Chapter III: Part 3

2. The preparatory run of from twelve to fifteen paces is accelerated as the leaper approaches the cord. Upon this run principally depend the facility and the success of the leap. As the spring can take place only with one foot, and as this must arrive correctly at the springing place, it is necessary that the order of the steps should be arranged so as to effect this object. If the leaper should be obliged to correct himself by making a few steps, either longer or shorter, just before making the spring, the leap is rendered difficult.

3. The fixing of the pole in the ground, and the spring, must take place at the same instant, because by that means the upper and lower members operate together, no power is lost, and the swing is performed with the greatest facility. The place of the pole, however, varies with the height of the leaps; in leaps of about four feet, the distance of one foot from the cord is sufficient; in higher leaps, it should be from one and a half to two feet. The best plan is to have a small pit dug in front of the cord (see Plate XII. figs. 2 and 3), and to remove the stand from it, as the height of the leap increases; or the stand may remain at a foot and a half from the pit, and the learner be taught to make all the leaps from it. The spring is made with one foot, at the distance of two, three, four, or five feet from the plant of the pole. If the leaper keep the left hand lowest, he must spring with the left foot, and _vice versâ_.

4. The swing upward is effected by the force of the spring, the support of the lower, and the pull of the upper hand; but principally by the propulsion of the run, which being suddenly modified by the fixing of the pole, has its horizontal direction changed into a slanting ascent, and carries the body of the leaper over the cord. The leaper must carefully observe that the spring of the foot, and the plant of the pole, be in the direction of the preparatory run.

5. The turning of the body during the swinging upward, is necessary. When the leaper is going to spring, he has his face turned towards the object of the leap, as in Plate XII. fig. 1; but as his feet swing, his body turns round the pole. When his feet have passed over the other side of the cord, the head is still considerably on this side: the leaper then appears as in fig. 2. Speedily, the middle of his body is on the other side of the cord, and he begins the descent, as in fig. 3. It would be impossible to descend in this position otherwise than with his face directed to the place where the leap was commenced.

6. The quitting of the pole during the leap is effected by giving it a push with one hand, at the moment of greatest height, and this causes it to fall on the inner side of the cord.

7. The carrying of the pole over the cord is more difficult. The leaper must then raise the pole a little from the ground at the moment of beginning the descent, and instantly elevate the lower part of it with the lowest hand, and depress the upper part with the other; the consequence being, that, at the descent, the lower end of the pole will point upward, and the upper end downward. This should be practised first in low leaps.

8. The descent depends entirely upon the manner in which the leap is made: if the leap be perfect, the descent will be so. The usual fault in descending is, that the leaper, having passed the cord, falls to the ground almost perpendicularly instead of obliquely. In the annexed figure, _a_ is the place whence the spring is made, _c_ the section of the cord, _b_ the position of the leaper over it, _d_ his right, and _e_ his wrong descent. The latter is faulty because it throws him so much out of balance, that in order not to fall backward, he must run backward to _d_. If, on the contrary, he descends in proper balance to the ground, he moves not an inch from the spot where his feet alight; and this complete rest following the descent is the sign of a perfect leap. The descent, as already explained, must take place upon the balls of the toes, and with a sinking of the knees. The position of the body is sufficiently explained by Plate XII. figs. 1, 2, and 3; but many learn to swing the legs so well as to raise them, during the highest part of the leap, considerably above the head. Order of exercises in the high leap, to be very gradually attempted:--

1. The height of the hips.

2. That of the pit of the stomach.

3. That of the chin.

4. That of the crown of the head.

5. That of the points of the fingers--that is, as high as the latter
can reach.

In performing these leaps, the pole is parted with. As many more may form a repetition of the preceding, with this difference, that the leaper carries the pole over with him. A similar number may repeat the first, except that the leaper, between the spring and descent, makes a complete turn round the pole, so as again to bring his face in the direction of the leap. This enlarged turn is rendered easier by leaping a little higher than the cord requires.

THE LONG LEAP WITH A POLE.

This leap is the most useful, being applicable almost everywhere; and particularly in a country intersected with small rivers, ditches, &c. It should be first practised over a ditch about three feet deep, eight feet broad at one end, and about twenty-one feet at the other, and of any convenient length. In this exercise, the pole should be rather stronger and longer than in the preceding one--depending, however, on the length of the leap, and the height of the bank it is made from. The usual length is from ten to thirteen feet.

The handling of the pole is the same as in the high leap. The preparatory run is rapid, in proportion to the length of the leap. The spring takes place as in the preceding exercise. The swing is also the same, except that the curve of the leap is wider. The turning of the body may likewise be similar, but it is convenient to make only a quarter turn. In the descent, the hand presses more upon the pole; and the feet are stretched out to reach the opposite bank, as in Plate XIII. fig. 1, in which the leaper is descending. Another method of leaping a river, is to force the body up so high by the pressure of the hands (of which one rests upon the end of the pole, or very near it), as to swing over the top of the pole, and allow it to pass between the legs when descending. (Plate XIII. fig. 2.)

