Chapter VIII: Preface (1)

There never seems to be just the right book on a topic that one has very much at heart.

When the vote for New York women was an accomplished fact there came a sudden and pressing need for a book on government that would give the busy housewife or the overworked woman in the factory the simple outline of her government and the officials for whom she was going to vote, with the duties and requirements of their positions; but that was not all. There are certain problems of government to-day and certain departments of politics which have to do with things which are of special interest to women. The protection and care of human life has always been woman’s great business in life. So a book on civics for women must include an outline of what the state is doing for its children, for its poor, for working-women, for public health and recreation; in short, for the same things in government with which she is concerned in her individual capacity as a woman. These are also the departments of government which seem to need her attention the most. It is natural that men should have given the greater care in government to business and material affairs. To counterbalance this, woman’s work and votes are needed for the human side.

To be an intelligent voter some knowledge of the structure of government is needed. Also one must know the duties of an office in order to judge of the qualifications of would-be candidates, so Chapters II to VII give an outline of the different divisions of government, beginning with the local offices, for which women will cast their first votes, and going through the State to the National Government. Chapters VII to X, inclusive, deal with the actual casting of the ballot in the elections, the organization of political parties, and the management of elections. The major part of the book is then given to those departments of political affairs in which women are undoubtedly most deeply concerned.

The substance of some of these chapters has been used as a correspondence course in citizenship by the New York State Woman Suffrage Party, and is published by special arrangement with them. Through four years of continuous intensive educational work in the State the Woman Suffrage Party has come closely in touch with many thousands of women; it has learned to know their idealism, their fervent belief in democracy, and their desire to make democracy more effective. It knows also that there are many other women who have never thought about voting, but who are equally conscientious and are now eager to learn. It knows the problems of women as does probably no other organization of women.

It also has a deep feeling of responsibility. It feels its obligation to furnish all the help possible to the new women voters to meet their new duties wisely. It hopes to bring home to women the human side of government, to arouse a desire for further study, and especially to encourage them to regard their vote as a trust to be used not to advance partisan politics, but to further human welfare.

This is a book for amateur citizens written by an amateur citizen. It may be found to differ from the others in that it deals with the subject of civics from the standpoint of the woman voter.

GERTRUDE FOSTER BROWN.

=YOUR VOTE AND HOW TO USE IT=

YOUR VOTE AND HOW TO USE IT

I

POLITICS AND WOMAN’S INTERESTS

The average woman has never thought of politics as having an intimate relation to her daily life. She has not realized that government has a direct effect on the comfort and happiness of the family in the home, on the successful upbringing of children, and on the health and safety of men and women workers.

She has known vaguely that government controls the fundamental question of war or peace; that it has to do with taxation; that it handles the mail, but that it also plays a large part in domestic and social life is a fact that she has only recently been learning.

With the rapid extension of the vote to women, especially the recent granting of suffrage to the women of New York State, there is a new and wide-spread interest in how government works, and a realization of the importance of good government and the dire peril of bad government. Women are conscientious; they are accepting their new responsibilities with much seriousness. They are eager to learn how to be good citizens. The war also has made everybody think. It has made government seem a more personal affair.

WHAT IS GOVERNMENT?

=Government is the management of those common affairs of a people which can be handled in a more effective and more economical way by a community acting together than by each individual acting for himself.=

In a sparsely settled community government is less apparent than in a city. Its functions are simple. Sometimes it does not seem very important. But as people congregate closer together it becomes more complicated and comes in closer and closer touch with the individual and family life.

For example, a man living in the country may rely on himself to protect his home and property; but in the city life and property are better protected by a police force than if each individual citizen had to provide his own protection. A woman in a pioneer country may bring up her child as she pleases. She may teach him when and how she chooses. But as population increases and government is established, a large part of the child’s training is dictated by it. He must go to school at a certain age; he must stay there so many hours a day; he must study certain things in a certain way. He cannot be put to work until he has reached a certain age. If he contracts a contagious disease the city takes control of the case.

Directly and indirectly the government in a city affects a woman’s life and interests in innumerable ways.

She is dependent on it for the light and sunshine that comes into her home. Laws concerning housing and building and tenement departments of government are very important to the health, comfort, and even decency of the family. She is dependent on government for the safety of the milk she has to feed her baby. The health of the family depends as much on the city department of health as on the mother’s care. It is of the utmost importance to the city mother that the streets be kept clean, because they are usually the only place that her children have in which to play. The street cleaning department, therefore, touches her closely. It is of vital moment to her that the streets be kept free of criminal influence, therefore the management of the police department is of great importance to her. If the town is run “wide open” it may mean that her husband’s wages may be dissipated. The way in which the excise law and the laws against gambling are enforced is a matter which deeply concerns her.

