRESS.

JAMES P. BOYD, A. M., L. B.,
GREAT GROWTH OF LIBRARIES.

WILLIAM MARTIN AIKEN, F. A. I. A.,
_Former United States Supervising Architect, Treasury Department,
Washington, D. C._
PROGRESS OF THE CENTURY IN ARCHITECTURE.

HARVEY W. WILEY, M. D., PH. D., LL. D.,
_Chief Chemist of Division of Chemistry, Agricultural Department,
Washington, D. C._
THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN CHEMISTRY.

RITER FITZGERALD, A. M.,
_Dramatic Critic “City Item,” Philadelphia_.
THE CENTURY’S MUSIC AND DRAMA.

JAMES P. BOYD, A. M., L. B.,
THE CENTURY’S LITERATURE.

MORRIS JASTROW, JR., PH. D.,
_Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania_.
THE RECORDS OF THE PAST.

MAJOR HENRY E. ALVORD, C. E., LL. D.,
_Chief of Dairy Division, United States Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C._
PROGRESS IN DAIRY FARMING.

SARA Y. STEVENSON, Sc. D.,
_Secretary of Department of Archæology and Paleontology,
University of Pennsylvania_.
THE CENTURY’S MORAL PROGRESS.

CHARLES McINTIRE, A. M., M. D.,
_Lecturer on Sanitary Science, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa._
PROGRESS OF SANITARY SCIENCE.

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL ARTHUR L. WAGNER,
_Assistant Adjutant General United States Army_.
THE CENTURY’S ARMIES AND ARMS.

WALDO F. BROWN,
_Agricultural Editor “Cincinnati Gazette.”_
THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE.

WALTER LORING WEBB, C. E.,
_Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Pennsylvania_.
PROGRESS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING.

D. E. SALMON, M. D.,
_Chief of Bureau of Animal Industry, Agricultural Department,
Washington, D. C._
THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN THE ANIMAL WORLD.

MAJOR-GENERAL JOSEPH WHEELER,
_United States Army, and Member of Congress from Eighth Alabama
District_.
LEADING WARS OF THE CENTURY.

GEORGE J. HAGAR,
_Editor of Appendix to Encyclopædia Britannica_.
THE CENTURY’S FAIRS AND EXPOSITIONS.

HON. BRADFORD RHODES,
_Editor of “Banker’s Magazine.”_
THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN COINAGE, CURRENCY, AND BANKING.

H. E. VAN DEMAN,
_Late Professor of Botany and Practical Horticulture, Kansas State
Agricultural College_.
THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN FRUIT CULTURE.

EMORY R. JOHNSON, A. M.,
_Assistant Professor of Transportation and Commerce, University of
Pennsylvania_.
THE CENTURY’S COMMERCIAL PROGRESS.

FRANKLIN S. EDMONDS, A. M.,
_Assistant Professor of Political Science, Central High School,
Philadelphia_.
THE CENTURY’S ADVANCES IN EDUCATION.

THOMAS J. LINDSEY,
_Editorial Staff Philadelphia “Evening Bulletin.”_
“THE ART PRESERVATIVE.”

GEORGE A. PACKARD,
_Metallurgist and Mining Engineer_.
PROGRESS IN MINES AND MINING.

JOHN V. SEARS,
_Art Critic Philadelphia “Evening Telegraph.”_
ART PROGRESS OF THE CENTURY.

J. MADISON TAYLOR, M. D., AND
JOHN H. GIBBON, M. D.,
_Surgeons Out-Patients Departments of Pennsylvania and Children’s
Hospitals_.
THE CENTURY’S ADVANCE IN SURGERY.

FRANK C. HAMMOND, M. D.,
_Instructor in Gynæcology, Jefferson Medical College_.
PROGRESS OF MEDICINE.

E. E. RUSSELL TRATMAN, C. E.,
_Assistant Editor of “Engineering News,” Chicago, Ill._
EVOLUTION OF THE RAILROAD.

LUTHER E. HEWITT, L. B.,
_Librarian of Philadelphia Law Association_.
ADVANCE IN LAW AND JUSTICE.

MICHAEL J. BROWN,
_Secretary of Building Association League of Pennsylvania_.
PROGRESS OF BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS.

REV. A. LEFFINGWELL,
_Rector Trinity Church, Toledo, O._
EPOCH MAKERS OF THE CENTURY.

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY

I. AT THE DAWN OF THE CENTURY:—Earliest Observations on Electricity
—Study of Amber—Earliest Electric Machines—Conduction of
Electricity—The Leyden Jar—Franklin’s Discoveries. II. NEW
NINETEENTH CENTURY ELECTRICITY:—Galvanism—The Voltaic Pile
—Davy’s Arc-light—The Electro-magnet—Faraday’s Discoveries
—The Induction Coil—Fields of Force. III. THE TELEGRAPH:—
First Successful Telegraphy—The Morse System—Improvements
in Telegraphy—Ocean Telegraphy. IV. HELLO! HELLO!—Invention
of the Telephone—Principle of the Telephone—Transmitter and
Receiver—Uses of the Telephone—The Phonograph, Gramophone, and
Graphophone. V. DYNAMO AND MOTOR:—The First Motor—Perfection
of the Dynamo—How it generates Electricity—Principle and
Uses of the Motor. VI. “AND THERE WAS LIGHT:”—Various Lights of
the Past—Era of Electric Lighting—Arc and Incandescent Lamps
—Principles of Each—Value of Electric Light. VII. ELECTRIC
LOCOMOTION:—Passing of the Horse and Traction Car—Introduction
of the Trolley—Features of the Electric Railway—The Storage
Battery and Horseless Carriage. VIII. THE X RAY:—Discovery of
—What the X Ray is—Photographing by Means of the X Ray. IX.
OTHER ELECTRICAL WONDERS:—Electric Clocks—Electrotyping and
Electroplating, etc. X. ELECTRICAL LANGUAGE 19–54

THE CENTURY’S NAVAL PROGRESS

I. INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER:—Sea Powers throughout the World—
Enumeration of Great Naval Wars. II. THE CENTURY’S GROWTH IN NAVAL
STRENGTH:—American Navies at Different Eras—European Fleets
—South American and Chinese Navies. III. THE BATTLESHIP PAST AND
PRESENT:—The Old Fighting Frigate—Evolution of the Modern
Man-of-War—Comparison of Frigate with Ironclad. IV. PROGRESS OF
NAVAL ENGINEERING:—Nelson’s Vision—The 14,500 Miles Steaming of
the Oregon—Revolution in Mechanism and Material—Types of Great
Battleships—Introduction and Advantages of Steam—Invention
of the Screw Propeller—Improvement in Boilers and Engines—
The Revolving Turret—Cruiser and Torpedo Craft—Phenomenal
Speed. V. THE GROWTH OF ORDNANCE:—Description of Various Guns and
Projectiles—Power of Modern Explosives. VI. THE DEVELOPMENT OF
ARMOR:—Its Necessity in Naval Warfare—How it is made, tested,
and put on. VII. THE RAM AND TORPEDO:—Evolution of the Ram—
Introduction of the Torpedo—Various Kinds of Torpedoes. VIII. THE
UNITED STATES FLEET:—Whence it sprang and how it has grown—Its
Ships, Officers, and Men—Official Naval Ranks—The Naval Academy
—Passage of the United States to a World Power 55–86