_Page 54._

Pole Leaping.]

_Page 55._

Pole Leaping.]

Try the following:--

1. The leap of two lengths of the body.

2. That of three lengths of the body.

3. That of four lengths of the body.

4. Persons of equal strength try to outleap one another.

The lengths of 18, 20, 22, and 24 feet are frequently done by practised leapers.

THE DEEP LEAP WITH A POLE.

Here neither the preparatory run nor the spring occur: there is nothing which requires the exertion of the lower members. The use of the hands and arms, however, is peculiarly requisite, as well as a little of the art of balancing. The leaper fixes the pole, at a convenient distance from the place where he stands, in a chasm, ditch, or river, having one bank high, and the opposite one low. Seizing it with both hands in the usual way, he slips along it lower and lower; the whole weight of his body, at last, resting upon it. Thus, if the depth is considerable, as two lengths of the body, he may slide so far down upon it, that his head appears slanting downward. In this position, he makes a slight push against the bank, or merely quits it, with his feet, which he swings by the side of the pole to the opposite bank. Here, also, the descent is performed upon the balls of the toes, with bending of the knees. The principal advantage in this leap lies in the art of supporting the body, without tottering; and for this purpose, it is absolutely necessary that the feet should be stretched out far from each other, in an angular form, otherwise the balance might be lost. The best way of practising this in an exercise ground, is by a flight of steps.

To the exercise of the abdominal members, these leaps unite a strong action of the muscles of the thorax, arms, and fore-arms, and even of those of the palms of the hand. The body is only half impelled by the abdominal members; but this impulse is rendered complete by considerable effort on the part of the thoracic members. The latter, in the vertical leap, being supported by the narrow and moveable base afforded by the pole, assist greatly in raising the body, and even keep it a moment suspended for the legs to pass over (if the object to be cleared is very high) before it allows the body to obey the force of gravity which carries it down.

This exercise communicates what is termed great lightness to the body, and great suppleness--that is to say, great relative strength of the abdominal members; and it also developes the superior members. It is good for lymphatic temperaments and young persons, but it should not be indulged in immediately after meals. It may occasion accidents of the brain and spinal marrow, unless all the articulations are bent on returning to the ground.

BALANCING.

Balancing is the art of preserving the stability of the body upon a narrow or a moving surface. The balancing bar consists of a round and tapering pole, supported horizontally, about three feet from the ground, by upright posts, one at its thicker extremity, and another about the middle, between the parts of which it may be raised or lowered by means of an iron peg passing through holes in their sides. The unsupported end of the bar wavers, of course, when stepped upon--(Plate XIV.)

The upper surface of the bar being smooth in dry weather, the soles of the shoes should be damped; the ground about the bar should consist of sand, and the exercises be cautiously performed.

_Page 57._

Balancing.]

POSITION AND ACTION IN BALANCING.

In this exercise, the head should be held up, the body erect, the shoulders back, the arms extended, the hands shut, and the feet turned outwards. At first, the balancer may be assisted along the bar; but he must gradually receive less and less aid, till at last the assistant only remains by his side.

The pole may be mounted either from the ground or from the riding position on the beam. In the latter case, the balancer may raise the right foot, place it flat on the beam, with the heel near the upper part of the thigh, and rise on the point of the foot, carrying the weight of the body before him. (Plate XIV. fig. 1.)

In this case, the beam must not be touched with the hands; the left leg must hang perpendicularly, with the toe towards the ground, and the arms be stretched forward. After keeping the balance for some minutes in this position, he must stretch the left leg out before him, place his heel on the middle of the beam, with the toe well turned outward, and transfer the weight of the body from the point of the right foot to the left heel--(Plate XIV. fig. 2). These steps he must perform alternately, till he reaches the end of the beam.

TURNS IN BALANCING.

When the balancer is able to walk firmly and in good position along the bar, and to spring off whenever he may lose his balance, he may attempt to turn round, first at the broad, then at the narrow end, and to return. He may next try to go backward.

In accomplishing this, it is no longer the heel, but the tip of the toes, which receives the weight; the leg which hangs being stretched backward, with the hip, knee, and heel forming a right angle, till the toes, by a transverse motion, are so placed on the middle of the beam, that the balancer can safely transfer to them the whole weight of the body.

To acquire the art of passing an obstacle placed laterally, two balancers may pass each other thus:--They must hold one another fast by the arms, advance breast to breast, place each his right foot close forward to that of his comrade, across the bar (Plate XIV. fig. 3), and turn completely round each other, by each stepping with his left foot round the right one of the other, as in Plate XIV. fig. 4.

