Chapter II: Part 2

The strong revival of nationalism in Germany after the Napoleonic Wars spread to the German inhabitants of the Duchies of Schleswig Holstein, who desired in 1848 to be incorporated as a single constitutional state in the German Federation. The Danish crown could be inherited by female heirs, but in the Duchies the Salic law had never been repealed. This made complications with regard to the succession. Frederick VII of Denmark endeavoured to preserve the Duchy as an integral part of Denmark. An insurrection broke out, and Prussia intervened by marching troops into Holstein. Under pressure from other Powers the King of Prussia signed a convention at Malmoe practically yielding all the Danish demands, and in 1850, by the _Treaty of Berlin_, peace was restored between Prussia and Denmark, but without any settlement of the vexed question. In 1852 Great Britain intervened with a proposal without success. In 1854 the King of Denmark promulgated special Constitutions for the Duchies as well as a common Constitution for the whole Monarchy. The German Confederation rejected this as the Diets of the Duchies had not been consulted. The question became of European interest: its complexity prevented any settlement being reached. Bismarck alone was quite determined on eventual annexation, and Denmark was equally determined not to yield.

Occasion:

After further diplomatic disputes Austrian and Prussian troops entered Schleswig in February 1864.

Course of the War:

The allied troops broke through the frontier fortifications and occupied the greater part of the Danish mainland. The Danes were overthrown in the island of Alsen, and the German flag carried to the northern extremity of Denmark. A conference was opened in London, April 1864, but the negotiations broke down and the war continued.

Political Result:

Eventually, by the _Treaty of Vienna_, October 30, 1864, the King of Denmark ceded the rights in the whole of Schleswig Holstein to the Sovereigns of Austria and Prussia jointly.

Remarks:

This was more a diplomatic war than a military war. The conflict was between retention and annexation, and little regard was paid on any side to the desires of the inhabitants of the disputed territory. Although by the _Treaty of London_ of 1852 the Powers, including Great Britain, had acknowledged as permanent the principle of the integrity of the Danish Monarchy no steps were taken by them to maintain that principle. The settlement did nothing to prevent the outbreak of war between Prussia and Austria two years later, when Schleswig Holstein was again one of the bones of contention.

THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR

1866

Belligerents:

Prussia and some of the smaller North German States and Italy.
Austria and the other German States.

Cause:

From 1848 onwards in all the projects for a united Germany there was keen rivalry between Prussia and Austria. Each resisted the domination of the other in any new Empire, and the South German states were inclined to side with Austria against Prussian supremacy. This state of affairs prevented any final scheme from being agreed to. At the same time there were serious differences between Austria and Italy, who was Prussia’s ally. Bismarck made up his mind that Austria must be expelled by force of arms from the German Federation. He was an ardent supporter of the House of Hohenzollern.

Occasion:

Austria supported Schleswig Holstein in their struggle for independence against Prussia after the conclusion of the Danish War. An attempted congress of neutrals failed. Austria called on the Diet of Frankfort to take the affairs of Schleswig Holstein into its own hands, and demanded and obtained the mobilization of the whole Federal armies. Prussia declared that this action made an end of the Federal Union, and submitted a new plan for the organization of Germany, which was refused. Diplomatic relations were broken off June 12, 1866.

Course of the War:

Hanover and Hesse Cassel were conquered by Prussia, the Austrians were defeated at Königgrätz, July 3, 1866, and the Prussians pushed forward in sight of Vienna. The Austrians defeated the Italians on land at Custozza, and by sea at Lissa.

Political Result:

Napoleon III offered mediation, which was accepted. The _Treaty of Prague_, August 23, 1866. Prussia annexed Hanover, Nassau, Hesse Cassel, and Frankfort: Germany north of the Main together with Saxony was included in a Federation under Prussia: the Southern states were left independent. Prussian sovereignty over Schleswig Holstein was recognized. Austria withdrew completely from German affairs.

Remarks:

Napoleon III had attempted, by dividing Germany in two, to put an obstacle in the way of German unity. His clumsy diplomacy was greatly disapproved of in France. By preventing a final settlement he made the recurrence of war inevitable.

BRITISH EXPEDITION IN ABYSSINIA

1867–1868

Belligerents:

Great Britain.
Abyssinia.

Cause:

From 1855 Abyssinia came under the powerful rule of the Emperor Theodore. He subdued the neighbouring kingdoms of Tigré and Shoa, and took Menelek, son of the ruler of Tigré, to be trained in his service. He ravaged the surrounding country, and oppressed his own people. In 1864 there was an interchange of letters between Theodore and the British Government, out of which difficulties arose.

Occasion:

The British Consul and his staff, and subsequently a British emissary, were imprisoned in Magdala and put in chains. Their release was demanded, but the Emperor paid no attention, and the British Government decided they must have recourse to arms.

Course of the War:

A British force under Sir Robert Napier landed in January 1868, a march of three hundred miles was undertaken through the mountainous districts, and, after a fierce engagement, Magdala was stormed and taken on April 13, 1868. The Emperor committed suicide, and his son was taken to England, where he died. The British troops left the country in May 1868.

Political Result:

The ruler of Tigré succeeded Theodore under the title of King John, and on his death, in 1889, Menelek became Emperor.

Remarks:

After this the Italians came on to the scene with ambitions in this part of Africa (see p. 74), but Abyssinia remained an independent kingdom. In the various expeditions against the Mullah in Somaliland (1902–4) the Abyssinians co-operated with Great Britain.

THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR

1870–1871

Belligerents:

France.
Prussia and ten other German States.

Cause:

For some years previously there had been increasing friction between France and Prussia, owing chiefly to Louis Napoleon’s apprehensions as to the possibility of closer union between Prussia and the South German states, his repeated endeavours to extend the Eastern frontier of France, and Bismarck’s counter-moves to frustrate his designs. The desire also for a united Germany was growing stronger, and Bismarck believed it could not be completed without a conflict with France.

Occasion:

The candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen for the throne of Spain in 1870 was resented by France as calculated to bring Spain under the influence of Prussia. King William of Prussia, on representations from France, persuaded Prince Leopold to withdraw, but refused firmly but politely a guarantee against the renewal of the candidature. Bismarck published a telegram conveying the impression that the French Ambassador, Benedetti, had been insulted by the King at Ems on the occasion of the refusal. This infuriated public opinion in France, the Empress Eugénie actively used her influence, and Napoleon agreed to a declaration of war on July 14, 1870.

