Chapter I: Preface

On the termination of my journey in Tibet, I submitted to the Indian Government a detailed report of my observations in that country. It was my original intention to request the permission of the Court of Directors to publish this report in the form in which it was drawn up; but after my return to England, this plan was, at the suggestion of friends, abandoned for that now followed.

At the time of my appointment to the Tibet Mission, my attention had not been specially directed to the Himalaya, but I have since had many opportunities of studying that chain of mountains. My first definite impressions of Himalayan geography were received from my fellow-travellers, Major Cunningham and Captain Henry Strachey. The latter gentleman had just completed one of the most adventurous journeys ever made in the Himalaya; and Major Cunningham's knowledge of the geography of Northern India is so accurate and extensive, that the delay in the publication of his map, although caused by the devotion of his leisure time to other branches of research, is a subject of deep regret to all who know its value. More recently I have had the good fortune to travel in the Eastern Himalaya with Dr. Hooker, and it was a source of great gratification to me, when we met, to find that in studying these mountains at opposite extremities of the chain, the results at which we had arrived were almost identical.

My botanical collections, which were very extensive, have as yet been only roughly assorted, and the names of plants given in the present work are chiefly derived from a careful comparison of specimens with the Hookerian Herbarium at Kew,--a collection which, as is well known to Botanists, both from its extent and from the liberality with which it is thrown open to students of that science, occupies in this country the place of a national collection.

The heights of places given in the work have been derived from very various sources. Those in the earlier part are chiefly from the extremely accurate observations of the Gerards; for others I have to thank my fellow-travellers; but the greater number are calculated from my own observations of the boiling-point of water, and do not therefore pretend to great accuracy. Still the thermometer which I used (by Dollond) was a very good one, and comparisons with barometric observations, or with known heights, have given such results as satisfy me that at considerable elevations it may be depended upon to within three or four hundred feet as an extreme error.

The orthography of oriental proper names is a question of great difficulty, and grave objections may be urged against any system which has been proposed. If each European nation represents the sound of the vowels and variable consonants after the mode which prevails in its own language, then proper names must be translated, as it were, when rendered from one of these languages into another; whereas, if the mode of spelling the names remain fixed, then the value of the letters must be different in the majority of the languages from that which usually prevails. For purely popular purposes the former method would probably be the most judicious; and the English language has peculiar facilities for rendering oriental sounds, in consequence of its possessing the open sound of _u_, as in _but_, which is wanting in other European languages, though so common in Arabic, Persian, and Hindee, and all cognate tongues.

A uniform mode of spelling, however, has so many advantages, that I have been induced to give it a preference; but it will be seen that in a few instances, where the popular mode of spelling has become familiar, and as it were a portion of the English language, as in the words Punjab, Jumna, Sutlej, Kussowlee, and a few others, I have not had courage to carry out the rule.

For the plates which accompany the work I have to thank Mr. Winterbottom, who very kindly permitted me to select from a series of sketches those which I thought most suitable. This was not an easy task; but in the two views of the neighbourhood of Iskardo I found so faithful a representation of the extremely rugged scenery of the Tibetan mountains, contrasted with the level plain of Iskardo, and the lacustrine strata of the neighbourhood, that no more desirable illustrations for a journey in Tibet could be conceived. The little vignette, too, though it does not represent any part of the country through which I travelled, is precisely similar to many ravines in Rondu, and serves to show that the Gilgit valley is quite the same in general appearance with that district. I was more particularly desirous of introducing this sketch, from the very faithful representation it contains of the alluvial platforms which skirt the streams in every part of Tibet.

The map is founded principally upon Mr. Arrowsmith's large map, and his name is its best guarantee. The districts round the Pangong lake are taken from a sketch given to me by Captain H. Strachey, and the whole of the eastern part has been revised by him. A great part of the course of the Shayuk has been laid in by Mr. Arrowsmith from my own rough survey, while the little-known district between Jamu and Zanskar, which I was not competent to survey, has been rendered as nearly as possible from the notes which I had made of the length and direction of my marches.