If she lives in the country the relation of government to her life is not so varied, but she is still dependent on it for the education of her child, for the socializing influences of the community, and for much of the business prosperity of the farm. Are telephone connections cheap, are the roads passable at all seasons, are good market facilities provided? These are all questions that greatly affect her welfare, and they depend largely on the government.

=It is the business of government to maintain peace and to provide for the common defense.=

This is a function of government so fundamental as to need little comment. It is the first essential to the safe existence of the home.

=It is the business of government to assure justice and equality of treatment to all citizens.=

This becomes more difficult as population increases and life grows more complicated. Nearly every human being to-day is dependent on the work of other people for most of the necessities, as well as the comforts and conveniences, of life. The food that we eat, the cotton and wool in the garments we wear, the coal that heats our houses, we owe to the toil of other people who in return may be dependent on us for something that they use. It is a matter that concerns every one of us that in producing these things that we use human life shall be safeguarded, that living wages shall be paid, and that standards of civilization shall be maintained and advanced.

As individuals we cannot control conditions even for ourselves, as individuals we cannot control them for other people; but all of us working together in government can secure these fundamental necessities for every one of us.

Since government in a democracy is made by the people themselves, it is a responsibility that every one should share to help secure these common needs.

=It is also a function of modern government to raise the standard of health, education, and living.=

Plato said, “Only that state is healthy and can thrive which unceasingly endeavors to improve the individuals who constitute it.”

Society must be protected from vicious and destructive influence; the intelligence and knowledge of all the people are needed for the common good.

As human beings have become dependent on one another, the well-being or the degradation of one individual or family does not stop there. It strongly influences the welfare of other individuals and families. For their own protection people have not only the right, but the obligation to make a government that shall foster and advance the common welfare.

_The basis of good government is the golden rule._ To help secure for others the protection that you demand for yourself is part of the obligation of good citizenship. The honesty and efficiency of government in a republic like the United States depend on the voters; on their sense of responsibility, and on the intelligence with which they use their power. The feeling of responsibility of each individual, for the public welfare, cannot be too highly developed.

Democracy can only be a success in the degree that the people who make that democracy are determined that it shall deal with justice, and that it shall offer opportunity to every one within its borders. They must also be vigilant to see that it shall deal wisely with their common problems as they develop.

To be a citizen of such a democracy and to have the power to help it grow along these lines, to be able to serve one’s country loyally in the full efficiency of citizenship, are great privileges.

II

TOWN AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT

=The United States is both a Democracy and a Republic.=

=A Democracy= means, literally, a government by the people.

=A Republic= is a democracy in which the people elect representatives to carry on the government for them.

The United States is a federation of forty-eight States. For convenience of government each State is subdivided into smaller units.

In every political division of the State there are three distinct departments:

=The Legislative=, the part that makes the law.

=The Administrative=, the part that administers the law.

=The Judicial=, the part that interprets the law.

Even in a sparsely settled community people have certain interests in common. Roads have to be made, schools established, the poor cared for, and taxes levied. Who does these things? If a cow breaks into a neighbor’s cornfield, or if there is an epidemic, whose business is it to look after it?

THE TOWN GOVERNMENT

With the exception of the school district, which has to do only with the public schools, the town[1] or township is the smallest division of the State for purposes of government. The government of the town is the nearest approach we have to a direct government by the people themselves.

=The Town Meeting= brings people together to discuss their local affairs, to elect officers, and to appropriate the money necessary to carry out their plans. It is held in New York State every other year, some time between February 1st and May 1st.

The business of the town meeting includes the disposal of town property, the care of bridges and roads, the care of the poor, the number of constables, matters concerning public health, and the care of stray animals.

Any citizen has a right to bring up any suggestion he pleases for the people to consider and debate in open meeting, and then to take whatever action they choose. In a matter of taxation or incurring a town debt, only taxpaying citizens can vote.

Where it exists at its best, the town meeting has an admirable effect in stimulating interest in local affairs and in developing public spirit. A special town meeting can be called by a petition of twenty-five taxpayers, or at the request of certain officials.

The town meeting is a form of government particularly adapted to a small community. With the increase in population it has been given up in many counties, and the election of town officers now usually takes place at the regular fall election.

=Town Officers=: =The Supervisor= is the chief executive officer of the town, and is elected for two years. He receives and pays out all money except that raised for public roads and the care of the town poor. If the town roads are in bad condition or if the poor are not properly cared for, he is responsible. The honesty and efficiency of the administration of town affairs are in his hands. He represents the town on the county board of supervisors.