To acquire the art of passing an obstacle placed inferiorly, a large stone may be laid upon the bar, or a stick may be held before the balancer, about the height of the knee. (Plate XIV. fig. 5.)

To pass over men placed upon a beam, the pupil or pupils who are astride in front lie down on the beam, which they grasp firmly by passing their arms round it. The pupil _a_ (fig. 1, Plate XV.) having to pass to the point on the beam marked _b_, places his hands on the waistband of his comrade _c_: he then leans upon his arms, and raises his body to pass forward over his comrade, opening his legs widely, so as not to touch him, till he places himself astride at _c_. He then extends his hands and arms for a second movement, places them at _b_, and leans the body well forward, as shown in fig. 2, Plate XV. Being thus placed, he makes the last movement, raises his body upon the arms to pass over his comrade’s head without touching it, which is the chief rule of this exercise, and places himself astride upon the beam at _b_, moving his hands immediately, and extending them to rest at _d_. This movement being finished, he continues advancing astride, along the beam, over the others, if there be any; raises himself to an upright position, and lies down in his turn on the beam. This last attitude requires some care, because the head must incline either to the right or left of the beam, as shown in the plates, and the pupil must hold tight to the beam with the arms and thighs, which requires both skill and strength.

The pupil may also pass as shown in fig. 3, Plate XV. This method is very easy for the person passing, and indeed more so than any other; but it is necessary that the pupil who is in the position _b_ should have learnt to raise himself up on the beam, or know how to advance along it underneath, in a reversed position.

_Page 58._

Balancing.]

It is impossible for any one who has not seen the carnivals of Venice, and other towns in Italy, to form an idea of all the difficulties that have been surmounted in the art of equilibrium. To acquire the art of carrying any body, the balancer may at first walk along the bar with his hands folded across his breast, instead of using them to balance himself; and he may afterwards carry bodies of various magnitudes.

* * * * *

To this notice of the rules by which the art of Balancing may be best acquired, it will not be out of place to subjoin a slight outline of its importance to all who desire to arrive at excellence in any of the Manly Exercises. Motion--the source of them all--if not absolutely dependent for existence upon equilibrium, without it would be but the infancy of action--movement tottering, uncertain, powerless. The first effort of locomotion--the walk, without it, possesses neither force nor decision: in the same ratio that a higher degree of muscular exertion is demanded, increases the value and importance of the art which teaches how best to apply the vital energies to its service. What a wise economy is to the social, this art is to the physical system: both serve to augment our resources, by instructing us so to husband them that the term “necessity” be not known to our vocabulary.

While in every instance equilibrium adds greatly to physical power, in many it stands altogether in its stead. To the most casual observer of our usual sports it will be manifest that this is the case in Skating;--the more attentive and competent will have little difficulty in tracing its effects in Leaping, Vaulting, Swimming, and through almost the whole catalogue. It is to the later writers on horsemanship that we are indebted for the knowledge of its vital service to the equestrian. The truth of their theory is proved by the fact that, where formerly scarce a tithe of a hunting-field was found to ride to hounds, now nine-tenths are ordinarily to be seen in good places.

--------Scouring along,
In pleasing hurry and confusion toss’d,
Happy the man, who with unrivall’d speed
Can pass his fellows.

CARRYING WEIGHT.

The power of raising and carrying weight is of great importance in a general view. Many advantages will be derived from it; for besides strengthening the locomotive muscles, upon which all our physical operations depend, it will fortify also all the system and all the organs. All persons, moreover, may find themselves under the necessity of raising and carrying a wounded or fainting person, and may be glad to have cultivated and acquired the power necessary to perform such an act.

In accustoming young persons to carry burdens, they should be taught to support what is on the back first with one hand and then with the other: by these means the muscles are equally exercised on each side, and acquire an equal developement. These burdens, however, must not exceed their strength; and they should be taught not to carry on one side in preference, for fear of deforming the limbs. There are several modes of supporting weights, and of trying the amount of power possessed for this kind of exercise.

Fig. 1, Plate XVI. represents one method. It consists in loading the shoulders with sacks full of articles whose weight is previously known. The position of the arms and hands is such that the pupil can support a great weight: but in this way he can walk but very slowly; and it is therefore, so far, disadvantageous.

_Page 60._

Carrying Weight.]

Fig. 2, in the same plate, supports a weight by means of a hod. This is filled with balls or stones, of which the weight is known.

The form of the weight is of consequence. A soldier now carries with ease a knapsack full of articles, and additional weight above it, because the flat shape that has been lately adopted fits the body, and lies close to the back, as in fig. 3, and the centre of gravity is thus very little deranged. But if the knapsack were of the old shape, very projecting and very round, as in fig. 4, the soldier would be forced to incline his body forward, and would not be able to carry as great a weight, nor march as long a time, in consequence of fatigue. It is for this reason, among others, desirable to extend the knowledge of the most simple rules of mechanics, because these rules are serviceable in avoiding many dangers, and diminishing the fatigue and the efforts that vacillation in the movements produces. We may make use of a hook to bear boxes or bags in addition, with the weights marked, and thus learn the carrier’s strength.