Course of the War:

In the war, which lasted from July 1870 to February 1871, the ill-organized and badly led French troops could make no stand against the well-prepared armies of Germany. The French were defeated at Wörth, August 6th; Metz, August 7th; Marsla Tour, August 17th; Gravelotte, August 18th. Paris was besieged: Louis Napoleon capitulated at Sedan, September 2nd; Strasburg fell, September 28th; Bazaine capitulated at Metz, October 27th; and the Germans entered Paris on January 28, 1871.

Political Result:

By the _Treaty of Frankfort_, May 10, 1871, Alsace and half Lorraine (with Metz) were ceded to Germany, and an indemnity of 200 millions was exacted from France. The King of Prussia was proclaimed at Versailles German Emperor. France was declared a republic, and Napoleon eventually retired into exile in England.

Remarks:

The dictation of terms and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine entirely prevented friendly relations from being established between the two countries in the succeeding years. France, by getting rid of the corrupt and incompetent government of Napoleon III, began to recuperate from this time onward. Germany, having reached the ideal of unity, proceeded gradually to join in the competition for commercial expansion and Imperial aggrandizement.

THE ASHANTI WAR

1873–1874

Belligerents:

Great Britain.
The Ashantis.

Cause:

The Ashantis, a very fierce and warlike tribe on the Gold Coast of Africa had repeatedly caused trouble owing to their treatment of the Fantis, a tribe on the coast under British protection. In 1824 they defeated a British force and carried off to Kumasi the skull of the Governor, Sir Charles M’Carthy, which was used as a royal drinking cup. They were afterwards defeated in 1826. In 1863 an expedition against them had to be abandoned owing to the ravages done by sickness among the troops. In 1867 a warlike king, Kofi Karikari succeeded as ruler and proceeded to make hostile preparations against the Fantis.

Occasion:

In 1872 some Dutch possessions on the Gold Coast were transferred to Great Britain. The King of Ashanti claimed a tribute formerly allowed to him by the Dutch and refused to evacuate the territory ceded to Britain. He also held four Europeans in captivity. The British Government determined to take up the matter seriously, and when in January 1873 an Ashanti force invaded the British Protectorate an expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley was immediately despatched.

Course of the War:

Owing to difficulties of climate it was necessary that the whole campaign should be rapidly carried out. The Ashantis were defeated at all points. Kumasi was reached and King Kofi surrendered. The European troops suffered severely from fever but the objects were successfully accomplished. Wolseley sailed from England on September 12, 1873, and returned to Portsmouth on March 21, 1874.

Political Result:

The King renounced his claim to supremacy over any part of the former Dutch protectorate, paid an indemnity in gold, and agreed to prohibit human sacrifices. Further trouble arose, however, after the death of the King, his successors disregarding the treaty. In 1895 an expedition was sent out under Colonel Sir F. Scott. Kumasi was occupied and King Prempeh deported. Still the Ashanti tribes refused to submit, and continued in rebellion. The Governor of the Gold Coast and a small force were surrounded in Kumasi. He managed to escape and Kumasi was finally relieved by an expedition under Colonel Wilcocks who gradually suppressed the rebellion. By an Order in Council of September 26, 1901, Ashanti was formally annexed to the British dominions and given a separate administration under the control of the Governor of the Gold Coast.

Remarks:

Imperial responsibilities entail the protection of friendly tribes against hostile attack in the outlying parts of the Empire. Punitive expeditions become necessary and annexation is found to be the best method of securing law and order.

RUSSO-TURKISH WAR

1877–1878

Belligerents:

Russia.
Turkey.

Cause:

The persecution and oppression of Christians in the Ottoman Empire led to a revolt in Herzegovina in 1875. Andrassy, on behalf of Austria, presented a Note to the Turkish Government demanding reforms, and this was followed by the Berlin Memorandum, signed by Germany, France, Austria, Russia, and Italy. Great Britain alone stood out. The Bulgarian massacres in June 1876 caused a great sensation in England, and were followed by a declaration of war by Servia and Montenegro against Turkey. Great Britain, always mistrusting Russian designs, called a Conference. The demands of the Conference were rejected by Turkey in January 1877. The Sultan protested against the encroachment of the Powers on his inviolable rights.

Occasion:

The London Protocol of March 1877, signed by Great Britain and Russia and agreed to by the other Powers, called for reforms and expressed the intention of the Powers to safeguard the Christian population. This was also rejected by the Turks, and Russia declared war on April 24, 1877.

Course of the War:

The Russian army crossed the Danube. Plevna fell in December 1877. The Russians entered Adrianople, January 1878. The advance of the Russian army towards Gallipoli was followed by the dispatch of the British fleet to Constantinople and brought Russia and Great Britain within a hair’s-breadth of war. This, however, was avoided and peace negotiations began.

Political Result:

_Treaty of San Stefano_, March 3, 1878. The independence of Servia, Montenegro, and Roumania was recognized. Bulgaria was made an autonomous principality with frontiers including the greater part of European Turkey; the Dobrudja and certain districts in Asia Minor were ceded to Russia.

Great Britain objected strongly to this treaty, and proposed a Congress at Berlin. While the chances of the Congress hung in the balance, Great Britain made warlike preparations, but the Congress was finally agreed to.

_Treaty of Berlin_, July 13, 1878. Bulgaria’s frontier was confined to the country north of the Balkans. Bosnia and Herzegovina were handed over to Austria: the territory given to Serbia and Montenegro was further restricted: Thessaly and part of Epirus were ceded to Greece.

By a secret convention Great Britain engaged to protect Turkey against further aggression of Russia in Asia. In return the Porte assigned Cyprus to be occupied and administered by England.

Lord Beaconsfield was the British Plenipotentiary at the Peace Congress and returned declaring he had secured “peace with honour.”

Remarks:

This was a patched-up peace. It settled none of the problems in the Balkans, which continued to be the danger zone in Europe for the rest of the century.