=The Town Board= consists of the supervisor, town clerk, and at least two justices of the peace. It meets regularly twice a year. It is the business of the board to receive the accounts of the town officers and examine them, to hear and decide claims against the town. An appeal may be taken from their decision to the county board of supervisors. They may also frame propositions to be submitted to the voters, and may borrow money to meet appropriations made at the town meeting. They may appoint a physician to aid as health officer for the town.

=The Town Clerk= is the general secretary and bookkeeper for the town. He records births, marriages, and deaths, chattel mortgages and property notes. He keeps the records of the town meetings. He posts election notices. He issues marriage licenses, permissions for burial, hunting licenses, etc.

=The Superintendent of Roads= has charge of building and maintaining the town highways, bridges, and culverts outside of the incorporated villages. He is paid by the day, and may hire machines and horses or purchase tools and material for road making. The opportunities for dishonest money in this office have sometimes made it sought after. A contract may contain a “rake-off,” bills may be padded, and materials accepted which are different from specifications.

=Three Assessors and a Collector=: The assessors determine the value of taxable property in the town, and divide the amount of taxes to be raised among the owners of the property. If a property-owner is dissatisfied with his assessment he may appear in August before the assessors and “swear off” what he considers an exorbitant amount. Assessment rolls are made out, and it is the duty of the collector to collect the money. Town collectors are paid 1 per cent. on taxes collected within thirty days after due, with increasing fees for collecting taxes after that time. This is an encouragement to the collector to be dilatory in his collections, and is a disadvantage to the town. It has been suggested that penalties for delinquent taxes should go to the town and not to the collector.

=The Town Constables= have the duty of keeping the peace and carrying out the orders of the justice of the peace. They may arrest people accused or suspected of crime. There may not be more than five in a town.

=The Overseers of the Poor= are charged with the duty of looking after persons who are destitute and have no relative to support them. They may assist such persons in their own homes or send them to the county poorhouse. This office often conflicts with that of county superintendent of the poor, and it has been recommended that it be abolished.

=The Justice of the Peace= is the judicial officer of the town. Each town has four such officers, each elected for four years. The justice of the peace may hear civil cases where the sum involved is not over two hundred dollars. He may try petty offenses of all kinds, breaches of the peace, drunkenness, and petty larceny. He may issue warrants and may hold persons suspected of serious crime to await action by the grand jury.

=Terms of Town Officials=: Each official is elected for two years, except the justices of the peace and sometimes one or two assessors, who are elected for four years.

=Pay of Town Officials=: Most of these officers are paid from two to four dollars for every day of actual service. The town clerk, justices of the peace, and constables are paid certain fees.

THE COUNTY

The county comprises a number of townships. It is a political division created by the State to administer certain local affairs, to act as agent for the State, to collect State taxes, and to enforce State law. The county owns the court-house and jail; it can sue or be sued.

In most of New York State the county has become more important in administering local affairs than the town. New York State has sixty-two counties, of which five are in Greater New York. They vary in size from Richmond County (Staten Island), which has only 59 square miles, to St. Lawrence County, which has 2,880 square miles. They vary also in population from Hamilton County, with 2,000 people, to New York County with two million.

=Elected Officials=: =The Board of Supervisors= is the legislative body of the county. This board is composed of the supervisors elected by each township, and also one member from each ward of a city in the county. They elect their own chairman.

The board of supervisors have the custody and control of the court-house, jail, poorhouse, and all county property; they receive and decide claims against the county; they direct the raising of money by taxation to meet the expenses of the county and the county’s share in State taxes; they fix salaries for county officials; borrow money for county needs; they regulate laws for the protection of fish and game; they open county highways, erect bridges, and may provide hospitals for tuberculosis. They also act as a board of canvassers to canvass the returns after an election.

=The Sheriff=, the executive officer of the county, is elected to enforce the law. On him rests the security of life and property. He must preserve the peace, arrest offenders against the law, and hold them in custody. He must not allow fear or sympathy to interfere with his enforcement of the law. He summons jurors and witnesses for county lawsuits and executes the orders of the court. Until recently the fees which he received made the sheriff’s office one much sought after. These now go to the treasurer in many counties, and the sheriff is paid a salary. He cannot serve two consecutive terms. He may appoint an under-sheriff and deputy sheriffs.

=The District Attorney= is the public prosecutor for the county, and brings suit “in the name of the people of the State.” He is also the legal adviser for county affairs. It is his business to protect the public against crime of all kinds. If corruption exists in any department, it is his duty to bring it to light. The good order of the community and the efficiency of government in the county depend much on him. He determines what cases shall come before the grand jury.