ASTRONOMY DURING THE CENTURY

I. ASTRONOMY A CENTURY AGO:—Discovery of Uranus. II. HOW “BODE’S
LAW” PROMOTED RESEARCH:—Further Discovery of Planets—Celestial
Photography. III. HOW NEPTUNE WAS FOUND:—Le Verrier, “First
Astronomer of the Age.” IV. METEORITES:—Meteoric Showers—
Various Large Meteorites. V. DO METEORS OFTEN STRIKE THE EARTH:
—The “Fire-ball” of 1860. VI. ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORIES:
—Their Equipment and Work—Number of Observatories. VII.
IMPROVED INSTRUMENTS:—Their Effect on the Science. VIII. THE
SPECTROSCOPE:—Its Triumphs—Elements discovered. IX. WORK
IN A LARGE OBSERVATORY:—Discovery of Comets and Nebulæ. X.
WASHINGTON NATIONAL OBSERVATORY:—Its Instruments. XI. STAR
MAPS AND CATALOGUES:—Number of Stars—The Planisphere. XII.
ASTRONOMICAL BOOKS AND WRITERS:—Number of Students of Astronomy.
XIII. PRACTICAL USES OF ASTRONOMY:—Its Help in Navigation—Uses
in Geodesy. XIV. NOTABLE ASTRONOMICAL EPOCHS:—Clock Regulation
—Invention of Chronograph and Spectroscope—Great Telescopes.
XV. DISCARDED THEORIES:—Are Planets inhabited—The Orrery. XVI.
FUTURE ASTRONOMICAL PROBLEMS:—How long will the Sun endure? 87–104

STORY OF PLANT AND FLOWER

Early History of Botany—The Father of Modern Botany—Botany
at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century—Natural System of
Classification—Advance in Study of Plant Behavior—Illustrations
from the Peanut and Grape-vine—Plant Motions as regards Forms—
Origin and Development of Plant Life—The Doctrine of Evolution
—Nutrition of Plants—Fertilization of Flowers—Insectivorous
and Cruel Plants—Vegetable Physiology—Advance in Relation to
Cryptogamic Plants—Geographical Botany—Herbariums and Botanical
Gardens 105–114

PROGRESS OF WOMEN WITHIN THE CENTURY

Woman’s Misconception of her Rights—Former Oppression—Cosmic and
Moral Processes—What Christianity has done for Women—Hardship
of the Pauline Grip—The True Mission of Woman—Improvement in
her Education—Female Occupations—Competition with Men—Woman
in the Literary Field—In Philanthropy and Morals—Women’s Clubs
—Woman in Politics—The constantly Broadening Field of Woman’s
Influence 115–124

THE CENTURY’S TEXTILE PROGRESS

Antiquity of Textile Industry—The Distaff, Spindle, and Loom among
Chinese, Egyptians, and Greeks—Introduction of the Spinning-wheel
—Loom of the Eighteenth Century—The Fly-shuttle—Textiles at
the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century—Invention of the Spinning
Jenny—Arkwright’s Drawing-rollers—Whitney’s Cotton-gin—Its
Influence—Invention of the Spinning-mule—The Spinning-frame
—Rapid Improvements in Spinning Machinery—Evolution of the
Spindle—Increase of Speed—Introduction of the Carding-machine
—Carding-combs—Advent of Power-looms—Description of their
Machinery and Products—The Jacquard Loom—Of Pile Fabrics—The
Bigelow Loom—How Tufted Pile Fabrics are made—Weaving of Fancy
Cloths—Various Forms of Looms—Hair-cloth Looms—Weaving of
Tubular Fabrics—Infinitude of Uses to which the Loom can be put—
The Coming Automatic Loom—Advent of the Knitting-machine—Its
Wonderful Perfection and Products—The Century’s Patents of Textile
Machinery—Beauty of Textile Art—Its Influence on Taste and
Comfort 125–146

THE CENTURY’S RELIGIOUS PROGRESS

Religious Status in Eighteenth Century, in England, France, and on
the Continent—Condition in the United States—The Reign of
Skepticism—Doctrinal Divisions in the Churches—The Nineteenth
Century Revival—Variety and Growth of Religions in the United
States—Freedom of the Church—Kinship of Denominations—
Increase in Material and Spiritual Forces—Church Edifices and
Capacities—Religious Population—Number of Communicants
—Distribution of Communicants—Ministers and Organizations
—Missionary Enterprises—Service of Religion in Education,
Philanthropy, and Reform—Gifts to Educational Institutions
—Growth of Charitable Institutions—Religion and Republican
Institutions 147–158

GREAT GROWTH OF LIBRARIES

Antiquity of Libraries—Evidences of Civilized Progress—Character
of Ancient Writings—Books of Clay—Mesopotamian Literature
—Egyptian Hieroglyphics—Papyrus Manuscripts—Sacred Books
of Thoth—Greek Libraries—Their Number and Extent—Roman
Libraries—Imperial Library of Constantinople—Effects of
Christianity upon Literature—Church Book-making and Collecting—
All Books written or copied by Priests—Fate of Monastic Libraries
—Early Libraries in France—Royal Libraries in Europe—The
French National Library—Introduction of Copyright—Growth and
Extent of European Libraries—Their Location and Management—The
British Museum—Libraries of Great Britain—Canadian Libraries
—English Colonial Libraries—Libraries of the Latin Republics
—Phenomenal Growth of Libraries in the United States—Wide
Ramification of the System—The Oldest United States Library—
Colonial Libraries—Libraries of 1800—Number founded during the
Century—State Libraries—School-district Libraries—Library
Systems—The Library of Congress—Its Vast Extent and New
Repository—Copyright System—United States Free Libraries—
Noted Libraries of the Country—Libraries of over 100,000 Volumes
—Munificence of Library Founders—Noted Givers to Libraries—
Progress in Library Management 159–170

PROGRESS OF THE CENTURY IN ARCHITECTURE

English Architecture at the Beginning of the Century—The Queen
Anne Style—French Architecture and Architects—Architectural
Styles in Germany, Austria, Italy, Greece, Turkey, and throughout
Europe—Canadian Styles and Notable Buildings—Early Architecture
in the United States—Old New England and Southern Homes—The
Colonial Styles—The White House and United States Capitol—
Progress in Public Building Architecture—Notable Changes after
the War of 1812—The Gothic Cottage and Italian Villa—The
First School of Architecture—Comparison of Styles in Different
Cities—Introduction of Iron—Styles for Hotels and Summer
Resorts—Effect of Chicago and Boston Fires on Architecture—
How the Centennial Exposition changed Styles—Church and Library
Architecture—The Congressional Library and Other Notable Specimens
of American Architecture—Advent of the Sky-scraper—General
Review of Architectural Effects—Monumental Works the Poetry of
Architecture 171–190

THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN CHEMISTRY

Status of Chemical Science at Beginning of the Century—The Century’s
Main Lines of Progress: I. INORGANIC AND PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY:—
Lavoisier’s Cardinal Propositions—Rapid Advance of Chemical
Science—Sir Humphrey Davy’s Achievements—Elementary Bodies
of Eighteenth Century—Same in Nineteenth Century. II. PHYSICAL
CHEMISTRY:—Properties of Elements—Of Matter and Energy—Rates
of Reaction—Conditions of Equilibrium. III. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY:
—Of Carbon Compounds—Theory of Substitution—Atoms in the
Molecule—Space Relations—The Carbon Atom—The Organic
Body. IV. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY:—Development of the Blow-pipe—
Gas Analysis—Electricity as a Factor—Discovery of Spectrum
Analysis. V. SYNTHETICAL CHEMISTRY:—Building up of Complex Forms
—Synthesis of Coloring Matters and Sugars—Future Food of Man.
VI. METALLURGICAL CHEMISTRY:—Oldest Branch of Chemical Science
—Reduction of Ores—Advantage to Agriculture. VII. AGRICULTURAL
CHEMISTRY:—Utilization of Fertilizers—Nitrogen as a Plant Food
—Advantages to Practical Agriculture. VIII. GRAPHIC CHEMISTRY:
—Fundamental Principles—Daguerreotype and Photograph. IX.
DIDACTIC CHEMISTRY:—The Student and the Laboratory—Advantages
of Laboratory Training. X. CHEMISTRY OF FERMENTATION:—Bacterial
Action—Process of Digestion—Decay of Meats and Vegetables—
Sterilization—Fermentation. XI. ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY:—Combination
of Carbon with Metals—Uses of Electricity in Chemistry.
CONCLUSION. 191–206