THE SECOND AFGHAN WAR

1878–1881

Belligerents:

Great Britain and Indian Troops.
Afghanistan.

Cause:

In 1868 the expanding power of Russia in Asia resulted in Bokhara becoming a Russian dependency. In 1873 Russia conquered Khiva. Shere Ali, now ruler of Afghanistan, became alarmed, but failing to come to an understanding with the British Government, he began to make overtures to Russia. In 1877 an offer of alliance was made by the Viceroy of India, but Shere Ali refused to admit a British Agent into Afghanistan.

Occasion:

In 1878 the Russian Government sent an envoy to Kabul to make a treaty with the Amir. A British army was also sent, but was turned back on the frontier, and hostilities were proclaimed by the Viceroy.

Course of the War:

Two British forces marched into the interior of Afghanistan, and occupied important positions. Shere Ali fled from his capital, and died in February 1879. By the _Treaty of Gandamuk_, May 1879, Yakub Khan was recognized as Amir, and he agreed that a British envoy should reside at his Court. In September 1879, the envoy, his staff, and his escort were massacred. A fresh expedition was sent under Sir F. Roberts, who entered Kabul. In 1880, Abdur Rahman, nephew of Shere Ali, returned from exile in Russia and established himself in the northern provinces. The British Government came to an agreement with him, and he was recognized as Amir. In July 1880 Ayub Khan, another son of Shere Ali, defeated a British force at Maiwand. Roberts reached Kandahar from Kabul by a rapid march, and defeated Ayub Khan on September 1, 1880. Again, in July 1881, Ayub Khan returned and took possession of Kandahar, but was finally routed by Abdur Rahman in September.

Political Result:

The frontiers of Afghanistan were delimited in agreement with Russia. Abdur Rahman’s rulership over Afghanistan was established. He extended and consolidated his dominion over the whole country, and was peacefully succeeded by his son Habibullah in 1901.

Remarks:

By the Anglo-Russia Convention of 1907, Great Britain engaged not to alter the political status of Afghanistan, and Russia recognized it as outside her sphere of influence.

THE ZULU WAR

1879

Belligerents:

Great Britain.
The Zulus.

Cause:

The warlike and threatening attitude of the Zulus under Cetywayo constituted a perpetual menace to the safety of the British possessions in South Africa. The policy of Sir Bartle Frere, Governor of the Cape and High Commissioner, was the eventual Federation of all South African states under British rule, and it was essential, therefore, in his opinion, that the white inhabitants should be secured against native raids. There was a strong opinion that this could be effected without force of arms.

Occasion:

The cruelties and excesses practised by Cetywayo culminated in a raid into Natal, where women were carried off and murdered. Frere issued an ultimatum demanding the break-up of the military system of Zululand, and further that a British Resident was to be received and missionaries were not to be molested. No reply was received, and British troops entered Zululand on January 10, 1879.

Course of the War:

Frere’s application for reinforcements was refused by the British Government. But after a British defeat at Isandhlwana, January 22, 1879, which was only prevented from being a disaster by the gallant defence of Rorke’s Drift, Sir Garnet Wolseley was sent out with more troops. The Zulus were defeated at Ulundi, July 5th, and Cetywayo was taken prisoner.

Political Result:

Zululand was divided into thirteen districts, each with a separate chief, and was placed under a British Resident. It was finally annexed in 1887.

Remarks:

This war is only an episode in the extension and consolidation of the British Empire in South Africa. But it is an instance of the grave responsibilities which are involved in Imperial expansion.

In the course of the war the Prince Imperial, only son of Napoleon III, was killed, and with him died the last hopes of a restoration of the Napoleonic dynasty in France.

THE CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR

1879–1882

Belligerents:

Chile.
Peru. Bolivia.

Cause:

After the blockade and bombardment of their ports by a Spanish squadron in 1865, on account of their sympathy with Peru in a quarrel with Spain, the Chileans were impressed with the necessity of possessing an adequate fleet to defend their long coast line. Ships were obtained and officers trained, so that Chile became well equipped for any future encounter.

The authorities of Bolivia seized the effects of the Chilean Nitrate Company at Antofogasta.

Occasion:

Five hundred soldiers were despatched to protect Chilean interests. The force landed and marched inland. Bolivia declared war on March 1st, Peru on April 5, 1879.

Course of the War:

The Chileans occupied every port on the Bolivian coast, and engaged the Peruvian fleet. The _Huascar_, a Peruvian ironclad, after other ships had been destroyed, did great damage under four successive commanders, but after severe fighting was forced to surrender off Angamos, and the Peruvian navy ceased to exist. After several engagements on land the Chileans succeeded in taking possession of the Bolivian seaboard and the Peruvian province of Tarapaca.

Fighting continued in 1880 when, in spite of daring resistance, the Peruvians were defeated at all points. Lima was occupied on January 17, 1881, and Callao surrendered on January 18th. The last engagement took place in September 1882, and a small army of occupation was left in Peru.

Political Result:

The Treaty of Peace was not ratified till April 1884. Peru ceded to Chile the province of Tarapaca. The provinces of Tacna and Arica were placed under Chilean authority for ten years, after which they were to decide their own future government. Chile, however, eventually evaded compliance with this agreement and retained forcible possession of the provinces. Chile retained possession of the Bolivian seaboard, thus cutting off Bolivia from access to the Pacific.

Remarks:

The aggressive attitude of Chile was a cause of complaint with the neighbouring states, and nearly led on more than one occasion to further conflict. By a Treaty signed in 1905, however, Bolivia at last ceded all claims to a seaport and strip of coast. Chile, except for a civil war in 1891, is distinguished among the South American States by its freedom from revolution and serious political unrest.

THE FRENCH EXPEDITION IN TUNIS

1881

Belligerents:

France.
The Arabs of Tunis.

Cause:

Tunis under the government of the Beys formed part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1862 Italy began to take an interest in Tunis. A triple British, French, and Italian control over Tunisian finances was established in 1869. In 1878, at the Congress of Berlin, Great Britain came to a secret understanding to allow France a free hand in Tunis in return for French acquiescence in the British lease of Cyprus.

Occasion:

In 1880 the Italians bought the British railway from Tunis to Golitta. France, under the pretext of chastising independent tribes in the north-east, determined to take action.