=The County Clerk= keeps all the important records for the county, including deeds, mortgages, and maps, and makes out the election certificates. Public documents must always be open for public inspection. In some counties there is a recorder of deeds. The clerk also acts as clerk of the county court. His office has an income from fees which used to go to the clerk and made this office very lucrative. In most counties the fees now go to the county treasurer, and the clerk is paid a salary.

=The County Treasurer= receives and disburses all public moneys for the county. He receives money from the town supervisor, collected for county and State taxes, the latter of which he pays to the State treasurer. He receives from the State money for the public schools, which he in turn passes on to the towns. He must give a bond for the safe-keeping of these public funds. He also chooses the bank in which public funds are kept, and ought to give a careful accounting of the interest which must go into the county treasury.

=The Superintendent of the Poor= disburses the money raised to care for the poor of the county. The superintendents of all the public charities in the county make their reports to him, and he is responsible for them to the board of supervisors. He also makes an annual report to the State Board of Charities.

=Coroners=: From one to four coroners may be elected in each county, except those in Greater New York. Their duty is to investigate sudden and suspicious deaths, and sometimes the cause of a suspicious fire. They are often practising physicians or they may employ physicians to conduct inquests or autopsies.

=The County Superintendent of Highways= is appointed by the board of supervisors for four years.

=The County Judge= presides over the county court. His salary varies and is fixed by State law, although paid by the county. This office should be most carefully filled. The county judge is not only important because of his decisions, but he is one of the most powerful men politically in the county. Only a man of strict probity should be elected to this office.

=The Surrogate= administers estates of persons deceased, controls the probate of wills, and appoints guardians for the property of minors. His term is six years. In counties with small populations the county judge acts as surrogate.

The term of office for county officials is three years, except that of the supervisors elected by the towns for two years, and the judges elected for six years.

=Political Honesty=: The question is often asked, are these local offices honestly managed? Are there possible loopholes for corruption? The following answer to these questions was given recently by one in a position to know:

“The impelling motive of most politicians is the enjoyment of a sense of power and influence. The day laborer who loafs through his political job and the salaried higher officer who neglects his work and engages in private business are examples of the most usual and formidable class of political grafters. The heads of departments and higher elected officers are apt to do their work as well as they can, in order to qualify themselves for re-election. The days when a man could dishonestly make a fortune in one political term are past in this country, and waste, favoritism, and stupidity are the only dangerous elements which we must look for.

“The greatest waste in expenditure of moneys by boards of supervisors is usually on county roads and highways, where in some years hundreds of thousands of dollars are lost by unscientific building and upkeep. This also is an easy way for a dishonest supervisor to reward political supporters by paying them for work on the road which they do not do. The same things obtain in the matter of purchase of supplies and the county printing. The cure for this is to have all expenditures beyond a nominal amount made on public bids.

“Another opportunity of abuse is the payment of supervisors in fees. Many counties still adhere to the old rule of fees: $4 per day for attending board meetings; 8 cents per mile for going and returning; $4 per day while actually engaged in any investigation or any other lawful duty. For copying the assessment roll and extending taxes on the tax roll supervisors receive commissions which, in some counties, run into thousands of dollars. The remedy for the numberless evils which accompany the fee system is to put the supervisors on a salary basis.

“The sheriff has charge of the prisoners in the jail. Therein lies his opportunity for dishonesty and extortion. Sheriffs should receive salaries and not fees, and every county should have a well-organized board of women visitors to inspect the jails and lockups at least every two weeks.

“The district attorney has an opportunity for dishonesty in the expenditure of the contingent fund, which is always provided for him, and which he can pay out with little or no check. Fortunately, however, most men elected to the office of district attorney are of high enough caliber to make the percentage of dishonesty almost _nil_.

“If the county clerk is paid by fees it is difficult to expect an absolute, ethical fulfilment of his duty, and probable that he will be working for himself rather than the county.

“The duties of the county superintendent of the poor are in continual conflict with those of the overseers of the poor. The opportunity to waste and misappropriate county funds without detection is not as great as it used to be, because of the close supervision of the State Board of Charities; but the county superintendent has wide discretion in giving alms and caring for the county poor, and the office is, therefore, usually sought by a minor political leader, who, by virtue of his office, can provide for his dependent supporters, which he usually does in the sincere belief that he is properly dispensing charity. In no case, however, is any great amount wasted, and on the whole the work is fairly well done.

“Justices of the peace and constables and town clerks usually receive fees. They should be put on a salary basis.