THE CENTURY’S MUSIC AND DRAMA

I. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY MUSIC:—Leading Composers—Nineteenth
Century Music—The Great Composers and their Works—Different
Schools and Styles of Composition—Analysis of Operas—Musical
Characteristics of the Nations—Verdi and Wagner compared—
The American Opera. II. THE DRAMA:—The Theatre of the Past—
Great Modern Improvement—Scenery and Appointments—Actors and
Actresses—The Century’s Illustrious Role—Theatres in the
United States—Character of Actors—Public Estimation of the
Drama 207–214

THE CENTURY’S LITERATURE

Contrast with Eighteenth Century Literature—Tone of Modern
Literature—How it types Progress—English Literature—
Literature of Other Nations—Various Authors—English Criticism
of American Literature—Newspaper Literature—Evolution of
the Newspaper—Newspapers of the Nations—Nineteenth Century
Journalism—Beginning of Newspaper Enterprise in the United States
—Colonial Papers—Papers of the Revolution—Appearance of
the Daily—The Penny Press—Newspaper Growth up to 1861—War
Journalism—The Sunday Newspaper—Illustrated Journalism—
Reaction in Newspaper Prices—Cost of running a Newspaper—Number
of World’s Newspapers—The Comic Paper—Evolution of the Magazine
—Growth of Magazine in the United States—Character of Magazine
Literature—Advent of the Cheap Magazine—Features of
Publication 215–230

THE RECORDS OF THE PAST

Extension of Knowledge into the Past—Spade of the Archæologist—
General View of the Revelations—Documents of Stone, Clay, and
Papyrus—Assyrian Revelations—Egyptian Explorations—Eloquence
of Obelisk, Tomb, and Pyramid—Cuneiform Scripts of Babylon—
Discovery of the Rosetta Stone—Champollion’s Key—Story of
the Ruins in Greece and Rome—Revelation of Temples and Statues
—Phœnician Remains—The Moabite Stone—Ruins in Palestine—
Revelations in Jerusalem—Hittite Remains—Continuing Interest in
Archæological Discovery—Vast Importance from an Historic Point of
View 231–244

PROGRESS IN DAIRY FARMING

Requisites for Successful Dairying—Enterprise of Dairying Districts
—Advantages of Dairying—Dairying Areas—Dairying at the
Beginning of the Century—Early Methods—The Great Change
midway of the Century—Improvement in Milch Cows—Growth of
Cheese-Making—Institution of Creameries—Application of
Mechanics to Dairying—Dairy Associations—Best Dairy Breeds—
Invention of the Separator—Its Operation and Advantages—The
Fat-test for Milk—Growth in Butter-making Illustrated—Labor
in Dairying—Dairy and Food Commissions—Dairying Publications
—City Milk Supplies—Annual Production of Cheese—Character
of Cheeses—Annual Butter Product—Butter and Cheese-producing
States—Number and Value of Cows—Dairy Values as compared with
Value of Other Products—Necessity for guarding Dairy
Interests. 245–260

THE CENTURY’S MORAL PROGRESS

Morals among the Ancients—Moral Precepts common to all Communities
—Evolution of Ethics—Early Christian Morals—Spirit of the
Reformation—Low Moral Condition of the Eighteenth Century—Birth
of a New Moral Epoch—A National Conscience—Abolition of Slavery
—Larger Application of the Principles of Right and Justice—How
Women are affected—Effect of Invention and Education on Social
and Moral Conditions—Broadening of Woman’s Sphere—Increase of
Self-respect—Influence of Women on Moral Status—Legislation and
Morals—How to meet Ethical Problems—Business Success and the
Moral State—Rights and Duties of Capital and Labor—Cruelties
of War and Blessings of Peace—The Century’s Moral Gain—Changed
Treatment of Vice and Poverty—The Principle of Well-doing—
Growth of Tolerance and Altruism—A Higher Individual and Public
Conscience 261–270

PROGRESS OF SANITARY SCIENCE

Hygienic Code of Moses—Hippocrates and Disease—Sanitation
and Sanitary Science—Foundation Rules—Spirit of Scientific
Investigation—Effect of Act of Parliament of 1837—Value of
Official Figures—The Riddle of Samson—Health Reports in
United States—Duty of Separate States—Mortality in London of
Filth Diseases—Progress of Sanitation—Diminution of Scourges
—Effect of Sanitation upon the Weak and Helpless—Value of
Culture Tubes—Discovery of Disease Causes—Of Trichinæ in Pork
—Communicable Diseases caused by Living Organisms—Infectious
and Contagious Diseases—Uses of Biology in Sanitary Science—
Purification of Waters—Of Consumption and Cholera—Effects of
Filtration—What Bacteria are—Of Isolation and Disinfection—
Modern Quarantines—Fumigation of Ships—Lowering of Death Rates
—Influence of the Sanitarium—Improved Construction of Dwellings
—Care for Paving and Sewage—Disposal of Refuse—Of Food
Inspection—State Boards of Health—Care of Employees—Of Play
and Athletic Grounds—Public Breathing Spaces—Duty of Caring for
Personal Health—Bearing of Public Health on Community and
Nation 271–282

THE CENTURY’S ARMIES AND ARMS

Armies and Arms of the Eighteenth Century—Alteration in War Methods
—European Army Systems—Changes made by Napoleon—Battle
Weapons and Tactical Movements—Growing Use of Cannon—The
Congreve Rocket—Infantry Formations—The Introduction of the
Rifle—The Crimean War and Rifled Siege Guns—The Italian War
and Rifled Cannon—Advent of the Breech-loader—Introduction
of Heavy Guns—Arms and Tactics in the Civil War—Use of Steam
and Electricity in War—Advantage of Railroad and Telegraph—
Introduction of Armored Vessels—Siege Artillery—Advent of the
Machine Gun—New System of Entrenchment—German Military System
—Coming of the Needle Gun—French Military System—Comparison
of Russian and Turkish Methods—Strength of the World’s Armies—
United States Army Organization—Steel Guns and Smokeless Powder
—Improvement in Mortars—The Dynamite Gun—Modern Shrapnel—
Sea-Coast Guns—Perfection of Modern Rifles—Their Great Range
and Power—The Gatling Gun—The Maxim Automatic—Introduction
of the Torpedo—General Review of the Increase in Military
Efficiency 283–306

THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE

I. VICISSITUDES OF EARLY FARMING:—First National Road—Canal
Building—Coming of Railroads—Farming Conditions before the
50’s—Hardships of Marketing. II. IMPROVEMENTS IN FARM IMPLEMENTS
AND MACHINERY:—Farmers’ Draft upon Nature—The Sickle, Flail,
and Cradle—Coming of Harvesters—Improvement in Threshers
—Portable and Traction Engines—Separators and Stackers—
Improvements in Other Implements. III. IMPROVEMENT IN STOCK:—
Various Breeds of Cattle—Breeding of Horses, Sheep, and Swine
—Best Breeds. IV. IMPROVEMENT IN FARMING METHODS:—In Drainage
—Care of Animals—Barns and Stabling—Proper Food Rations
—Fencing. V. HOME IMPROVEMENTS:—Home Architecture—The
Yard and Garden—Maintaining Soil Fertility—Proper Manures
—Soil Analysis—Use of Modern Fertilizers. VI. IMPROVEMENT IN
AGRICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE:—Agricultural Literature—Farmers’ Clubs
and Institutes—Granges—Agricultural Colleges—Experimental
Stations—The Department of Agriculture—Bureau of Animal
Industry—Agricultural Newspapers and Periodicals—Summary of
Agricultural Progress 307–338