Milo, says history, first carried a calf immediately after its birth, and continued to do so every day till it had reached its full size. It was said by this means that he was able to carry even the ox itself, and afterwards throw it on the ground and kill it with his fist.

Augustus the Second, King of Poland, carried a man upon his hand.

A man named Roussel, a labourer in the environs of Lisle, who on a smaller scale (being but four feet ten inches in height), was formed exactly like the Farnese Hercules, raised on his shoulders a weight of eighteen hundred pounds. He cleared a circle six feet in height with very little spring and one hundred-weight in each hand. When seated on the ground, he rose up without aid, carrying two men on his arms. Equally astonishing in the strength of his loins, he took up two hundred-weight leaning backwards over a chair. “I have seen this remarkable man,” says Friedlander: “the whole of his family are very strong: his sister and brother are equally remarkable in this point.” It is very striking to find in him the characteristic traits with which antiquity depicted the ideal of bodily strength.

In the Encyclopædia of Krumtz, vol. lxxii., we find instances of some men similar to Roussel, who lived at the commencement of the last century. A man named Eckenberg raised a cannon of two thousand five hundred pounds weight; and two strong men were unable to take from him a stick that he held between his teeth.

In number 446 of the Bibliotheque Britannique, is to be found a report of some trials made by a Mr. Shulze, in his manufactory, of the strength of men of different heights. These trials show what influence an elevated stature has upon the vertical height to which a man can raise any weight. A short man is, in his turn, capable of employing more force in another direction.

THROWING THE DISCUS.

Among the Greeks, throwing the discus did not form part of the games till the eighteenth Olympiad. This exercise consisted in throwing, as far as possible, a mass of wood or stone, but more commonly of iron or copper, of a lenticular form. From the testimony of ancient authors, there was no mark or butt fixed, except the spot where the discus thrown by the strongest of the discoboli alighted. Mercuriali has handed down to us three engravings, in which the discus is not of the same shape. The first engraving represents four discoboli in the act of throwing with the right hand a discus which is as thick at the circumference as at the centre, which has been bored. The second represents the statue of a discobolus holding a discus apparently of a spherical form, in the left hand. The third shows the arm of an athlete with a flat discus. The discus in the last two engravings now mentioned, covers the greater part of the front of the forearm; and all that the ancients have written respecting this instrument, tends to show that it was of enormous size and weight. Homer tells us, that the athletes threw the discus either up into the air merely as a prelude to accustom their arms to it, or horizontally when they were striving for the prize.

_Page 63._

Throwing the Discus.]

To perform this exercise properly, the thrower should not only balance the discus well on the right arm, (supposing it to be on that arm, as in Plate XVII. fig. 1); but at the moment it leaves the hand, he should throw the whole of the right side forward, so that the impulse may be assisted by the weight of the whole body.--(Plate XVII. fig. 2.) This exercise very much strengthens the body, and developes, in a particular manner, the limb by which the discus is thrown. It may be usefully employed in cases where it is desirable to remedy weakness in either of the arms; and it is well calculated to bring up the power of the left arm to that of the right. The modern quoit differs from the ancient discus only in this, that the instrument so called is much smaller than the discus, that its use is a mere idle pastime, and that the object is always to throw it as close as possible to a fixed mark, requiring more skill than strength.

It is evident that the discus may be heaved from above the shoulder as well as flung from below.--(See Plate XVII. fig. 3.) No exercises can excel these for the acquirement of power. They ought to be much practised with both hands. A man of moderate strength will throw a pound weight of lead a distance of 140 feet, or thereabouts.

Silex 1½ 126 feet.
Ditto ¼ 145
Brick ½ 160

CLIMBING.

Climbing is the art of transporting the body in any direction, by the aid, in general, both of the hands and feet. The climbing-stand consists of two strong poles, about fifteen feet high, and from fifteen to twenty-five feet distant, which are firmly fixed in the ground, and support a beam strongly fastened to them. One pole is two inches and a half in diameter; the other, which serves as a mast, should be considerably thicker; and both serve the purpose of climbing. To the beam are attached other implements of climbing: viz. a ladder, an inclined board, a mast, an inclined pole, a horizontal bar, a rope ladder, an upright, an inclined, and a level rope.--(Plate XVIII.)

KINDS OF CLIMBING.

Climbing on fixed bodies should first be practised.

_The Ladder._

Exercises on the ladder may be practised in the following ways:--

1. By ascending and descending as usual.

2. With one hand, carrying something in the other.

3. Without using the hands.

4. Passing another on the front of the ladder, or swinging to the
back, to let another pass.

_The Inclined Board._

This should be rather rough, about two feet broad, and two inches thick. To climb it, it is necessary to seize both sides with the hands, and to place the feet flat in the middle, the inclination of the board being diminished with the progress of the pupil.