“Overseers of the poor have opportunities for fees and misappropriation of small amounts because they are allowed liberal discretion in selecting objects of the town’s bounty. The office should be wiped out, the distinction between town and county poor abolished; all the work should be done through the county superintendent of the poor, who should be responsible to the State Board of Charities.”

=The Relation of Country to City, State, and Nation=: While the problems of government in rural districts are simple and few, the close relations of city and country have made the wise management of country affairs of great importance to those who live in cities. On the other hand, the handling of the more complex and difficult city problems are of equally grave importance to country dwellers. Comfortable, prosperous life in a rural community is dependent not only on local conditions, but also on State and National government.

Good roads are equally important to city and country, and they depend largely on the State. The kind of education that the village or country school gives will determine the intelligence and earning capacity of many of the coming generations of city dwellers, and this instruction is determined both by the State and by the local school boards.

Low telephone rates and good interurban car lines will put the woman on the farm in close touch with her neighbors, and so will stimulate her interest in outside affairs. Healthy community life and rural amusements will keep the young people content at home and help prevent the drift toward the city. The farmer’s produce is handled by city shops and markets, and the manufactured articles of city factories go into the homes of every rural district.

Not only are city and country dependent on each other, but also one part of the country is dependent on some other part, far distant, for some of the necessities of life. Our cotton comes from the South, wheat comes from the West, sugar may come from Colorado or Cuba. The whole country is linked together in trade relationship, and freight rates and interstate commerce are controlled by the Federal government.

The good citizen, then, has a vital interest not only in his supervisor and local affairs, but in both State and National government. When he realizes that the size of his income, the comfort of his family life, the welfare of his children, and their getting on in life, depend to an appreciable degree on government, he and she will begin to take a livelier interest in politics. The discussion of these affairs in the home will serve to stimulate the interest of the entire family in what is, after all, an important part of their business.

A small community has one problem all its own. If there is some offense against the public welfare, no one wants to complain. It may be something merely disagreeable, or it may be a serious menace to public health; but every one is slow to make a fuss about it because he cannot hide his identity, and he is afraid he might become unpopular. This fear is usually groundless because it is likely that most of his neighbors agree with him in wanting to have the condition changed. A country community needs fearless, public-spirited citizens.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The word town as used in New York does not mean a village or city, but a political division.

III

THE INCORPORATED VILLAGE AND CITY GOVERNMENT

As population grows government needs increase. When people establish their homes close together and form a populous community within a limited area, it becomes necessary to have streets opened up, sidewalks made, the streets lighted, protection from fire, and other things that the township does not provide.

A territory of not over one square mile, having a population of at least two hundred people, may be incorporated as a village. On a petition of the taxpayers they may vote on the proposition, whether or not they shall become an incorporated village, and have a government of their own distinct from that of the town. Even if they incorporate they still remain a part of the town, and take the same part in town government as before.

=There Are Four Classes of Villages=: First class, those with a population of 5,000 or over; second class, with a population between 3,000 and 5,000; third class, with a population of between 1,000 and 3,000; fourth class, with a population of less than 1,000. In many Western States a village of one or two thousand inhabitants usually becomes a city. In New York State there are villages of more than 15,000 population.

=The Village President=, who serves one year, is the chief executive, and serves without pay. He is the head of the village board of trustees, and in small villages is the head of the police. Local order, peace, health, and sanitation depend on him.

=The Board of Trustees= consists of from two to four men in villages of the third and fourth class; from two to six men in villages of the second class, and from two to eight men in villages of the first class, elected for two years, half of them elected each year. They serve without pay. They make ordinances for the government of the village and administer its affairs. They decide where sidewalks shall be built, whether streets shall be paved, how garbage shall be handled; they provide light and a water-supply; they provide for the raising of money by taxes; if a sewerage system is needed it must be done under the supervision of the State Board of Health. Propositions relating to the large expenditure of funds must be submitted to the taxpayers.

Questions of police, water-supply, fire protection, lights, sewers, are sometimes handled by the board of trustees, or if the village is large enough there may be separate boards or commissioners established for some of these things.

A Fire Department, with fire house, hose and wagon, exists in most villages, voluntary in small places, and a paid force in the larger villages. The fire company is a popular department of public service, because of the social pleasure involved and because firemen are exempt from jury duty.

=A Treasurer, Assessors, a Collector, and a Village Clerk=, are usually elected and sometimes =a Street Commissioner=. Not infrequently the latter office is considered a sinecure, and streets littered with waste paper and other refuse are common in the average village. The commissioner should be held up to his duty by all the voters.