PROGRESS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

I. AN INTRODUCTORY VIEW:—Antiquity of Engineering—Ancient Roads
and Bridges—Nineteenth Century Advances. II. BRIDGES:—Primitive
Bridges—Iron and Steel Bridges—The Brooklyn Bridge—Niagara
Suspension Bridge—Pecos River Viaduct—The Forth Bridge—
Remarkable Arches—Stone Bridges. III. CAISSONS:—Invention of
the Caisson—Its Principle and Use—Caisson Adventures. IV.
CANALS:—The First Suez Canal—Nicaragua and Panama Canals
—Modern Suez Canal—The Manchester Canal—Chicago Drainage
Canal—What it is for. V. GEODESY:—Ancient Methods of Earth
Measurements—The Century’s Advance in Methods of Measurement.
VI. RAILROADS:—Their Invention and Development—Immense Value.
VII. TUNNELS:—Ancient Origin of—Tunnels of Egypt, Babylonia,
and India—Roman Tunnels—Of the Modern Tunnel—Advance in
Machinery and Constructive Processes—Mount Cenis Tunnel—Tunnel
Surveying and Excavating—The Hoosac Tunnel—St. Gothard Tunnel
—St. Clair Tunnel—Its Construction and Commercial Effects 339–360

THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN THE ANIMAL WORLD

I. OF ANIMAL DISEASES:—Effect of Napoleonic Wars—Various
Animal Diseases—How controlled. II. INCREASE IN NUMBER OF
ANIMALS:—Showing in Europe, United States, and Other Countries.
III. IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS:—Shortening the Time of Growth—
Development of Dairy and Beef Breeds—Improvement in Wool Growing
—Poultry Breeds—Thoroughbred Horses—The American Trotter—
Animal Exports—Foreign Animal Imports—Displacement of Horses by
Mechanical Motors—Prices of Animal Products—American Command of
World’s Animal Markets 361–374

LEADING WARS OF THE CENTURY

I. WARS OF THE UNITED STATES:—First War with Barbary States—
Indian Wars—War of 1812—Battles by Land and Sea—Exploits on
the Lakes—Victory of New Orleans—Second War with Barbary States
—The Mexican War—General Taylor’s Victories—Siege of Vera
Cruz—General Scott’s March and Battles—Capture of Mexico—
Results of the War—The Civil War, 1861–65—Secession of States
—Calling out the Armies—Building of the Navies—The First
Battles—Operations in 1862—Battles of 1863—The Emancipation
Proclamation—The Turning Point at Gettysburg—Opening of the
Mississippi—Chickamauga and Missionary Ridge—Battles of 1864
—Appomattox and Surrender—The Spanish-American War—Its
Causes—Destruction of Spanish Fleet in Manila Bay—Destruction
of Cervera’s Fleet—Capitulation of Santiago—Invasion of Porto
Rico. II. FOREIGN WARS:—Wars of Napoleon—Battle of Marengo
—Treaty of Amiens—Third Coalition against France—Battle of
Austerlitz—Nelson’s Victory at Trafalgar—Wars of the Fourth
Coalition—Wars of the Fifth Coalition—Wars of the Sixth
Coalition—Battle of Waterloo—Final Defeat of Napoleon—Greek
Wars for Independence—Battle of Navarino—Greek Independence—
French Revolution of 1830—Polish Insurrection—England’s Wars in
India—French Republic of 1848—Hungarian Wars for Independence
—Italian Wars—The Crimean War—Sebastopol and Balaklava—
Peace of Paris—The Indian Mutiny—Wars of the Alliance against
Austria—Battle of Solferino—Danish Wars—Wars for German
Unity—Verdict of Sadowa—The Franco-Prussian War—Siege and
Capture of Paris—The French Republic—The Turco-Russian War—
Chino-Japanese War—Greco-Turkish War—Interference of the Powers
—Wars in the Soudan—Review of the Century’s Martial
Results 375–420

THE CENTURY’S FAIRS AND EXPOSITIONS

The Primitive Fair—Growth and Influence of Fairs—Their History
in Different Countries—Of Agricultural Fairs, Societies, and
Institutes—Their Origin and Purpose—National and State
Agricultural Departments—Sanitary Fairs—Special Exhibitions
—Evolution of International Expositions—The First World’s
Exposition at London—Expositions at Dublin, Paris, New York—
Continental Expositions—Second and Third Expositions at London
and Paris—The Vienna Exposition—The Centennial at Philadelphia
—Description of Subsequent Expositions at Atlanta, Louisville, New
Orleans, Chicago, Nashville, and Omaha—The American Commercial
Museums 421–442

THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN COINAGE, CURRENCY, AND BANKING

I. BANKS AND BANKING RESOURCES:—Banks as Gauges of Wealth—
Civilization reflected in Monetary Machinery—Features of United
States Financial Policy—Gold Store of Various Countries—
Banking Resources—Number and Resources of Banks. II. COINAGE
AND PRODUCTION OF PRECIOUS METALS:—Why Gold is a Standard—
Primitive Measures of Value—History of Coinage—First United
States Mint—Coin Ratios—Gold and Silver Production and Mintage
—Exports and Imports of Precious Metals—Circulation per Capita
—Coinage Act of 1873. III. EARLY BANKING IN THE UNITED STATES:
—First Banking Associations—First United States Bank and its
Branches—Early State Banks—Second United States Bank—How
it fell—State Banks and Independent Treasury. IV. HISTORY OF
LEGAL TENDER NOTES:—The Treasury Reserve—Treasury Notes—
Manner of Issue and Redemption. V. THE NATIONAL BANKING SYSTEM:—
Formation of National Banks—Law’s and Regulations—Number and
Circulation. VI. FOREIGN BANKING AND FINANCE:—Banks of England and
the Continent of Europe—Their Strength and Methods. VII. UNITED
STATES GOVERNMENT DEBT SINCE 1857:—Gross Receipts and Expenditures
—Interest Charges. VIII. POSTAL SAVINGS BANKS:—Why they are not
adopted in the United States. IX. SAVINGS BANKS IN THE UNITED
STATES:—Their Number and Strength. X. THE CLEARING HOUSE:—How
conducted—Its Economic Uses. XI. PANICS OF THE CENTURY AND
THEIR CAUSES 443–470

THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN FRUIT CULTURE

Early Cultivation of Fruits—Beauty and Uses of Fruits—Fruits
brought to the New World—Culture at the Beginning of the Century
—Early Fruit Districts—The Experimental Stage—Pioneers in
Culture—The Age of Progress—First Commercial Orchards—The
Age of Triumph—Spread of Culture in Various States and Areas—
Revolution in Science of Fruit Growing—Success and Failure of
Different Species—Vine Culture—Improved Culture with Implements
—Home Consumption and Export of Fruits—Our Fruits a Favorite
in Europe—Apple Culture—Uses of Apples—Typical Orchards—
Notable Varieties—Extent of Apple Orchards—Apple Exports—
Progress in the Culture of Other Fruits—Varieties and Best Soils
—History and Progress of Berry Culture—The Citrous Fruits—
Where and how grown—Their Great Value to Man—General Review of
Fruit Culture and Fruits 471–490

THE CENTURY’S COMMERCIAL PROGRESS

I. WORLD’S COMMERCE AT END OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY:—Methods of Traffic
—Volume of Trade. II. REVOLUTION IN COMMERCE:—Change from Sails
to Steam—First Ocean Steamers—Steamship Lines—Change from
Wood to Iron—The Compound Engine—Advent of Steel Vessels—
The Twin Screw—Immense Size of Ships—Their Great Velocity—
Appointment and Service. III. IMPROVEMENT IN COMMERCIAL AUXILIARIES:
—Betterment of Waterways—Ship Canals—Harbor Improvements—
Cable and Banking Facilities. IV. EXPANSION OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE:
—European Commercial Growth—Food Importations. V. TRADE OF THE
UNITED STATES:—Extent of Domestic and Foreign—Vast Extension
—Imports and Exports—Character of. VI. THE AMERICAN MARINE:—
Former Carrying Trade—Modern Carrying Trade—Decline of United
States Maritime Importance. VII. AMERICAN SHIPBUILDING. VIII. CAUSES
FOR THE CENTURY’S COMMERCIAL PROGRESS:—Economic, Political, and
Social Causes. IX. THE TWENTIETH CENTURY PROSPECT 491–514