The sketch of the district between Nubra and the Karakoram pass, which will, I hope, be found useful as an illustration of that part of my journey, has been prepared for me by Dr. Hooker, from a rough draft of my survey, assisted by verbal explanations.

In conclusion, I have to add, that for the correction of the press, during which process many asperities by which the manuscript was disfigured have disappeared, I have to thank my kind friends, Dr. and Mrs. Hooker.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

Page

Appointment to a Mission about to proceed to Tibet -- Leave
Firozpur for Simla -- Approach to the Mountains -- Appearance
of Himalaya from Plains of India -- Kalka -- Ascent to
Kussowlee -- Vegetation of Plainward Face -- Origin of
Kussowlee Ridge -- Climate and Vegetation of Kussowlee --
Aspect of inner ranges -- Road from Kussowlee to Simla --
Sabathu -- Cross Gambar River -- Haripur -- Tropical Vegetation
of Basin of Gambar -- Steep Ascent to Simla -- its extent and
situation -- its Vegetation -- Oak-forest -- Pines -- Flora of
Spring Months -- of Rainy Season -- View from Peak of Jako --
Structure of Mountain Ranges 1

CHAPTER II.

Leave Simla -- Mahasu Ridge -- Pine Forest -- Summit of Mahasu
-- Vegetation of Northern Slope -- Fagu -- Theog -- Mattiana --
Cultivated Valley -- Nagkanda -- Ascent of Hattu -- Forest of
Pine and Oak -- Vegetation of Summit -- View from top of
Mountain -- Plainward slopes bare of forest, while those facing
the interior are well wooded -- Cultivation at 9500 feet --
Descent from Nagkanda towards Sutlej -- Damp shady Ravine
densely wooded -- Kotgarh -- Cultivation -- Rapid Descent --
Change of Climate -- Tropical Vegetation -- Rampur --
Swing-bridge -- Diurnal fluctuations in level of River -- Gaora
-- Serahan -- Tranda -- Western boundary of Kunawar 29

CHAPTER III.

Sildang river -- Fine grove of Deodars -- Nachar -- Fruit-trees
-- Vine seen for first time -- Boundaries of Kulu and Kunawar
-- Cross Sutlej at Wangtu bridge -- Vegetation of bare rocky
valley -- Waterfall -- Chegaon -- _Pinus Gerardiana_ -- Miru --
Absence of rain -- Alteration of vegetation -- _Quercus Ilex_
-- Rogi -- Willow and Poplar -- Chini -- Cultivated Plain --
Kashbir -- Pangi -- Camp at upper level of trees -- Junipers --
Werang Pass -- Alpine Vegetation -- Birch and _Rhododendron_ --
Granite Boulders -- Lipa -- Alluvial Deposits -- Encamp at
12,500 feet -- Runang Pass -- Vegetation very scanty -- Stunted
Forest -- Sungnam 63

CHAPTER IV.

Hangarang ridge separates Kunawar from Piti -- Ascent to
Hangarang Pass -- Alluvial deposit -- Steep ascent -- View of
valley -- Limestone rocks -- _Caragana versicolor_, or _Dama_
-- Camp at 14,000 feet -- Top of pass -- View from pass --
Vegetation of summit -- Descent to Hango -- Cultivation round
the village -- Luxuriant wild plants -- Road to Lio -- _Crambe_
-- Ravine of Piti river -- Lio -- Bridge over Piti river --
Ascent to Nako -- Nako -- Cultivation of the village --
Buddhist temple -- Transported blocks -- Chango -- Changar --
Stopped by villagers on Chinese frontier -- Natural bridge --
Kyuri -- Alluvium -- Clay deposit with shells -- Lari --
Ramifications of mountain ranges -- Alluvial platforms -- Pok
-- Dankar -- Lara -- Rangrig -- Upper part of Piti -- Climate
-- Saline exudations 96

CHAPTER V.