=A Board of Health= of from three to seven members must be appointed by the trustees to work in connection with the State Board of Health. This board elects a health officer, who must be a physician. The business of the board is to watch over drains, cesspools, to prevent nuisances and contagion from disease. Health officers should be vigilant and morally courageous, otherwise the community will pay in illness.

=A Police Justice=, elected for four years, handles cases involving violations of village ordinances. The board of trustees may appoint a village attorney to represent them in case of lawsuits.

=The Annual Village Election= usually takes place the third Tuesday in March. A special village election, similar to a town meeting, may be called for taxpaying citizens to vote on special questions, such as the removal of garbage at public expense, or the purchase of water or lighting plants.

A water-supply is usually furnished by a village of any size. An abundant supply is necessary, not only for homes, but for fire protection and for any sewerage system. New York villages and cities are very well lighted. Whether there should be public or private ownership of public utilities is a question which is much discussed. While the water-supply is usually owned by the municipality, the lighting system more often belongs to a private company.

Sewage disposal is a matter which has to be taken up sooner or later by a village as it grows in population. For too long our villages have polluted the convenient stream. They have been slow to study the question, and to dispose of sewage and garbage in a way that is both satisfactory and economical. Foreign cities often make a profit out of the disposal of their refuse, whereas it usually costs us money. These questions need more intelligent consideration than is usually given them.

* * * * *

As a community grows larger it outgrows the simple form of village government and needs one more adapted to its complex and growing needs.

The growth of cities in the past hundred years is phenomenal. In 1820, 83 per cent. of the people of the United States lived on farms; in 1910 only 32 per cent. The problems that a city government has to meet are many and difficult, especially in the cities of New York State, where a large proportion of the people are foreign-born, and where there is often a large floating population without civic pride or interest. In smaller communities, where every one is known, the fear of public opinion acts as a restraining influence which is not felt in a city where the individual identity is often submerged.

=A CITY GOVERNMENT= works under a charter granted by the State, which limits its powers. These charters used to be made out separately for each city, and the legislature interfered with the management of the local affairs of a city in a way that caused a demand for “Home rule” for cities. This has been partially granted, and cities in New York State now have large power to provide public works and to control public education, health, safety, recreation, and charities, although they are still occasionally interfered with by the State legislature.

The city is a direct agent of the State, and does not work as the village does, through the town and county.

=Three Classes of Cities=: First-class cities have a population of 175,000 or over. Second-class cities have a population of 50,000 to 175,000; third-class cities are all those with a population of less than 50,000. The object of this division is to enable the State to legislate for the needs of groups of cities instead of individual ones. The mayor of a city may veto a measure passed by the legislature, but if approved by the legislature and signed by the governor, it may become law in spite of his veto.

The needs of government in a city are those of the village multiplied in size; they include police protection, care of the public health, a pure water-supply, inspection of food-supplies, supervision of weights and measures, adequate housing inspection, economic and satisfactory garbage and sewage disposal, fire protection, gas and electric lighting, good paving, clean streets, the care of dependents, maintenance of hospitals and libraries, good educational facilities, transportation, and many other activities.

The general plan of government for cities is the same in all the classes. Cities of the first class are New York City, Buffalo, and Rochester (see Greater New York).

=Cities of the Second Class=: =The Mayor=, who is elected for two years, is the chief executive officer. He has as important and responsible a position as any man at the head of a big corporation. The management of the city is in his hands. The health and welfare of its dwellers depend on him. While the city council legislates for the city, it is his business to see that laws and ordinances are enforced. He may veto an ordinance passed by the city council, although they may pass it over his veto by a two-thirds vote. The mayor has the power of appointing the heads of most of the important departments of the city’s business. Sometimes the city council has to confirm an appointment, and an official can only be removed for good cause, and he must be given a hearing and an opportunity to answer charges. To elect to the position of mayor and to put the entire responsibility of all the complex problems of city government on a man of no training or fitness for the position, is to invite extravagance, incompetence, and corruption.

For purposes of convenience in government a city is divided into subdivisions called _wards_, and for elections, into certain voting precincts called _election districts_.

=The Board of Aldermen or The Common Council= consists of one alderman chosen from each ward and a president of the board. They are elected for two years, and are to the city about the same that the board of trustees are to the village. Their powers are limited by the city charter. In general, they may pass ordinances relating to streets, sewers, parks, public buildings, amusements, grant franchises, regulate traffic, levy taxes, and borrow money under certain restrictions for the use of the city. An alderman has power over many local interests in his district. It is an important position which in the main has been disregarded; it should be filled by a man chosen for fitness as a local representative and not as a reward for party service. No man should be elected to this board whom you would not trust as the custodian of your own property or the guardian of your children, because in a public sense that is what he is.