Course of the War:

A French force marched on the capital. The conquest of the country was not effected without serious resistance, specially at Sjax, but finally the whole country was brought completely under French jurisdiction, and the Bey was compelled to accept a French protectorate.

Political Result:

By the _Treaty of Bardo_, May 12, 1881, and a further _Treaty of La Marsa_, June 8, 1883, the French protectorate was established. Italy did not recognize the full consequences of the French protectorate till 1896. Protests by Turkey were ignored by France, and in 1892 the Ottoman Government was prepared to delimit the Tunis-Tripoli frontier. But there were various frontier incidents, and Turkey maintained the claim that the Tunisians were Ottoman subjects.

Remarks:

The occupation of Tunis led to an estrangement between France and Italy.

THE EGYPTIAN WAR

1882

Belligerents:

Great Britain.
Egypt.

Cause:

Since 1840, while Egypt had been virtually independent, Great Britain had been regarded as the special champion of Turkish suzerainty; France as the protector of the Viceroys of Egypt. The construction of the Suez Canal, chiefly engineered by France and Great Britain, made Egypt of new importance, as the direct route to India now lay through the Red Sea. An Anglo-French financial control was established to secure payment of interest on the enormous sums lent to the Khedive Ismail. British influence became paramount, and the British Government gradually assumed the responsibility for good government in Egypt.

Occasion:

An anti-Turkish revolt under Arabi Pasha broke out, and there was a massacre of Christians in Alexandria in June 1882. The Khedive was powerless. The Powers met in conference at Constantinople, but before any decision was arrived at the British Government resolved to act.

Course of the War:

The bombardment of Alexandria took place on July 11, 1882, and the Egyptian troops set fire to the town. The Sultan was willing to enter into a military convention with Great Britain, but before it was signed the Egyptians were defeated at Tel-el Kebir by the British under Sir Garnet Wolseley, on September 13, 1882, and Arabi surrendered.

Political Result:

Arabi and other Pashas were banished to Ceylon.

The military occupation of Egypt by Great Britain, in spite of declarations to the effect that the troops would shortly be withdrawn, and in spite of protests from France, became permanent.

Remarks:

Till the Anglo-French agreement of 1904 France adopted a more or less hostile attitude with regard to Egypt. Many administrative and financial reforms were introduced by Sir Evelyn Baring, afterwards Lord Cromer. The government was practically taken out of the hands of the Egyptians, and from time to time there was trouble with a nationalist movement.

FRANCO-CHINESE WAR

1884–1885

Belligerents:

France.
China.

Cause:

France, after 1870, turned its attention more and more to colonial expansion in Africa, and also in Asia, where for some time efforts had been made by the French to indemnify themselves in Indo-China for the loss of Hindustan. In 1875 a vague treaty with the Emperor of Annam gave France the protectorate. The importance was realized of finding a path of penetration towards China.

Occasion:

In 1883–1884 an attempt was made to force the Emperor of Annam to acknowledge the protectorate and to secure the delta of Tonkin. The Chinese Government, unwilling to have France as a neighbour, took the offensive.

Course of the War:

The French fleet destroyed the arsenal of Foochow, took possession of Formosa, Kelung, and the Pescadores Islands, and blockaded Southern China. A French brigade was put to flight near Langsen. Incorrect information as to the extent of the reverse caused the overthrow of Jules Ferry’s ministry. But the victories and blockade of the French fleet induced China to accept peace.

Political Result:

By the _Treaty of Tientsin_, June 9, 1885, China recognized the French protectorate in Tonkin and Annam, and promised to open the southern provinces to French traders.

By treaties with Siam in 1893, and Great Britain in 1892–1896, Cambodia came also under French protection, and the Empire in Indo-China was consolidated.

Remarks:

France definitely joined in the competition for Imperial expansion.

THE BURMESE WARS

1823–1826, 1851, 1885

Belligerents:

Great Britain.
Burma.

Cause:

The expansion of the British Empire in India involved the subjection of neighbouring states. In addition to this there was fear of the rivalry of France in Burma.

Occasions:

(1) The conquest of Assam, which was under British protection, by the King of Ava in 1823, and the attack by him on a British fort at Shapur, led to the declaration of war against Burma.

(2) The insults offered to the British flag at Rangoon by the King of Ava, led to the fresh outbreak of war in 1851.

(3) King Thibaw’s despotic rule and his design to enter into an agreement with France, led to the last Ultimatum in 1885.

Course of the Wars:

(I) A British force was defeated at Ramu, and the first two attempts to reach Ava failed. Martaban and Tennasserin were taken by the British, and the Burmese were expelled from Rangoon in December 1824. Prome was reached in April 1825. Myede was entered in December. In 1826 Sir Archibald Campbell pushed on to Yandabu, forty-five miles from Ava. By the treaty of peace February 24, 1826, the British gained the provinces of Assam, Arakan, and the coast of Tenasserim.

(II) In April, 1852, as the King of Ava refused to come to terms, Rangoon, Martaban, and Bassein were taken by Dalhousie. Prome was taken in October, and Pegu in November 1852. No treaty was signed but the King was prepared to accept an accomplished fact.

(III) In 1885 the British Ultimatum took King Thibaw by surprise, and within a fortnight he surrendered unconditionally when the British force approached his capital. Guerilla warfare continued for nearly two years.

Political Result:

By the proclamation of January 1, 1886, the whole of Burma was annexed, and Thibaw was deported to India.

Remarks:

The conquest of Burma was affected, not so much because of the misrule of the Kings of Ava as from a motive of Imperial expansion and the desire to forestall the designs of France.

THE SERBO-BULGARIAN WAR

1885

Belligerents:

Bulgaria.
Serbia.

Cause:

The Treaty of Berlin of 1878 left abundant material for future conflict in European Turkey. Bulgaria was confined to the north of the Balkan mountains, and Eastern Roumelia was still under the Sultan. Prince Alexander of Battenberg, the ruler of Bulgaria, in September 1885, marched south and occupied Philippopolis. The Sultan protested, the Czar was indignant, but Great Britain approved the Union of Roumelia with Bulgaria, and the danger of war passed away. The success of Bulgaria whetted the appetite of Milan, who had become King of Serbia in 1882. With a view to strengthening the prestige of his dynasty he adopted a spirited foreign policy and awaited an opportunity.