At first, it may form with the ground an angle of about thirty degrees; and the climber should not go more than half-way up. This angle may gradually be augmented to a right angle, or the direction of the board may be made perpendicular. When the board is thus little or not at all inclined, the body must be much curved inward, and the legs thrust up, so that the higher one is nearly even with the hand. In descending, small and quick steps are necessary.

_Page 64._

Climbing.]

_The Upright Pole._

The upright pole should be about two inches and a half in diameter, perfectly smooth and free from splinters.

The position of the climber is shown in Plate XVIII. fig. 1, where nothing touches the pole except the feet, legs, knees, and hands. He grasps as high as possible with both hands, raises himself by bending the body and drawing his legs up the pole, holds fast by them, extends the body, again grasps higher up with his hands, and continues the same use of the legs and arms. The descent is performed by sliding down with the legs, and scarcely touching with the hands, as in Plate XVIII. fig. 2.

_The Mast._

This is more difficult, as it cannot be grasped with the hands; and it consequently should not be practised until the climber is expert in the previous exercises. The position of the legs is the same as for the pole; but, instead of grasping the mast, the climber lays hold of his left arm with his right hand, or the reverse, and clings to the mast with the whole body, as in Plate XVIII. fig. 3.

_The Slant Pole._

This must be at least three inches thick; and as, in this exercise, the hands bear more of the weight than in climbing the upright pole, it should not be attempted until expertness in the other is acquired.

_The Horizontal, or Slightly Inclined Bar._

This may be about two inches wide at top, from ten to fifteen feet long, and supported by two posts, respectively six and seven feet high. The climber must grasp with both hands as high a part of the bar as he can reach, and, with arms extended, support his own weight as long as possible. He must next endeavour to bend the elbows so much, that one shoulder remains close under the bar, as seen in Pl XVIII. fig. 4. Or he may place both hands on the same side, and draw himself up so far as to see over it, keeping the legs and feet close and extended.

He may then hang with his hands fixed on both sides, near to each other, having the elbows much bent, the upper parts of the arms close to the body, and one shoulder close under the bar; may lower the head backwards, and may, at the same time, raise the feet to touch each other over the bar.--(Pl XVIII. fig. 5.) In the last position, he may move the hands one before the other, forward or backward, and may either slide the feet along the bar, or alternately change them like the hands, and retain a similar hold.

Hanging also by the hands alone, as in Pl XVIII. fig. 6, he moves them either forward or backward, keeping the arms firm, and the feet close and extended. Or he may place himself in front of the bar, hanging by both hands, and move laterally. Being likewise in front of the bar, with his hands resting upon it, as in Pl XVIII. fig. 7, he may move along the bar either to the right or left. In the position of Pl XVIII. fig. 5, the climber may endeavour to sit upon the bar, for instance, on the right side, by taking hold with the right knee-joint, grasping firmly with the right hand, and bringing the left armpit over the bar. The riding position is thus easily obtained. From the riding position, he may, by supporting himself with one thigh, turn towards the front of the bar, allowing the leg of the other side to hang down; and he may then very easily move along the bar sideways, by raising his body with his hands placed laterally on the bar.

_The Rope Ladder._

This should have several rundles to spread it out, and ought, in all respects, to be so constructed, as not to twist and entangle. The only difficulty here is that, as it hangs perpendicularly, and is flexible, its steps are liable to be pushed forward, and in that case, the body is thrown into an oblique position, and the whole weight falls on the hands. To prevent this, the climber must keep the body stretched out and upright.--(Plate XVIII. fig. 8.)

_The Upright Rope._

In this exercise, the securing the rope may be effected in various ways. In the first method, shown in Pl XVIII. fig. 9, the hands and feet alone are employed. The feet are crossed; the rope passes between them, and is held fast by their pressure; the hands then grasp higher; the feet are drawn up; they are again applied to the rope; and the same process is repeated. In the second, which is the sailor’s method, shown at Pl XVIII. fig. 10, the rope passes from the hands, generally along the right thigh, just above the knee; winds round the inside of the thigh, under the knee-joint, over the outside of the leg, and across the instep, whence it hangs loose; and the climber, by treading with the left foot upon that part of the rope where it crosses the right one, is firmly supported. This mode of climbing requires the right leg and foot to be so managed that the rope keeps its proper winding whenever it is quitted by the left foot. In descending, to prevent injury, the hands must be lowered alternately.