=The Board of Estimate and Apportionment= is one of the most important departments of city government. It has large control over the city’s finances, and determines its policies in all financial matters, franchises, privileges and permits, and makes the city budget. It consists of the mayor, comptroller, corporation counsel, president of the common council, and the city engineer.

=The Department of Contract and Supply= lets contracts for material and work required by the city. With the constant growth of city departments and city business, in which supplies and materials of many kinds are needed, this is also an important committee.

Other elected officers are comptroller, treasurer, president of the common council, and assessors.

The department of finance is managed by the comptroller and the treasurer.

The department of assessment and taxation, which makes the assessment rolls, consists of four assessors, elected two at a time, for four years each.

The department of law is presided over by a corporation counsel, appointed by the mayor. The mayor also appoints the city engineer and the heads of the following departments:

The department of public works, which controls the water-supply, streets, sewers, buildings, and public markets; the department of public safety, which includes the bureaus of gas and electricity; departments of police, health, charities and correction, and the board of education.

Cities of the third class are not uniform in their government, but the general outline is the same as for cities of the second class.

=City Elections= are held in the odd-numbered years. State officials are elected in the even-numbered years. The purpose of setting a different time for these elections is to keep city politics independent of State political machines. Party issues have little to do with the problems of a city. It is evident that the government of a large city is a very important and complicated business. There are several offices which demand as great executive ability as would be required of a man at the head of a large business corporation. But city offices are usually given to men not for fitness, but because of party affiliation. Public sentiment is beginning to ask why high standards of competence and efficiency should not be as much demanded in public as in private business.

=The Budget=: The heads of the various departments decide how much money will be required to run each department for the ensuing year. The Board of Estimate and Apportionment considers these requests and fixes the tax-rate necessary to raise the money needed (see Chapters IV and XI).

=Franchise Rights=: A city has many sources of revenue of its own. Public utilities which furnish such necessities as transportation, water, gas, and electric light, earn enormous profits. In some places some of these things are owned by the city and the revenues go to the city. In others, the right to build and operate such a public business is given to a private corporation through a franchise. It is evident that these franchise rights are extremely valuable and should not be given away without adequate compensation to the city, as well as the insuring of good service. The rates that are charged, and the service rendered, are matters of vast importance to the people of a city. Municipal ownership of such utilities has never been as extensive in this country as abroad, but the sentiment in favor of it is growing. Franchise rights used to be given for long terms, even in perpetuity, but public sentiment now demands that they be subject to revision at reasonable intervals. Most cities to-day own their own water-supply, and some of them have their own lighting plants.

=Commission Form of Government=: So many officials are needed to manage the complex affairs of a city that even if well qualified men are put up for office, with so many candidates to be elected, it is impossible for the voters to know the merit of them all. City government has been the weakest spot in our political life. In an effort to meet its defects, a number of cities have adopted the policy of doing away entirely with the form of government as outlined, and electing on a non-partisan ticket several commissioners (sometimes headed by a mayor), each one of whom is put in charge of a division of the city’s administration, and made responsible for the work of this department.

The fact is being recognized that skill and expert training are needed in public officials; that the power should be given to a few men, and that they should be held responsible for the success of their work.

Buffalo now has a commission form of government.

=The City Manager Plan= gives the management of a city to one man, who is engaged by the city, and held responsible for the conduct of city affairs, in the same way that a large business enterprise would engage a manager. A city manager should be a man who has made a study and profession of city government.

IV

GREATER NEW YORK

The city of New York includes five counties: New York, Kings, Queens, Bronx, and Richmond. In one hundred years, the population of New York City grew from 50,000 to 4,000,000 people. It now has a population of nearly 6,000,000, which is about one-half the population of the State, and it is the second city in size in the world.

The government of the city is strictly prescribed by its charter; for any improvement that it desires outside of the provisions of that charter, the city must go for permission to the State Legislature.

For convenience in government the city is divided into five boroughs: Manhattan, Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond (Staten Island).

=The Mayor= is the chief executive of the city. He is elected for four years and has a salary of $15,000. He has powers of appointment and removal over a vast number of important positions, including the heads of the big city departments. Like the Governor of the State and the President of the United States, he initiates legislation by sending once a year a message to the Board of Aldermen containing a general statement of the government and financial condition of the city, and recommending such measures as he deems advisable. He may ask for special legislation at any time.

All ordinances and by-laws passed by the Board of Aldermen go to the Mayor for approval. If he vetoes a measure, the Board of Aldermen may pass it over his veto by a two-thirds or three-fourths vote, with the exception of the granting of franchise rights, where his veto is absolute.