Occasion:

Frontier troubles and tariff disputes between the two countries had embittered relations, and the King of Serbia declared war, thinking he would have a triumphal march to Sofia, the Russian officers having withdrawn from the Bulgarian army.

Course of the War:

The Bulgarians gained a decisive victory at Slivnitsa on November 16, 1885, and occupied Pirot, and the road to Belgrade lay open before them. But Austria intervened on behalf of Serbia, and after fourteen days’ fighting an armistice was signed.

Political Result:

By the _Treaty of Buckarest_, March 3, 1886, the _status quo_ was restored; Bulgaria gained nothing, but established her right to Eastern Roumelia. Owing to Russian intrigue Alexander was forced to abdicate and was succeeded by Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg as Prince of Bulgaria.

Remarks:

Bulgaria became gradually the most advanced and formidable state in the Balkans. In 1908, at the time of the revolutionary crisis in Turkey and the annexation of Bosnia and Herzogovina by Austria, Ferdinand declared himself Czar of a completely independent Bulgaria.

Milan abdicated in 1889, and his son Alexander became King of Serbia. He and his wife were murdered in 1903 and Peter Karageorgevich accepted the crown.

THE CHINO-JAPANESE WAR

1894–1895

Belligerents:

Japan.
China and Korea.

Cause:

Japan adopting Western ideas developed into a powerful state with surprising rapidity during the last fifty years of the nineteenth century. The growth of her armaments and an ambition for expansion necessarily followed. China, on the other hand, did not welcome the influence of the West, which rapid transit and communication had brought into Asia. The weakness and misgovernment of Korea was a perpetual temptation to her neighbours. Japan invited China to co-operate in demanding reforms in Korea, but China refused and Japan acted alone.

Occasion:

In July 1894 Japan issued an Ultimatum calling on Korea to accept a Japanese programme of reforms. Korea temporized, and Seoul, the capital, was taken without difficulty, the Emperor being made a prisoner. China immediately intervened.

Course of the War:

By land and sea the Japanese, who had been trained by European officers, were easily victorious. Asan was occupied, a victory was gained off the Yalu River, and the Japanese marched on Yingkow. Port Arthur, on the Liao-Tung peninsula, was captured, finally Wei-hai-Wei fell, and Li Hung Chang, the Chinese Minister, sued for peace.

Political Result:

By the _Treaty of Shimonoseki_, China ceded to Japan the Liao Tung peninsula, the island of Formosa and the Pescadores Islands, and the indemnity was fixed at 200 million taels. But Russia, France, and Germany intervened, and ordered Japan to surrender the Liao Tung Peninsula on the ground that Port Arthur threatened the independence of Peking. But the insincerity of the intervention of the Western Powers was revealed in 1897, when China was compelled to lease Kiao Chow to Germany, Port Arthur to Russia, Wei-hai-Wei to Great Britain, while France obtained a concession near Tonkin. Only the Italian claim for the port of Sanmen was refused by China.

Remarks:

The encroachments of the Western Powers evoked intense indignation in China. The rivalry in the exploitation of the Far East by the West had begun in real earnest.

THE ITALO-ABYSSINIAN WAR

1895–1896

Belligerents:

Italy.
Abyssinia.

Cause:

Having become a united nation, Italy soon developed Imperialistic ambitions. She looked towards Tunis, but was forestalled there by France in 1881. In 1884, being secure from an attack by land, by an alliance with Austria concluded in 1882, and being assured by Great Britain that the occupation by a friendly Power of certain positions on the Red Sea littoral would not be regarded unfavourably, the Italian Government decided on a forward policy in Africa.

Occasion:

After a preliminary expedition in 1887, which was unsuccessful and had to be recalled, a treaty was made with Menelek, after the death of King John of Abyssinia, which was interpreted in Italy as involving Italian suzerainty over Abyssinia. Italy supported Menelek against his rival Ras Mangascia.

Course of the War:

Italian victories over the Dervishes at Agordat (1893) and Cassala (1894) encouraged the ambition of Italy for a vast African Empire. On a further Italian advance in 1895 the Abyssinians united in their resistance. Menelek repudiated all idea of a protectorate, and General Baratieri suffered a disastrous defeat at Adowah, March 1, 1896.

Political Result:

The Italian suzerainty over Abyssinia was abandoned, and by the Treaty of Peace signed in September 1900, the frontiers of the Italian colony were reduced.

Remarks:

The attempt on the part of Italy to hunt with the lions in colonial aggrandizement ended in humiliation. Italy was now able to devote its attention to much-needed internal reforms. But the Imperialist policy only died down to be revived later.

THE WAR IN THE SOUDAN

1896–1898

Belligerents:

Great Britain--Egypt.
Arabs and Dervishes.

Cause:

The Soudan had fallen into the hands of rebellious tribes under the Mahdi. In 1883 on Egyptian force under General Hicks had been defeated at El Obeid, and General Baker was also defeated in his attempt to relieve the Tokar garrison. The successes of a British force near Suakin were rendered useless by the refusal of the British Government to advance further. Early in 1884 it was decided to despatch General Gordon, who had an intimate knowledge of the country, to bring away Europeans from the Soudan. On arriving at Khartoum he was cut off from all communication with Egypt, Berber and the Bahr-el-Gazal province having fallen into the hands of the Mahdi. The relief expedition was sent out too late to save him. Khartoum fell, and Gordon was killed on January 25, 1885. The whole of the Soudan remained under the rule of the Mahdi for thirteen years. The British Government came to the conclusion that Egypt could never be considered permanently secure so long as a hostile Power was in occupation of Khartoum.

Occasion:

After the Italian defeat at Adowah it was decided to create a diversion in Italian interests, and orders were given to occupy the province of Dongola. Rumours of the crumbling power of the Khalifa, who had succeeded the Mahdi, strengthened the idea that it was a favourable opportunity to advance into the Soudan.