To rest upon the upright rope, shown in Pl XVIII. fig. 11, the climber must swing the right foot round the rope, so as to wind it three or four times round the leg; must turn it, by means of the left foot, once or twice round the right one, of which the toes are to be bent upwards; and must tread firmly with the left foot upon the last winding. Or, to obtain a more perfect rest he may lower his hands along the rope, as in Figure 11, hold with the right hand, stoop, grasp with the left the part of the rope below the feet, raise it and himself again, and wind it round his shoulders, &c., until he is firmly supported.

_The Oblique Rope._

The climber must fix himself to the rope, as in Pl XVIII. fig. 12, and advance the hands along it, as already directed. The feet may move along the rope alternately; or one leg, hanging over the rope, may slide along it; or, which is best, the sole of one foot may be laid upon the rope, and the other leg across its instep, so that the friction is not felt.

_The Level Rope._

This may have its ends fastened to posts of equal heights; and the same exercises may be performed upon it.

_Climbing Trees._

In attempting this exercise, the kind of the wood and strength of the branches must be considered. Summer is the best time for practising it, as withered branches are then most easily discerned; and even then it is best to climb low trees, until some experience is acquired. As the surface of branches is smooth, or moist and slippery, the hands must never for a moment be relaxed.

SKATING.

Skating is the art of balancing the body, while, by the impulse of each foot alternately, it moves rapidly upon the ice.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE SKATE.

The wood of the skate should be slightly hollowed, so as to adapt it to the ball of the foot; and, as the heel of the boot must be thick enough to admit the peg, it may be well to lower the wood of the skate corresponding to the heel, so as to permit the foot to regain that degree of horizontal position which it would otherwise lose by the height of the heel; for the more of the foot that is in contact with the skate, the more firmly will these be attached. As the tread of the skate should correspond, as nearly as possible, with that of the foot, the wood should be of the same length as the boot or shoe; the irons of good steel, and well secured in the wood.

These should pass beyond the screw at the heel, nearly as far as the wood itself; but the bow of the iron should not project much beyond the tread.

If the skate project much beyond the wood, the whole foot, and more especially its hind part, must be raised considerably from the ice when the front or bow of the skate is brought to bear upon it; and, as the skater depends upon this part for the power of his stroke, it is evident that that must be greatly diminished by the general distance of the foot from the ice. In short, if the skate be too long, the stroke will be feeble, and the back of the leg painfully cramped: if it be too short, the footing will be proportionally unsteady and tottering.

As the position of the person in the act of skating is never vertical, and is sometimes very much inclined, and as considerable exertion of the muscles of the leg is requisite to keep the ankle stiff, this ought to be relieved by the lowness of the skates. Seeing, then, that the closer the foot is to the ice, the less is the strain on the ankle, it is clear that the foot ought to be brought as near to the ice as possible, without danger of bringing the sole of the shoe in contact with it, while traversing on the edge of the skate. The best height is about three-quarters of an inch, and the iron about a quarter of an inch thick.

The grooved or fluted skate, if ever useful, is of service only to boys, or very light persons, whose weight is not sufficient to catch the ice in a hard frost. It certainly should never be used by a person who is heavier than a boy of thirteen or fourteen years of age usually is, because the sharp edge too easily cuts into the ice, and prevents figuring. Fluted skates, indeed, are even dangerous: for the snow or ice cuttings are apt to collect and consolidate in the grooves, till the skater is raised from the edge of his skate, and thrown.

In the general inclination of the foot in skating, no edge can have greater power than that of rectangular shape: the tendency of its action is downwards, cutting through rather than sliding on the surface; and greater hold than this is unnecessary. The irons of skates should be kept well and sharply ground. This ought to be done across the stone, so as to give the bottom of the skate so slight a concavity as to be imperceptible, which insures an edge whose angle is not greater than right. Care must be taken that one edge is not higher than the other; so that, when the skate is placed upon an even surface, it may stand quite perpendicularly. The wear of the iron not being great with a beginner, one grinding will generally last him through an ordinary winter’s skating on clean ice.

The bottom of the iron should be a little curved; for, if perfectly straight, it would be capable of describing only a straight line, whereas the skater’s progress must be circular, because, in order to bring the edge to bear, the body must be inclined, and inclination can be preserved only in circular motion. This curve of the iron should be part of a circle, whose radius is about two feet. That shape enables the skater to turn his toe or heel outwards or inwards with facility.

A screw would have a firmer hold than a mere peg in the hole of the boot; but, as it is less easily removed, skaters generally prefer the peg. The skater should be careful not to bore a larger hole in the heel than is sufficient to admit the peg. The more simple the fastenings of the skate the better. The two straps--namely, the cross strap over the toe, and the heel strap--cannot be improved, unless perhaps by passing one strap through the three bores, and so making it serve for both.

Before going on the ice, the young skater must learn to tie on the skates, and may also learn to walk with them easily in a room, balancing alternately on each foot.

DRESS OF THE SKATER.