EDUCATION DURING THE CENTURY

Education a Hundred Years ago—Pestalozzi’s Influence—Froebel’s
Kindergarten System—Its Introduction into the United States—
English and German Schools—Great European Teachers—Foundation
of Public School Systems in the United States—The Battles for
Public Schools—Immensity of Common School Systems—Number
of Schools and Pupils—Expenditure for Schools—Primitive
Schoolhouses—Old-time Teachers and Methods—The Modern
Schoolhouse—Improvements in Teachers and Methods—Of the High
School—College and University—Teachers’ Institutes—State
Associations—School Publications—National Bureau of Education
—Normal Schools—Teachers’ Salaries—Girls’ Seminaries—
Change to Female Teachers—Modern School Furnishings—Text-books
—University Courses of Lectures—Schools of Manual Training and
Business—Education of the Negro Race—Experiment of Booker T.
Washington—School Funds—Compulsory Education 515–542

“THE ART PRESERVATIVE”

I. THE PRINTING PRESS:—Printing Art in the Eighteenth Century—
Franklin’s Influence—The Hand Press—Various Improved Presses
—Coming of the Power Press—Order of the Countries in Printing
Progress—Impetus to Printing in the United States—Wonderful
Improvement in Presses—How a Swift-motioned Press operates—
Quadruple Presses—Printing, Folding, and Pasting—Counting and
Delivering—The Sextuple Press—Its Wonderful Achievements—
Color Printing Presses. II. THE SETTING OF TYPE:—The Art at the
Beginning of the Century—Dawn of Mechanical Composition—First
Type-setting Machines—The Linotype—How it sets Type. III. OTHER
EVENTS IN THE PRINTING LINE:—Old Methods of spreading News—
Modern Electric Methods—Cables and Overland Wires—Vast Extent
of Newspapers—Code Systems. IV. TYPE-MAKING, STEREOTYPING, AND
PICTURE-MAKING:—From Wood to Metal Type—Introduction of the
Type Foundry—The Stereotyping Process—How it preserves Type
—Introduction of Electrotyping—Its Advantages in Printing—
Disappearance of Wood Engraving—The Art of Illustration—Triumph
of Mechanical Processes in Printing—Tendency of the Future 543–570

PROGRESS IN MINES AND MINING

Search for American Mines—Progress of Mining prior to 1800—
Methods at Beginning of the Century—Coal Mining Methods—
Hoisting and Ventilation—Introduction of Steam—European and
South American Mines—Mining in the United States—Opening of
Mines—Various Working Appliances—Invention of Davy’s Safety
Lamp—The Safety Fuse—Mine Elevators—Mining at the Middle of
the Century—Gold and Copper Mines of United States—Uses of Man
Engine—Hoisting Machines—Pumping Engines—Introduction of
Machine and Dynamite—Uses of Compressed Air—Mine Ventilation—
Improved Fans—Coal-cutting Machines—Placer and Hydraulic Mining
for Gold—The Timbering of Mines—Lake Superior Iron Mining—
Room Mining—Rise of Mining Schools and Societies—Mining Laws
in England and United States—Unwise Action of Congress—Mining
Claims and Rights—Miners’ Qualifications 571–586

ART PROGRESS OF THE CENTURY

I. PAINTING:—Effect of the French Revolution on Fine Art—Rapid
Advance of French Art—Artists and their Works—Revolution
of 1830—English Art and Artists—Landscape Art—Millet’s
“Angelus”—The Landseer Family—Ruskin’s Influence on English
Art—Edwin Abbey as a Colorist—Works of Rosa Bonheur—Later
English Masters—Continental Artists—American Masters—Rise of
American Art Schools—Their Influence on Art—Some Distinguished
Schools—Era of Excessive Coloring—American Landscapes—Women
Artists of America—Their Style and Influence—Scandinavian
Artists—Modern Art in Scotland—Masterpieces in European
Galleries—Masters of Current Art in America—Some of their
Great Works. II. SCULPTURE:—Old World Sculptors at Beginning of
Century—Centres of the Art—Advance in Different Countries—
Masterpieces—American Sculpture—Notable Artists and their Works
—Characteristics of Sculptors—Effect of the Columbian Exposition
—Names and Works of Modern Sculptors 587–614

THE CENTURY’S ADVANCE IN SURGERY

Surgery at the Dawn of the Century—Methods in Early Part of the
Century—Discovery of Anæsthesia—Its Great Advantages—
Antiseptic Surgery—Healing by First Intent—Setting of Fractures
—Modern Treatment of Bone Diseases—Of Amputations—Control
of Hemorrhages—Advance in Wound Treatment—Surgery of the
Alimentary Canal—Stomach Surgery—Kidney and Bladder Surgery—
Hernia or Rupture—Of Diseases of Female Organs—Modern Brain
Surgery—Its Wonderful Advance—Astounding Operations—The
Röntgen or X Rays—Their Value in Surgery—General Review of
Surgical Progress 615–630

PROGRESS OF MEDICINE

Early Medical Science—Progress to Beginning of Nineteenth Century
—Famous Ancient Physicians—Noted Schools of Medicine—Medical
Charlatans—Evolution of Medical Remedies—Important Changes in
Treatment—First American Schools of Medicine—Advance in Materia
Medica—Growth of Medical Associations—Medical Literature—
High Standard of Modern Medical Education—Students and Colleges
—Tendency to Special Practice—Great Importance of Modern
Medical Discoveries—Use of Anæsthetics in Medicine—Advance in
Physiology and Anatomy—Importance of Trained Nurses—Review of
Medical Progress 631–642

EVOLUTION OF THE RAILWAY

First Railways—Vast Development—Uses of Railways—Importance
to Farmers and Producers—Various Railway Systems—Government
Ownership and Operation—Mileage of Railways—The World’s Great
Railways—Methods of building and operating Railways in Different
Countries—Bridge Structures—Use of Steel Rails—Railway
Signals—The Block System—Single and Double Tracks—First
Steam Locomotives—Weight and Power of Modern Locomotives—The
Old-fashioned Passenger Car—Luxury of the Modern Palace Car—
Improvement in Freight Cars—The Modern Air-brake—Advance in
Train Equipment and Service—Rates of Speed—Railway Mail Service
—Passenger and Freight Rates—Railway as compared with Water
Transportation—Railway Labor—Relief Associations and Insurance
—Mountain Railways—Rapid Transit—Military Railways—
Portable and Ship Railways 643–664

ADVANCE IN LAW AND JUSTICE

Progress in International Law—Its Subdivisions—Law-making Bodies
—Powers and Duties of Legislators—Courts of Justice—Duties
of Judges—Of Jurors—Of Civil Procedure—Codification of
Laws—Criminal Jurisprudence—Punishments for Crimes—Capital
Punishment—Police Powers—Rights of Married Women under Law—
Laws regarding Parents and Children—Transfer of Real Estate—
Copyright Laws—Their Effect on Publication—Admiralty Laws—Of
Seamen and Shipping—Advance in Corporation Laws—Laws relating
to Religion—Of Religious Freedom—General Review of Legal
Progress 665–676