Course of the War:

British and Egyptian troops under Kitchener occupied Dongola September 23, 1896. In 1897 desert railways were constructed, and Abu Hamed and Berber were wrested from the dervishes. In 1898 reinforcements of British troops were sent from Cairo. Omdurman, the stronghold of Mahdism, was captured on September 2, 1898, and two days later Khartoum was occupied.

Political Result:

By an agreement between the British and Egyptian Governments in January 1899, the Soudan was placed under their joint control, the Governor-General to be appointed by the Khedive on British recommendation.

Remarks:

The arrival of Major Marchand at Fashoda, in September 1898, where he hoisted the French flag, created a momentary excitement and talk of war, but the British Government adopted a firm attitude, and he received orders to withdraw.

No opposition to the Anglo-Egyptian agreement was encountered in Europe. The economic and agricultural development of the Soudan has since progressed rapidly.

Nearly a million square miles were added to the territory under British rule.

THE TURKO-GREEK WAR

1897

Belligerents:

Turkey.
Greece.

Cause:

Crete, which formed part of the Ottoman Dominion, had been granted a Constitution in 1868. A revolt in 1889 caused the Sultan to limit the powers of the assembly and supersede the Christian governor by a Mussulman. Disturbances broke out between Christians and Mohammedans in the succeeding years. In February 1897 the Christians proclaimed union with Greece, and Colonel Vassos was sent with a force to occupy the island in the King’s name. The Powers intervened, and the Admirals occupied Canea. Neither the Sultan nor the King wanted war. The King was under the impression that the Powers would prevent it.

Occasion:

Enthusiasm for war which was not accompanied by any sort of military organization or preparation grew up in Greece. When armed bands crossed the frontier into Macedonia, Turkey immediately declared war (April 17, 1897).

Course of the War:

The Greek fleet, on which great hopes had been placed, effected nothing. The Turkish forces occupied Larissa, advanced across Thessaly, defeated the Greeks all along the line, and on May 17, 1897, the victory of Domokos opened to the Turks the pass which leads down to Lamia. The Powers intervened, and a armistice was signed.

Political Result:

By the treaty of peace signed at Constantinople, December 4, 1897, the Turks evacuated Thessaly, and certain strategic alterations were made in the frontier. Greece paid an indemnity of four millions, and accepted the European control of her finances. Crete continued to be the arena of periodic conflict. Prince George of Greece was appointed High Commissioner of the Powers under a new Constitution, but he resigned in 1906. While virtually Greek the island remained under the suzerainty of the Sultan.

Remarks:

This was only one of the many Balkan conflicts. The intervention of the Powers was invoked in order to check any increase in the dominion of the Sultan. But owing to their own conflicting ambitions and the inherent racial complications in the Balkans, they never at any time reached a solution of the problems involved.

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR

1897–1898

Belligerents:

Spain.
The United States of America.

Cause:

The decline of the Spanish Colonial Empire (which had reached its highest point under Philip II at the end of the sixteenth century) continued throughout the seventeenth, eighteenth, and early nineteenth century, and was hastened by the misgovernment, corruption, and incessant outbreaks of revolution in Spain itself. One by one by means of revolution, the Spanish-American colonies had gained their independence. The policy of the Holy Alliance and of Metternich was to check the growth of Constitutional government in Europe. King Ferdinand of Spain was in conflict with the constitutional movement, and civil war prevailed. In 1823 France intervened in Spain on behalf of Ferdinand, and French troops entered Madrid. Canning, on behalf of Great Britain, prohibited the conquest by France or her allies of the Spanish colonies, and formally recognized their independence in 1824. Cuba and other islands were the last of the Spanish possessions. During the remainder of the nineteenth century Spain continued periodically to be torn and weakened by internal disturbances.

Occasion:

In order to quell the revolts in Cuba more effectually the milder policy of Martinez Campos was exchanged in 1897 for the ruthless and brutal rule of General Weyler. The United States were deeply stirred by the torture and starvation of their neighbours. General Weyler was recalled. But when the American cruiser _Maine_ was blown up in the port of Havana, the United States demanded the evacuation of Cuba by Spain. Spain refused.

Course of the War:

Two Spanish fleets were destroyed in May and July 1898, and American land forces in Cuba, the Philippines, and Porto Rico won those islands with comparatively little struggle.

Political Result:

By the treaty of peace signed at Paris, December 1898, Spain surrendered practically all her colonies. The Caroline Islands in the Pacific were sold to Germany in 1899.

Remarks:

This was the last chapter in the extinction of a vast colonial Empire, which was dissolved owing to the spirit of independence in its various states and the bad government in the Mother Country.

THE BOER WAR

1881, 1899–1902

Belligerents:

Great Britain.
The Transvaal and Orange Free State.

Cause:

The premature annexation of the Transvaal in 1877 was resented by the majority of the Boers. In 1880 a formidable rebellion broke out, a small British force was sent out which met with determined opposition at Laing’s Nek and Ingogo, and on February 27, 1881, was defeated at Majuba Hill. The Boers regained their independence under the suzerainty of Great Britain.

Cecil Rhodes, with vast ideas of Imperial expansion, became the dominating influence in South Africa. In 1884 Bechuanaland was annexed. In 1889 Rhodes founded the British South Africa Company. In 1896, after a successful conflict with the Matabeles, Buluwayo was captured and Matabeleland added to the territory of Rhodesia. In 1886 gold had been discovered in the Transvaal, and a great cosmopolitan city arose at Johannesburg. This resulted in an enormous influx of Europeans and the decision of the Boers to exclude them from any share in the political life of the country. Behind Rhodes, who became Prime Minister of Cape Colony in 1895, great financial interests grew up and exerted considerable influence. Under the presidency of Kruger the Boers adopted a more and more hostile attitude towards the Outlanders. In 1895 the Jameson Raid, which was connived at by the authorities, revived Kruger’s power, which had been waning, and made the Boers arm in preparation for a further surprise.

Occasion:

A promise of intervention was sent by the British Government in reply to a petition from the Outlanders in 1899. Attempts to reach a compromise with Kruger failed. Both sides were preparing for war, and the mining interests exerted great pressure. On October 9, 1899, the Transvaal issued an Ultimatum.