A skater’s dress should be as close and unincumbered as possible. Large skirts get entangled with his own limbs, or those of the persons who pass near him; and all fulness of dress is exposed to the wind. Loose trousers, frocks, and more especially great-coats, must be avoided; and indeed, by wearing additional under-clothing, they can always be dispensed with.

As the exercise of skating produces perspiration, flannel next the chest, shoulders, and loins, is necessary to avoid the evils produced by sudden chills in cold weather. The best dress is what is called a dress-coat, buttoned, tight pantaloons, and laced boots (having the heel no higher than is necessary for the peg), which hold the foot tightly and steadily in its place, as well as give the best support to the ankle; for it is of no use to draw the straps of the skate hard, if the boot or shoe be loose.

PRELIMINARY AND GENERAL DIRECTIONS.

Either very rough or very smooth ice should be avoided. The person who for the first time attempts to skate, must not trust to a stick. He may make a friend’s hand his support, if he require one; but that should be soon relinquished, in order to balance himself. He will probably scramble about for half an hour or so, till he begins to find out where the edge of his skate is.

The beginner must be fearless, but not violent; nor even in a hurry. He should not let his feet get far apart, and keep his heels still nearer together. He must keep the ankle of the foot on the ice quite firm; not attempting to gain the edge of the skate by bending it, because the right mode of getting to either edge is by the inclination of the whole body in the direction required; and this inclination should be made fearlessly and decisively.

The leg which is on the ice should be kept perfectly straight; for, though the knee must be somewhat bent at the time of striking, it must be straightened as quickly as possible without any jerk. The leg which is off the ice should also be kept straight, though not stiff, having an easy but slight play, the toe pointing downwards, and the heel within from six to twelve inches of the other.

The learner must not look down at the ice, nor at his feet, to see how they perform. He may at first incline his body a little forward, for safety, but hold his head up, and see where he goes, his person erect, and his face rather elevated than otherwise.

When once off, he must bring both feet up together, and strike again, as soon as he finds himself steady enough, rarely allowing both feet to be on the ice together. The position of the arms should be easy and varied; one being always more raised than the other, this elevation being alternate, and the change corresponding with that of the legs; that is, the right arm being raised as the right leg is put down, and _vice versâ_, so that the arm and leg of the same side may not be raised together.

The face must be always turned in the direction of the line intended to be described. Hence, in backward skating, the head will be inclined much over the shoulder; in forward skating, but slightly. All sudden and violent action must be avoided. Stopping may be caused by slightly bending the knees, drawing the feet together, inclining the body forward, and pressing on the heels. It may also be caused by turning short to the right or left, the foot on the side to which we turn being rather more advanced, and supporting part of the weight.

THE ORDINARY RUN, OR INSIDE EDGE FORWARD.

The first attempt of the beginner is to walk, and this walk shortly becomes a sliding gait, done entirely on the inside edge of the skate.

The first impulse is to be gained by pressing the inside edge of one skate against the ice, and advancing with the opposite foot. To effect this, the beginner must bring the feet nearly together, turn the left somewhat out, place the right a little in advance and at right angles with it, lean forward with the right shoulder, and at the same time move the right foot onwards, and press sharply, or strike the ice with the inside edge of the left skate,--care being taken instantly to throw the weight on the right foot. (Plate XIX. fig. 1.) While thus in motion, the skater must bring up the left foot nearly to a level with the other, and may for the present proceed a short way on both feet.

He must next place the left foot in advance in its turn, bring the left shoulder forward, inclining to that side, strike from the inside edge of the right skate, and proceed as before.

Finally, this motion has only to be repeated on each foot alternately, gradually keeping the foot from which he struck longer off the ice, till he has gained sufficient command of himself to keep it off altogether, and is able to strike directly from one to the other, without at any time having them both on the ice together. Having practised this till he has gained some degree of firmness and power, and a command of his balance, he may proceed to

THE FORWARD ROLL, OR OUTSIDE EDGE.

This is commonly reckoned the first step to figure skating, as, when it is once effected, the rest follows with ease. The impulse is gained in the same manner as for the ordinary run; but, to get on the outside edge of the right foot, the moment that foot is in motion, the skater must advance the left shoulder, throw the right arm back, look over the right shoulder, and incline the whole person boldly and decisively on that side, keeping the left foot suspended behind. (Plate XIX. fig. 2.)

As he proceeds, he must bring the left foot past the inside of the right, with a slight jerk, which produces an opposing balance of the body; the right foot must quickly press, first on the outside of the heel, then on the inside, or its toe; the left foot must be placed down in front, before it is removed more than about eight or ten inches from the other foot; and, by striking outside to the left, giving at the same moment a strong push with the inside of the right toe, the skater passes from right to left, inclining to the left side, in the same manner as he did to the right. He then continues to change from left to right, and from right to left, in the same manner. At first he should not remain long upon one leg, nor scruple occasionally to put the other down to assist; and throughout he must keep himself erect, leaning most on the heel.