Leave valley of Piti river -- Kibar -- Cultivation above 14,000
feet -- Vegetation of mountains -- Rocky gorge -- Encampment at
17,000 feet -- Parang Pass -- Snow-bed and glacier -- First
plants at 16,500 feet -- Parang valley -- Gorge leading to
Chumoreri Lake -- Kiang, or wild horse -- Chumurti --
Remarkable grassy plain -- Lanak Pass -- Granite boulders --
Plants above 18,000 feet -- Undulating hilly country -- Hanle
plain -- Vegetation -- Monastery of Hanle 130

CHAPTER VI.

Descend Hanle river -- Unsettled weather -- Encamp on banks of
Indus -- Upper course of Indus -- Pugha ravine -- Forest of
Myricaria trees -- Borax plain -- Hot springs -- Borax lakes of
Eastern Tibet -- Sulphur mine -- Pulokanka Pass -- Salt lake --
Lacustrine clays with shells -- Ancient water-mark -- Rupchu --
Tunglung Pass -- Fall of snow -- Alluvial conglomerate -- Giah
-- Narrow ravine -- Miru -- Upshi -- Indus valley -- Marsilang
-- Richly cultivated plain of Chashut -- Bridge over Indus --
Le -- Buddhist edifices 155

CHAPTER VII.

Departure from Le -- Sabu valley -- Pass between Le and Nubra
-- Snow -- Encamp at 15,500 feet -- Digar -- Valley of Shayuk
-- Alluvium -- _Populus Euphratica_ -- Tsatti -- Nubra river --
District of Nubra -- Villages -- Irrigation -- Saline soil --
Isolated rocks -- Chirasa -- Panamik -- Lower Nubra --
Platforms of Alluvium -- Traces of a great flood -- Unmaru --
Kuru -- Great contraction of valley -- Mountain pass of Waris
-- Boghdan ravine -- Chorbat -- Mahommedan population --
Villages -- Outburst of granite -- Siksa -- Khapalu -- Open
plain of Khapalu -- Junction of Shayuk and Indus -- Nar --
Iskardo plain -- Description of Iskardo -- Aqueduct -- Fort --
Lacustrine clay formation -- Vegetation 187

CHAPTER VIII.

Leave Iskardo in the direction of Kashmir -- First march
through snow to Turgu -- Lacustrine clay -- it extends into
narrow valleys beyond Nar -- Gol -- Junction of Indus and
Shayuk -- Parkuta -- Tolti -- Kartash -- Extensive lacustrine
deposits -- Tarkata -- Road turns up the Dras river -- Ulding
Thung -- Fall of snow -- Hardas -- Karbu -- Continued snow --
Dras -- Find pass in front shut by deep snow -- Obliged to
return to Iskardo -- Rafts and rope-bridges on Indus --
_Elæagnus_ and Apricot apparently wild -- Winter at Iskardo 223

CHAPTER IX.

Leave Iskardo for Rondu -- Insurrection in Gilgit -- Koardu --
Kamar -- Enter narrow part of Indus valley -- Difficult road --
Range of mountains south of Indus -- Description of Rondu --
Thawar -- Avalanches -- Alluvium -- Swing-bridge -- Villages --
Juniper -- _Pinus excelsa_ -- Rocks -- Vegetation -- Return to
Iskardo -- Agriculture of Balti -- Game of Chaugan -- Chakor
hunting -- Shigar valley -- Journey towards Kashmir -- Dras
valley -- Karbu -- Dras fort -- Maten -- Cross pass into
Kashmir -- Baltal -- Valley of Sind river -- Sonamarg --
Gagangir -- Gond -- Gangan -- Ganderbal -- Enter main valley of
Kashmir -- Town of Kashmir -- Description of Kashmir --
Lacustrine formation -- Trap hills -- Lake -- Climate --
Vegetation 248

CHAPTER X.