Course of the War:

The Boers invaded Natal and Cape Colony; Ladysmith, Mafeking, and Kimberley were invested. British defeats at Magersfontein, Stormberg, and Colenso (December 1899) led to Lord Roberts being sent out to supersede General Buller. Kimberley and Ladysmith were relieved, Bloemfontein fell. In May 1900 Mafeking was relieved, and in June Johannesburg and Pretoria were occupied. The attempt to insist on unconditional surrender prolonged the war for two more years.

Political Result:

By the _Treaty of Vereeniging_, May 1902, the Transvaal lost its independence. The Orange Free State had been annexed in 1900. Under pressure from the financial interests Chinese were introduced to work the gold-mines. This was one of the chief reasons for the fall of the Conservative Government in 1906. Campbell-Bannerman, who became Prime Minister, solved the problem of the future of the Transvaal by granting them full self-government, and the importation of Chinese was stopped.

Remarks:

The origin of the war can be directly traced to far less worthy causes than that of redressing the grievances of the Outlanders. The war was unnecessarily prolonged by an underestimate of the strength of the Boers and the desire to humiliate them. But the grant of self-government was the act that saved the war from being barren in results and from being the precursor of further trouble. The Union of South Africa was established in 1909.

The Powers of Europe, with the exception of Italy, adopted an unfriendly attitude towards Great Britain during the war.

THE BOXER RISING IN CHINA

1899–1900

Belligerents:

Great Britain, Russia, Germany, France, and Japan.
China.

Cause:

The humiliating results of the war of 1894–5 (p. 72) killed the reform movement in China and brought the reactionary party, headed by the Dowager-Empress, back to power. A society called the Boxers spread very rapidly through the provinces, preaching death to foreigners and receiving official support.

Occasion:

Attacks on Europeans began in 1899, and became very frequent in the early months of 1900. In May the Ministers at Peking asked for additional guards. The Boxers surrounded the city, and Admiral Seymour’s attempt to reach the capital was frustrated. The destruction of the Taku Fort by the Allies was treated as a declaration of war, and Chinese Imperial troops joined the Boxers.

Course of the War:

The settlements at Tientsin were rescued by a Russian force. An allied force made its way through from Taku, and forced an entry into Pekin. In August a relief column of 18,000 allied troops defeated the Chinese in several engagements and marched on Pekin. The legations had for eight weeks withstood a siege. The Chinese Government gave foreigners twenty-four hours to leave the capital. The German Minister was murdered in the street. The British Legation formed the refuge of all those who were driven out of their places of retreat. When the relieving force arrived the Chinese only made a faint-hearted defence. The Empress fled, the legations were relieved, and Pekin was occupied.

Political Result:

By the peace protocol, which was signed on September 7, 1901, the punishment of the ringleaders was demanded: the forts between Pekin and the sea were dismantled, permanent guards for the legations were established, and a large indemnity was fixed.

Remarks:

Official intercourse with the Chinese Government was established on a more satisfactory basis. But serious trouble in the Far East and internal disturbances in China itself continued.

THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR

1904–1905

Belligerents:

Russia.
Japan.

Cause:

When Port Arthur, which Japan had been forced to surrender in 1895, was seized by Russia there was deep indignation in Japan. In 1902 a treaty of alliance was concluded between Great Britain and Japan. Russia undertook to evacuate Manchuria, and although the withdrawal of troops began in 1903, instead of continuing the evacuation Russia demanded new concessions. In Korea Russian speculators obtained concessions, and influential members of the Russian Court were interested in the enterprise. Japan protested.

Occasion:

A treaty regulating the position in Manchuria and Korea was suggested by Japan, but Russia refused to recognize Japan’s paramount influence in Korea, and after several months of fruitless negotiation Japan issued an Ultimatum in February 1904.

Course of the War:

After successful initial encounters on the part of Japan, Port Arthur was surrendered on January 1, 1905. After a Japanese victory at Mukden, the Russians retreated. In October 1904 the Russian fleet, coming round from the Baltic, opened fire on a group of Hull fishing smacks in crossing the Dogger Bank, mistaking them for torpedo boats. The incident roused considerable indignation in Britain, but the Czar expressed his regrets. The matter was referred to a commission of admirals in Paris, and compensation was awarded for the damage done. On May 27, 1905 the Russian fleet was annihilated by Admiral Togo at Tsushima. The Japanese landed a force in Sakhalin, but, both sides being exhausted and anxious for peace, negotiations were opened in August 1905.

Political Result:

By the _Treaty of Portsmouth_, August 1905, the claims of Japan in Korea were recognized; Russia agreed to evacuate Manchuria and ceded the Liao-Tung peninsula (including Port Arthur) and the southern half of Sakhalin to Japan. The payment of an indemnity, which had been the chief obstacle to the conclusion of peace, was waived by Japan. The moderation of the Japanese demands made a good impression in the world, but was resented in Japan itself.

Remarks:

This was a war of pure aggression, backed by high financial speculation on the part of Russia. The easy triumph of Japan was a surprise. But she was fighting for definite national objects, while the Russian people knew nothing of the cause and aims of the war. Russia spent much money in subsequent years in restoring her lost armaments. From this time on the reform movements and revolutionary spirit in Russia grew rapidly.

TURKO-ITALIAN WAR

1911–1912

Belligerents:

Italy.
Turkey.

Cause:

After the agreements with regard to North Africa between Great Britain and France, Italy made up her mind that the time was favourable for a decisive move with a view to expansion, and proceeded to make careful preparations for military action early in 1911. The position in Tripoli was made the subject of heated discussion in the Press, and the Turks were charged with showing gross unfairness to Italian residents. The possible designs of Germany in North Africa also induced the Italian Government to take advantage of the first opportunity for an offensive step.

Occasion:

The Turks, foreseeing danger, sent war stores and munitions to Tripoli, and on September 29, 1911, the Italians, with their fleet ready and their troops embarked, declared war.

Course of the War:

On September 30th, Tripoli was blockaded and occupied by the Italians on October 5th; Benghazi fell on October 20th. In spite of the publication of a decree annexing Tripoli as a province of Italy, the advance of the invaders was kept in check. Austria refused to allow operations in the Adriatic. Russia would not permit the blockade of the Dardanelles. Fighting continued with indeterminate results and in a desultory manner until a treaty of peace was finally signed at Ouchy on October 15, 1912.