EVOLUTION OF BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS

I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES:—Objects and Uses of Building Associations—
Explanation of the System—The Various Plans of Operation—Loan
Series—Maturity and Payment of Shares—Cost of Shares and Loans
—Early History of These Associations—Their Character abroad—
History of American Associations—The First Founded—Eulogies
of Building Societies—Vast Membership and Capital—Management
in Respective States—Amounts returned to Members—Teachers of
Practical Thrift—Value of One’s Own Home—Comfort for Those
of Modest Means—Makers of Better Citizens—Duties of Officers
and Members—Responsibility of Members—Size and Cost of Houses
usually built—Typical Houses—The Social Features of Building
Societies 677–690

EPOCH-MAKERS OF THE CENTURY

Statesmen, Orators, and Jurists—Great Generals—Naval Heroes—
Noted Preachers and Teachers—Eminent Historians—Distinguished
Editors—Noted Scientists—Leading Philanthropists—Famous
Inventors—Popular Novelists—Greatest Poets—Best Actors and
Lyric Dramatists 691–720

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

“Triumphs and Wonders of the XIX Century” _Frontispiece_

Puck 19

Old Franklin Electrical Machine 20

Leyden Jar 22

Franklin Institute, Philadelphia 23

Induction Coil 25

Magnetic Fields of Force 26

Daniell’s Cells 27

Morse Telegraph and Battery 27

Samuel Finley Breese Morse 28

Cyrus W. Field 28

Ocean Cable 29

Great Eastern laying an Ocean Cable 31

A String Telephone 32

Thomas Alva Edison. _Full page_ 32

A Graphophone 35

A Dynamo 37

The Golden Candlestick 39

An Ancient Lamp 39

A Tallow Dip 40

Modern Lamp 40

Electric Arc Light 43

Electric Locomotive. From _Electrical Age_ 45

Electric Railway—Third Rail System 47

Geissler’s Tubes 49

Sciagraph or Shadow Picture 50

An August Morning with Farragut 56

British Battleship Majestic 57

French Battleship Magenta 57

German Battleship Woerth 58

Italian Battleship Sardegna 59

Nelson’s Flagship Victory 60

Constitution (1812) under Sail. Permission of the artist.
_Full page_ 61

Side View of Constitution. _Full page_ 63

The U. S. Steamship Oregon. Copyright by W. H. Rau. _Full page_ 65

Action between Monitor and Merrimac 66

The Turbinia—Fastest Craft afloat. Permission of S. S. McClure
Co. 67

Engine of U. S. Steamship Powhatan, A. D. 1849. _Full page_ 68

Engine of U. S. Steamer Ericcson 69

Battle of Trafalgar. _Full page_ 71

The Growth of Ordnance. Four cuts. _Full page_ 73

The Distribution of Armor. Twelve cuts. _Full page_ 78–79

The Growth of Armor. Eight cuts. _Full page_ 81

The Movement of Uranus and Neptune 89

Professor James H. Coffin 91

The Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, Cal. _Full page_ 93

The Spectroscope 94

Yerkes Telescope, University of Chicago. _Full page_ 95

Professor William Harkness 97

Zenith Telescope, made for University of Pennsylvania 100

Three-inch Transit. By Warner & Swasey 103

Carolus Linnæus of Sweden 105

The Green Rose 106

Head of White Clover, with Branch from Centre 107

The Peanut-Pod Magnified 108

Outline of White Dogwood Flower 109

Yellow Toad-Flax in Peloria State 110

Grained Corn-Tassel 111

Banana Flowers 112

The Cruel Plant 113

Old Potato penetrated by Rootlet 113

Fungus growing from Head of Caterpillar 114

Mary Elizabeth Lease 117

Emma Willard 119

George Eliot 121

Frances Willard 123

Distaff and Spindle 126

Spinning Wheel 126

Primitive Hand Loom 127

Early Spinning Jenny 128

Ginning Cotton. Old way prior to 1800 129

Ginning Cotton. New way 129

The Modern Mule 130

Hand Comb of the Eighteenth Century 131

Noble Comb of 1890 132

Plain Power Loom, 1840 133

Weaving. The Old Way 135

Weaving. The New Way 135

Loom of 1890 136

Jacquard Machine 137

Smith and Skinner Loom for Moquette Carpets 139

Circular Loom 141

The First Knitting Machine, Lee 143

Knitting in the Old Way 145

Knitting in the New Way 146

Ancient Birmingham Meeting-house 148

Salisbury Cathedral, England. _Full page_ 148

P. E. Cathedral of St. John the Divine (?) 150

Father Damien, Missionary to Leper Colony 151

Young Men’s Christian Association, Philadelphia 153

Baptist Mission School, Japan 155

Methodist Episcopal Hospital 157

The New Library of Congress, Washington, D. C. _Full page_ 161

Ridgway Branch of Philadelphia Library. _Full page_ 163

Public Library of the City of Boston. By permission of librarian.
_Full page_ 164

John Russell Young 166

Carnegie Free Library, Pittsburgh. _Full page_ 169

Arc de l’Étoile, Paris 173

Natural History Museum, Kensington, London. _Full page_ 175

Glass Covered Arcade, Milan 177

United States Capitol, Washington, D. C. _Full page_ 179

The White House, Washington, D. C. _Full page_ 180

Library Building, University of Virginia 181

Trinity Church, New York. _Full page_ 183

St. George’s Hall, Philadelphia 185

Trinity Church, Boston 187

American Surety Company’s Building, New York 188

Sir Humphrey Davy 192

Michael Faraday 197

William Crookes, F. R. S. 200

Sir Henry Bessemer 202

Louis Jacques Daguerre 203

Louis Pasteur 205

Beethoven in His Study. _Full page_ 208

Giuseppe Verdi 208

Grand Opera House, Paris 209

Metropolitan Opera House, New York 210

William Richard Wagner 211

Edwin Forrest 211

Charlotte Saunders Cushman 212

Scenes from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. _Full page_ 213