Environs of Kashmir -- City lake -- Gardens of Shalimar and
Dilawer Khan -- Pampur -- Avantipura -- Platforms of lacustrine
clay -- Mountain of Wasterwan -- Ancient city -- Clay, with
shells and fragments of pottery -- Ancient temple imbedded in
clay -- Lakes caused by subsidence -- Islamabad -- Shahabad --
Vegetation -- Vernag -- Banahal Pass -- Valley of Banahal --
Tropical vegetation -- Pass above Chenab Valley -- Nasmon --
_Jhula_, or Swing-bridge -- Balota -- Ladhe ke Dhar -- Katti --
Fort of Landar -- Mir -- Kirmichi -- Tertiary sandstones --
Dhuns -- Seda -- Jamu 285

CHAPTER XI.

Leave Jamu to return to Tibet -- Lake of Sirohi Sar --
Vegetation of lower hills -- _Dodonæa_ -- Ramnagar -- Garta --
Dadu, on a tributary of the Chenab -- Camp at 10,000 feet --
Badarwar -- Padri pass -- Descend a tributary of the Ravi --
and ascend another towards the north -- Sach _Joth_, or pass --
Snow-beds -- Camp in Chenab valley 315

CHAPTER XII.

Marked change in the Vegetation -- Bridge over Chenab --
Pargwal -- Description of Chenab valley -- Asdhari --
Chatargarh -- Road turns up valley of Butna -- Vegetation of
Chenab valley -- Chishot -- Snow-beds -- Camp at 10,500 feet --
Ancient moraines -- Glacier -- Camp at 11,500 feet -- Rapid
ascent along glacier -- Camp on moraine, at 14,600 feet --
Change of weather -- Ascent towards pass over glacier -- Cross
Umasi La -- Descent -- Immense glacier -- Encamp in Tibet, at
13,800 feet -- Open valley of Zanskar -- Padum -- Great change
of climate -- and in vegetation 342

CHAPTER XIII.

Rope bridge across Zanskar river -- Tongde -- Zangla -- Road
leaves Zanskar river -- Takti La -- Nira -- Bridge over Zanskar
river -- Singhi La -- Phutaksha -- Wandla -- Lama Yuru -- Cross
Indus river -- Kalatze -- Nurla -- Saspola -- Nimo -- Le --
Pass north of Le -- Small glacier -- Kardong -- Kalsar --
Vegetation -- Diskit -- Passage of Shayuk river -- Upper Nubra
-- Vegetation of Nubra -- Hot spring at Panamik 367

CHAPTER XIV.

Start for Karakoram -- Steep ascent out of Nubra valley -- Meet
a party of Merchants from Yarkand -- View from summit of pass
-- Rapid torrent -- Large glacier -- Steep moraines -- Alpine
vegetation -- Numerous glaciers -- Lakes -- Glacier on crest of
Sassar pass -- Sassar -- Cross Shayuk river -- Murgai --
Limestone rocks -- Ascend Murgai Valley to 16,800 feet --
Singular limestone formation -- Open plain above 17,000 feet --
Re-cross Shayuk river -- Karakoram pass -- Return to Sassar --
Glaciers of Sassar -- Return to Le -- Start for Kashmir --
Lamayuru -- Phatu pass -- Kanji river -- Namika pass -- Molbil
-- Pashkyum -- Kargil -- Dras -- Zoji pass -- Kashmir -- Lahore
-- Completion of journey 408

CHAPTER XV.

General description of Tibet -- Systems of mountains --
Trans-Sutlej Himalaya -- Cis-Sutlej Himalaya -- Kouenlun --
Four passes across Kouenlun -- Boundaries of Western Tibet --
Height of its mountain ranges and passes -- Climate of Tibet --
Clouds -- Winds -- Snow-fall -- Glaciers -- their former
greater extension -- Elevation to which they descend --
Snow-level -- Geology -- Lacustrine clay and alluvium 456

_Dr. Thomson's Route is coloured Red._
Drawn & Engraved by John Arrowsmith.]

WESTERN HIMALAYA

AND

TIBET.