Result:

By the _Treaty of Lausanne_, October 15, 1912, Turkish forces were withdrawn from Tripoli and Cyrenaica, the Italians promised to withdraw from the occupied islands of the Ægean, and a commercial agreement was concluded between the two countries. There was no recognition by the Turkish Government of Italian sovereignty in Tripoli. It was enough for Italy that her sovereignty was recognized by the Powers. This was done, France delaying her assent until Italy surrendered certain privileges in Morocco.

Remarks:

Italy’s aggressive action was prompted by a desire not to be left behind in the competition for territorial acquisitions in Africa.

FIRST BALKAN WAR

1912–1913

Belligerents:

Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro.
Turkey.

Cause:

Even after the deposition of the Sultan, Abdul Hamid, and the triumph of the Young Turks in the revolution of 1908 the misgovernment of Turkey did not cease, more especially in Macedonia, where the European Powers had entirely failed to secure any reforms, but produced an intolerable situation in the Balkan Peninsula. Despairing of the successful intervention of the Powers the Balkan States determined to take matters into their own hands. For the first time an alliance was formed between Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia for the purpose of destroying the Turkish Empire in Europe.

Occasion:

In September 1912 the Powers, through Austria, Hungary, and Russia strongly deprecated the outbreak of war. The Allies simultaneously handed in to the Turkish Government an Ultimatum demanding certain specified reforms. No reply was sent. The Turks underestimated the strength of their opponents, and hoped to detach Greece. War broke out October 17th.

Course of the War:

The Turkish forces were completely overwhelmed. They were defeated by the Serbians at Kumanovo, October 24, 1912, and Uskub was occupied: the Greeks drove the enemy north and occupied Salonika: and the Bulgarians defeated the Ottoman army at Lule Burgas, October 31st, and advanced to Chatalja. After an armistice and an abortive attempt of the Powers to secure peace, the war broke out again. Adrianople fell March 26, 1913, and the Turks submitted.

Political Result:

By the _Treaty of London_ Bulgaria was given a frontier from Enos on the Mediterranean to Midia on the Black Sea. The future of Albania was to be decided by the Allies and Turkey ceded the island of Crete to Greece.

Remarks:

Serious disputes as to the disposal of the spoils won from Turkey led immediately to the outbreak of war among the Allies.

SECOND BALKAN WAR

1913

Belligerents:

Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, Roumania.
Bulgaria.
Turkey.

Cause:

In February 1912 a treaty was concluded between Bulgaria and Serbia, whereby it was agreed that North-west Macedonia should go to Serbia, another part to Bulgaria, and the zone lying between these two should be submitted to the arbitration of the Czar. In December 1912, in the First Balkan War, Austria protested against the occupation by Serbia of Durazzo on the Adriatic, and of Scutari by Montenegro. Serbia declared that Bulgaria did not adequately support her in resisting the Austrian demand, felt impelled to claim more territory in Macedonia, and refused to carry out the provisions of the treaty with Bulgaria. Serbia was ready to arbitrate. Russia was inclined to support the Serbian claim. Bulgaria hesitated.

Occasion:

While the dispute was still in the balance the aggressive party in Bulgaria got the upper hand, and war was declared against Serbia and Greece in June 24, 1913, only a few months after the cessation of hostilities in the First Balkan War.

Course of the War:

The Bulgarians found themselves invaded on four frontiers. While they were being driven back by Serbia and Greece, the Turks repudiated the Treaty of London and retook Adrianople, and Roumania advanced from the north and without striking a blow annexed a large slice of territory in the Dobrudja. Bulgaria was obliged to yield.

Political Result:

By the _Treaty of Bukarest_, August 10, 1913, Serbia acquired a large district of South-east Macedonia, Greece obtained Kavalla, and Roumania was given possession of the territory her troops had occupied.

By the _Treaty of Constantinople_, August 1913, Bulgaria ceded back to Turkey more than half of the territory won in the previous war, including Adrianople.

Remarks:

Bulgaria being again restricted in territory felt she had been betrayed by the Powers, who did nothing to enforce the engagements of the Treaty of London. Her rivals, Serbia and Greece, gained at her expense. On the other hand, Bulgarian responsibility for the outbreak of the second war was undoubted.

The European Powers, by acting together, prevented the Balkan conflict from spreading into a European War. But the Treaty of Bukarest was no settlement, and was a signal exposure of their inability to solve the Balkan problem, which was destined to be the spark for a world-wide conflagration.

IMPORTANT TREATIES

(OTHER THAN THOSE ALREADY MENTIONED)

The _Treaty of Vienna_, June 9, 1815.

_Second Treaty of Paris_, November 20, 1815, Signed by Great Britain,
Austria, Prussia, Russia, France at the conclusion of the
Napoleonic Wars.

France gave up certain fortresses on the frontier but retained
Alsace-Lorraine. Payment of 700 million francs was exacted from
France. The greater part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw fell
to Russia, Posen to Prussia, and Cracow became a republic.
Prussia got back nearly all her old possessions, and there was a
reconstruction of German States under a Confederation. Holland,
Belgium, and Luxemburg were established as an independent
kingdom under the House of Orange: Switzerland was extended and
her integrity guaranteed: Sardinia obtained Genoa and other
territory: Austria received an extension of territory in North
Italy and on the coast of the Adriatic, and became the dominant
state in the German Confederation. The Pope and the King of the
Two Sicilies regained their former possessions.

[The foregoing record of wars serves to show to what a small
extent this treaty secured the settlement of European territorial
problems.]

_The Rushe-Bagot Treaty_, April 1817, between Great Britain and
the United States. The two powers agreed to withdraw their
battleships from the Great Lakes.

It may be noted that the absence of armaments on the whole
Canadian frontier cannot be said to have endangered the relations
between the two countries in view of the fact that the
Anglo-American peace centenary was celebrated in 1915.

_The Treaty of Washington_, May 8, 1871, between Great Britain and
the United States. The north-western boundary was finally
delimited: an attempt was made to settle the Canadian Fishery
dispute, and it was agreed to refer the Alabama Claims to a
tribunal of arbitration, which subsequently fixed the sum to be
paid over by Great Britain as indemnity.