The Dutch travelling roll is done on the outside edge forward, in the manner just represented, except that there is described a small segment of a very large circle, thus:

diverging from the straight line no more than is requisite to keep the skate on its edge.

The cross roll or figure 8 is also done on the outside edge forward. This is only the completion of the circle on the outside edge; and it is performed by crossing the legs, and striking from the outside instead of the inside edge. In order to do this, as the skater draws to the close of the stroke on his right leg, he must throw the left quite across it, which will cause him to press hard on the outside of the right skate, from which he must immediately strike, at the same time throwing back the left arm, and looking over the left shoulder, to bring him well upon the outside of that skate. By completing the circle in this manner on each leg, the 8 is formed:

each circle being small, complete, and well-formed, before the foot is changed.

The Mercury figure is merely the outside and inside forward succeeding each other on the same leg alternately, by which a serpentine line is described, thus:

This is skated with the force and rapidity gained by a run. When the run is complete, and the skater on the outside edge, his person becomes quiescent, in the attitude of Mercury, having the right arm advanced and much raised, the face turned over the right shoulder, and the left foot off the ice, a short distance behind the other, turned out and pointed.

FIGURE OF THREE, OR INSIDE EDGE BACKWARDS.

This figure is formed by turning from the outside edge forward to the inside edge backward on the same foot. The head of the 3 is formed like the half circle, on the heel of the outside edge; but when the half circle is complete, the skater leans suddenly forward, and rests on the same toe inside, and a backward motion, making the tail of the 3, is the consequence. The figure described by the right leg should be nearly in the form of No. 1; and on the left leg should be reversed, and resemble No. 2.

At first, the skater should not throw himself quite so hard as hitherto on the outside forward, in order that he may be able the more easily to change to the inside back. He may also be for some time contented with much less than a semicircle before he turns. Having done this, and brought the left leg nearly up to the other, he must not pass it on in advance, as he would to complete a circle, but throw it gently off sidewise, at the same moment turning the face from the right to the left shoulder, and giving the whole person a slight inclination to the left side. These motions throw the skater upon the inside of his skate; but as the first impulse should still retain most of its force, he continues to move on the inside back, in a direction so little different, that his first impulse loses little by the change. (Plate XIX. fig. 1.)

_Page 77._

Skating.]

If unable to change the edge by this method, the skater may assist himself by slightly and gently swinging the arm and leg outward, so as to incline the person to a rotatory motion. This swing, however, must be corrected as soon as the object is attained; and it must generally be observed that the change from edge to edge is to be effected merely by the inclination of the body, not by swinging.

When the skater is able to join the ends of the 3, so as to form one side of a circle, then, by striking off in the same manner, and completing another 3, with the left leg, the combination of the two 3’s will form an 8. In the first attempts, the 3 should not be made above two feet long, which he will acquire the power of doing almost imperceptibly. He may then gradually extend the size as he advances in the art.

Though, in this section, backward skating is spoken of, the term refers to the skate only, which in such case moves heel foremost, but the person of the skater moves sidewise, the face being always turned in the direction in which he is proceeding.

OUTSIDE EDGE BACKWARDS.

Here the skater, having completed the 3, and being carried on by the first impulse, still continues his progress in the same direction, but on the other foot, putting it down on its outside edge, and continuing to go backwards slowly.

To accomplish this, the skater, after making the 3, and placing the outside edge of his left foot on the ice, should at once turn his face over the right shoulder, raise his right foot from the ice, and throw back his right arm and shoulder. (Plate XIX. fig. 2.) If, for awhile, he is unable readily to raise that foot which has made the 3, and leave himself on the outside of the other skate, he may keep both down for some distance, putting himself, however, in attitude of being on the outside only of one skate, and gradually lifting the other off the ice as he acquires ability.

When finishing any figure, this use of both feet backward has great convenience and beauty.

Before venturing on the outside backward, the skater ought to take care that the ice is clear of stones, reeds, &c., and also be certain of the good quality of his irons. When going with great force backward, the course may be deflected, so as to stop by degrees; and, when moving slowly, the suspended foot may be put down in a cross direction to the path.

Such are the four movements of which alone the skate is capable: namely, the inside edge forward; the outside forward; the inside back; and the outside back; in which has been seen how the impulse for the first two is gained, and how the third flows from the second, and the fourth from the third. By the combination of these elements of skating, and the variations with which they succeed each other, are formed all the evolutions in this art.

The Double Three is that combination in which the skates are brought from the inside back of the first three, to the outside forward of the second. Here the skater, after having completed one 3, and being on the inside back, must bring the whole of the left side forward, particularly the leg, till it is thrown almost across the right, on which he is skating. This action brings him once more to the outside forward, from which he again turns to the inside back. While he is still in motion on the second inside back of the right leg, he must strike on the left, and repeat the same on that.