George Bancroft 216

John G. Whittier 217

Alfred Tennyson 218

Henry W. Longfellow 219

Benjamin Franklin 223

Horace Greeley 224

John W. Forney 225

Joseph Medill 226

Record Building, Philadelphia. _Full page_ 227

The “Black Obelisk” of Shalmaneser II 232

The Moabite Stone. _Full page_ 232

Ruins of Philæ, Egypt. _Full page_ 235

So-called Sarcophagus of Alexander the Great 239

Cuneiform Letters from Lachish 241

Arch of Titus, Rome 242

Hittite Inscription from Jerabis. _Full page_ 243

A Typical Dairy Farm. _Full page_ 247

Modern Creamery and Cheese Factory 249

A Typical Dairy Cow—Ayrshire 251

Centrifugal Cream Separator in Operation. _Full page_ 253

Milk Tester (Open) 254

Butter-making on Farm—The Old Way. _Full page_ 255

Butter-making—The New Way 257

The Dairy Maid. _Full page_ 259

Czar Alexander II., of Russia 265

Sir Edward Bulwer 266

Captain Alfred Dreyfus 269

Mortality Chart 273

Map Showing “Registration States” 275

Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania. _Full page_ 277

Sand Filter Bed 279

A Quarantine Station 281

Old Style Shrapnel 284

Congreve Rocket 285

Minié Ball 286

United States Rifle Musket, 1855 286

General Winfield Scott. _Full page_ 286

Armstrong Field Gun 287

Rodman Gun 288

Old Smooth-bore Mortar 289

Spencer Carbine 291

Metallic Cartridge of 1864–65 292

Prismatic Powder 298

Mortar on Revolving Hoist. _Full page_ 299

Modern Shrapnel 301

Krag-Jorgensen Rifle 302

Penetrating Power of Guns and Bullets. _Full page_ 303

Gatling Gun 304

Nordenfeldt Rapid Fire Gun 305

Soil Pulverizer. Furnished by author 309

Columbia Harvester and Binder. Furnished by author 311

Improved Thresher, with Blower and Self-feeder. Furnished by
author 312

Automatic Stacker with Folding Attachment. Furnished by author 313

Disc Harrow. H. P. Denocher & Co., Hamilton, Ont. 314

Acme Harrow. Furnished by author 315

Double Corn Cultivator. Long-Alstatten Co., Hamilton, Ont. 317

Modern Clover Huller. Gaar, Scoot & Co., Richmond, Ind. 319

Hereford Cow, “Lady Laurel.” Furnished by author 320

Group of Aberdeen-Angus Cattle. Courtesy of D. Bradford & Son,
Aberdeen, O. 321

Jersey Cow, “Ida,” of St. Lambert. Miller & Sibley, Franklin, Pa. 322

Poland-China Hog. Furnished by author 323

Merino Sheep. John Pow & Son, Salem, O. 325

Double Corn Planter. H. P. Denocher & Co., Hamilton, Ont. 326

Hand Garden Plow. H. P. Denocher & Co., Hamilton, Ont. 327

Success Anti-Clog Weeder. D. Y. Hallock & Co., York, Pa. 331

Aspinwall Potato Planter. Furnished by author 335

Brooklyn Suspension Bridge. _Full page_ 341

The Niagara Railway Arch. Courtesy of Grand Trunk R. R.
_Full page_ 343

The Firth of Forth Bridge, General View. Credit “Bridges,”
Chicago. _Full page_ 344

Pecos River Viaduct 345

Formal Opening of Suez Canal 347

Manchester Ship Canal 349

Complete Rock Cut Chicago Drainage Canal. Courtesy of Lidgerwood
Man. Co. _Full page_ 351

An “Atlas” Powder Blast under Cableway. Copyright by Charles
Stadler, Chicago. _Full page_ 353

American Portal of St. Clair Tunnel. Courtesy of Grand
Trunk R. R. 358

Interior of St. Clair Tunnel. Courtesy of Grand Trunk R. R. 359

Thoroughbred. _Full page_ 363

Watering the Cows 365

A Temperance Society. (Herring) 367

Art Critics. (Gebler) 368

French Coach-Horse “Gladiator” 369

Pacing Horse “Star Pointer.” Time 1m. 59 1-4s 371

Automobile or Horseless Carriage. Courtesy of Electric
Automobile Co. 373

Commodore Stephen Decatur 376

Commodore Perry at Battle of Lake Erie 377

Schoolship Saratoga. Courtesy of Philadelphia Bourse Book 379

Robert E. Lee at Battle of Chapultepec. _Full page_ 381

Castle William. Military Prison, New York Harbor 383

Generals Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson 385

General Ulysses S. Grant. _Full page_ 387

Sherman’s March to the Sea. _Full page_ 389

Lee’s Surrender at Appomattox 391

Morro Castle, Santiago Harbor 392

Admiral George Dewey. _Full page_ 393

Main Deck of Cruiser Chicago 394

Dewey’s Guns at Manila. _Full page_ 395

General Joseph Wheeler 397

The Truce before Santiago 398

Aguinaldo, the Tagal Leader 399

Napoleon, 1814. (Meissonier.) _Full page_ 401

Admiral Horatio Nelson 403

Napoleon’s Retreat from Waterloo. _Full page_ 405

Capture of the Malakoff. _Full page_ 409

Battle of Magenta. _Full page_ 411

Louis Adolphe Theirs 415

Cavalry Charge at Gravelotte. _Full page_ 416

Battle of Yalu River. _Full page_ 417

Munich Exposition, 1854 423

New Orleans Exposition, 1884. _Full page_ 425

Eiffel Tower, Paris Exposition, 1888 427

Court of Honor, Chicago Exposition, 1893 429

Women’s Building, Chicago Exposition, 1893 431

Agricultural Building, Atlanta Exposition, 1895 433

Machinery Hall, Atlanta Exposition, 1895 434

Women’s Building, Nashville Exposition, 1897 435

Art Building, Nashville Exposition, 1897 437

Grand Court, Omaha Exposition, 1898. Photograph by H. C. Hersey 439

National Export Exposition, Philadelphia, Sept. 14 to Nov. 30,
1899. Electro supplied by Commercial Museum. _Full page_ 441

Old United States Mint, Philadelphia 447

New United States Mint, Philadelphia. Courtesy of Philadelphia
Bourse Book. _Full page_ 451

Carpenter’s Hall, Philadelphia, First Site of First United States
Bank. _Full page_ 453

Girard Bank, Philadelphia, Second Site of First United States
Bank 455

Second United States Bank, Philadelphia, now Custom House 457

Bank of England, London 463

German Bank, Bremen 464

The Bourse, Paris. _Full page_ 464

New York Clearing House 468

Cocoanut Tree, Palm Beach, Fla. Photograph by author.
_Full page_ 473

Packing Apples for Export, St. Catherines, Ont. _Full page_ 477

Lady de Coverly Grapes, Maryville, Cal. Photograph by author.
_Full page_ 483

Orange Orchard, Sanford, Fla. Photograph by author 487

Olive Orchard, San José, Cal. Photograph by author 488

Pineapple Field, Palm Beach, Fla. Photograph by author 489

A Clipper Ship. Permission of Whittaker & Co. 493

Robert Fulton 494

The Clermont, Fulton’s First Steamboat 495

S. Cunard, Founder of First Ocean Packet Line. Courtesy of
Cunard S. S. Co. 497

The Oceanic, 1899—Largest Ship Afloat. Courtesy of White Star
Line. _Full page_ 499

Steamer Campania, of Cunard Line. Courtesy of Cunard S. S. Co.
_Full page_ 509

Cramps’ Shipyard on the Delaware. _Full page_ 512

Pestalozzi, of Yverdun 517

Froebel, Founder of Kindergartens 519

Dr. Thomas Arnold, Rugby, England 520

An Old Log Schoolhouse 521

Schoolhouse at Sleepy Hollow 524

Interior of Sleepy Hollow Schoolhouse 525

Child’s Guide. _Full page_ 527

Dr. Charles W. Eliot, President of Harvard University 531

William T. Harris 533

Ideal Schoolhouse and Grounds 534

Suggestions for planting a Schoolground 535

New High School, Philadelphia. _Full page_ 537

Dr. William H. Maxwell, Superintendent “Greater New York”
Schools 538

Booker T. Washington, Principal Tuskegee Institute 539

Dr. E. Benj. Andrews, Superintendent of Schools, Chicago, Ill. 541

Early Hand Printing Press 543

The Columbian Press 545

Washington Hand Press 546

Old Wooden Frame Adams Press 547

Double Cylinder Press 549

First Perfecting Press 551

Four-roller Two-Revolution Press 553

Lithographic Press 555

Numbering Card Press 557

Linotype (Type-setting) Machine—Front View 559

Octuple Stereotype Perfecting Press and Folder. _Full page_ 560

Outline of Type-setting Machine 561

Sinking, Drifting, and Stoping in Mining 573

Air Compressor 574

The “Sergeant” Rock Drill 575

Steam-Driven Air Compressor 576

Driving a Railway Tunnel. _Full page_ 577

Straight Line Air Compressor 578

Duplex Air Compressor 579

Electric Coal-Mining Machine. _Full page_ 581

Gold Dredging on Swan River, Colorado. _Full page_ 583

Power Plant at Jerome Park 585

The Holy Women at the Tomb 589

Christmas Chimes. (Blashfield.) _Full page_ 591

Whispers of Love. (Bouguereau.) _Full page_ 592

Greek Girls playing at Ball. (Leighton) 593

Landseer and his Favorites. (By himself.) _Full page_ 595

The Horse Fair. (Rosa Bonheur.) _Full page_ 597

At the Shrine of Venus. (Alma Tadema) 601

Napoleon I. (Canova) 603

Statue of Benjamin Franklin. (Boyle) 605

The Washington Monument, Fairmount Park 607

Photographic View of New York City 611

Surgical Operating Room, Howard Hospital, Philadelphia 617

Clinical Amphitheatre, Pennsylvania Hospital. _Full page_ 621

Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia. From its “History.”
_Full page_ 624

X-Ray Photograph of a Compound Fracture of Forearm 628

X-Ray Picture of a Dislocated Elbow. _Full page_ 629

Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes 637

Dr. Nathan Smith Davis, of Chicago. Courtesy of Dr. Davis 639

Starling Medical College and St. Francis Hospital, Columbus,
Ohio. Courtesy of Spahr & Glenn. _Full page_ 640

J. Marion Sims, A. B., M. D., New York. Courtesy of Wm. Wood
& Co. 641

The Old Stage Coach 644

First Train of Steam Cars 645

A Railway Train in Belgium 647

Loop in the Selkirks, showing Four Tracks. _Full page_ 649

Entrance to St. Gothard Tunnel, Switzerland 651

Railway Signals 652

An American Express Locomotive 653

An American Freight Locomotive 655

Exterior of Latest Sleeping Car 656

Interior of Pullman Sleeping Car 657

Railway Suspension Bridge, Niagara Falls. From American Society
of Civil Engineers. _Full page_ 659

Hagerman Pass on Colorado Midland R. R. 661

View near Verrugas, on line of Oroya Railway, Peru 663

Independence Hall and Square—Winter Scene 666

Hon. Melville Fuller, Chief Justice U. S. Supreme Court 669

State, War, and Navy Building, Washington, D. C. 673

Portia and Bassanio. Trial Scene from “Merchant of Venice.”
_Full page_ 675

Paying their Dues. _Full page_ 679

First Building and Loan Association Advertisement 681

Row of $1400 Houses 686

Plan of $1400 Houses 687

Building Association Banquet. _Full page_ 689

Abraham Lincoln 691

Jefferson Davis 692

William E. Gladstone 693

Thomas Jefferson 695

Otto E. L. Von Bismarck 697

William McKinley 698

Grant’s Tomb, Riverside Drive, New York City 699

Duke of Wellington 700

Count Von Moltke 701

General Giuseppe Garibaldi 703

Charles H. Spurgeon 705

William Wilberforce 706

Thomas B. Macaulay 707

Florence Nightingale 712

Clara Barton 713

Sir Walter Scott 715

Charles Dickens 716

Lord Byron 717

Queen Victoria 723

WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY

BY JAMES P. BOYD, A.M., L.B.

I. AT THE DAWN OF THE CENTURY.

When, in his “Midsummer Night’s Dream,” Shakespeare placed in the mouth of Puck, prince of fairies, the playful speech,—

“I’ll put a girdle round about the earth
In forty minutes,”

he had no thought that the undertaking of a boastful and prankish sprite could ever be outdone by human agency. Could the immortal bard have lived to witness the time when the girdling of the earth by means of the electric current became easier and swifter than elfin promise or possibility, he must have speedily remodeled his splendid comedy and denied to the world its delightful, fairy-like features.

An old and charming story runs, that Aladdin, son of a widow of Bagdad, became owner of a magic lamp, by means of whose remarkable powers he could bring to his instant aid the services of an all-helpful genie. When Aladdin wished for aid of any kind, he had but to rub the lamp. At once the genie appeared to gratify his desires. By means of the lamp Aladdin could hear the faintest whisper thousands of miles away. He could annihilate both time and space, and in a twinkling could transfer himself to the tops of the highest mountains. How the charm of this ancient story is lost in the presence of that marvelous realism which marks the achievements of modern electrical science!

The earliest known observations on that subtle mystery which pervades all nature, that silent energy whose phenomena and possibilities are limitless, and before which even the wisest must stand in awe, are attributed to Thales, a scholar of Miletus, in Greece, some 600 years B. C. On rubbing a piece of amber against his clothing, he observed that it gained the strange property of at first attracting and then repelling light objects brought near to it. His observations led to nothing practical, and no historic mention of electrical phenomena is found till the time of Theophrastus (B. C. 341), who wrote that amber, when rubbed, attracted “straws, small sticks, and even thin pieces of copper and iron.” Both Aristotle and Pliny speak of the electric eel as having power to benumb animals with which it comes in contact.

Thus far these simple phenomena only had been mentioned. There was no study of electric force, no recognition of it as such, or as we know it and turn it to practical account to-day. This seems quite strange when we consider the culture and power to investigate of the Egyptians, Phœnicians, Greeks, and Romans. True, a few fairy-like stories of how certain persons emitted sparks from their bodies, or were cured of diseases by shocks from electric eels, are found scattered through their literatures, but they failed to follow the way to electrical science pointed out to them by Thales. Even in the Middle Ages, when a few scientists and writers saw fit to speak of electrical phenomena as observed by the ancients, and even ventured to speculate upon them in their crude way, there were no practical additions made to the science, and the ground laid as fallow as it had done since the creation.

(By permission of Franklin Institute.)]

After a lapse of more than two thousand years from the experiment of Thales, Dr. Gilbert, physician to Queen Elizabeth (A. D. 1533–1603), took up the study of amber and various other substances which, when subjected to friction, acquired the property of first, attracting and then repelling light bodies brought near them. He published his observations in a little book called “De Magnete,” in the year A. D. 1600, and thus became the first author of a work upon electricity. In this unique and initial work upon simple electrical effects, the author added greatly to the number of substances that could be electrified by friction, and succeeded in establishing the different degrees of force with which they could be made to attract or repel light bodies brought near them.

Fortunately for electrical science, and for that matter all sciences, about this time the influence of Lord Bacon’s Inductive Philosophy began to be felt by investigators and scientific men. Before that, the causes of natural phenomena had not been backed up by repeated experiments amounting to practical proofs, but had been accounted for, if at all, by sheer guesses or whimsical reasons. Bacon’s method introduced hard, cold, constant experiment as the only sure means of finding out exactly the causes of natural phenomena; and not only this, but the necessity of series upon series of experiments, each based upon the results of the former, and so continuing, link by link, till, from a comparison of the whole, some general principle or truth could be drawn that applied to all. This _inductive_ method of scientific research gave great impetus to the study of every branch of science, and especially to the unfolding of infallible and practical laws governing the phenomena of nature.

For very many years electrical experiments followed the lines laid down by Dr. Gilbert; that is, the finding of substances that could be excited or electrified by friction. By and by such substances came to be called _electrics_, and it became a part of the crude electrical science of the time to compute the force with which these electrics, when excited, attracted or repelled other substances near them. Among the ablest of these investigators were Robert Boyle, author of “Experiments on the Origin of Electricity,” Sir Isaac Newton, Otto von Guericke, and Francis Hawksbee, the last of whom communicated his experiments to the English Royal Society in 1705. Otto von Guericke used a hard roll of sulphur as an electric. He caused it to revolve rapidly while he rubbed or excited it with his hand. Newton and Hawksbee used a revolving glass globe in the same way, and thus became the parents of the modern and better equipped electrical machine used for school purposes.

The next step in electrical discovery, and one which marks an epoch in the history of the science, was made by Stephen Gray, of England, in 1729. To him is due the credit of finding out that electricity from an excited glass cylinder could be conducted away from it to objects at a remote distance. Though he used only a packthread as a conductor, he thus carried electricity to a distance of several hundred feet, and his novel discovery opened up what, for the time, was a brilliant series of experiments in England and throughout France and Germany. Out of these experiments came the knowledge that some substances were natural conductors of electricity, while others were non-conductors; and that the non-conductors were the very substances—glass, resin, sulphur, etc.—which were then in popular use as electrics. Here was laid the foundation of those after-discoveries which led to the selection of copper, iron, and other metals as the natural and therefore best conductors of electricity, and glass, etc., as the best insulators or non-conductors.