=The Comptroller= is at the head of the financial affairs of the city. His term of office is four years, and salary $15,000. He may appoint three deputies at $7,500 each, an assistant deputy at $3,000, besides other heads of the various divisions of the finance department; but the minor positions are under the Civil Service.

=The President of the Board of Aldermen= is elected for the same term as the Mayor, and receives a salary of $7,500. He takes the Mayor’s place in case of absence or death.

=The Presidents of Manhattan, Bronx, and Brooklyn Boroughs= receive $7,500 a year; of Queens and Richmond Boroughs, $5,000. They are elected for four years, and each president has general oversight over streets, bridges, sewers, and buildings in his borough. He may appoint a commissioner of public works, and a superintendent of buildings for his borough, and local school boards. In Queens and Richmond the borough presidents have charge of street-cleaning.

=The Board of Aldermen= is the legislative body of the city. It consists of seventy-three men elected from Aldermanic districts. They serve for a term of two years, and receive a salary of $2,000 each. This board makes the ordinances for the government of the city. It makes and enforces police, fire, building, health, and park regulations; it makes by-laws for the regulation of public markets, streets, public buildings, docks; for inspection of weights and measures; regulating places of amusement, height of buildings; licensing cabs, truckmen, and pawnbrokers, and regulations for the suppression of vice. A city clerk and a clerk of the board at a $7,000 salary each, are appointed by the board.

=The Board of Estimate and Apportionment= is the most important of the city boards. It frames the city budget, which has to be adopted by the Board of Aldermen. It also passes on bills granting franchise rights. It represents the whole city, and consists of the Mayor, Comptroller, President of the Board of Aldermen, each with three votes; Presidents of Manhattan and Brooklyn Boroughs, with two votes each; and Presidents of Bronx, Richmond, and Queens Boroughs, with one vote each.

Among the important appointive positions of the city which are in the hands of the Mayor are the following:

=The Corporation Counsel=, with a salary of $15,000 a year, is the head of the law department of the city, and is the city’s legal adviser. He has over fifty assistant counsels to appoint, with salaries ranging from $3,000 to $10,000 a year, and a host of deputy and junior assistants.

=The City Chamberlain= receives and pays out all moneys for the city—salary $12,000. He may appoint a deputy at $5,000 a year. The abolishment of the office of Chamberlain as being unnecessary was recommended by a recent incumbent; but it is too large a plum to be lightly discarded.

=The President of the Department of Taxes and Assessments= receives $8,000 a year. Six other tax commissioners are appointed with salaries of $7,000 each, two of whom must be of the opposing party.

The Commissioners of Accounts, of Correction, of Docks and Ferries, and of Health, the Fire Commissioner, Police Commissioner, Commissioner of Licenses, of Plants and Structures, of Public Charities, the Street-cleaning and Tenement House Commissioners, Commissioner of Water Supply, Gas and Electricity, and the chairman of the Parole Commission, all receive $7,500 a year; the Commissioner of Weights and Measures, $5,000 a year.

There is a new Commissioner of Public Markets, and a Supervisor of the _City Record_, a city publication which must print all ordinances which involve the spending of city money, granting a franchise, or making a specific improvement, before they are passed by the Board of Aldermen.

There are many other less important offices to be filled, and the Borough Presidents have still further appointments.

=The Board of Education= has been reduced from forty-six to seven members, of whom two are now women. In addition there are forty-six local school boards in the various school districts, each consisting of five members appointed by the Borough President and the District Superintendent of the local school district. These have now been divided among the seven members of the new School Board.

=The Board of Elections= consists of four commissioners, two Republicans and two Democrats, appointed by the Board of Aldermen for two years, with a salary of $5,000 each. This board determines the election-district boundaries, chooses about 2,000 polling-places, and appoints about 17,000 election officials. Since 1915 the city has allowed school-houses and other public buildings to be used as polling-places, and at the last election nearly 1,000 districts were supplied in this way.

=Local Improvement Boards=: The city is divided into twenty-five districts, in each of which there is a Local Improvement Board, consisting of the Borough President and the Aldermen of the Aldermanic districts included in the local improvement district.

=County Government Within the City=: Each county included in the city of New York has a separate county government, independent of the city, with its sheriff, county clerk, district attorney, and its county court in every county but New York. The office of Sheriff in New York County has been one of the highest paid offices in the State, because of its fees. These have amounted to from $80,000 to $100,000 or more a year, and the county and Sheriff have divided them. The county now receives all the fees, and the Sheriff a salary of $12,000 a year; but he cannot be re-elected, and the term of office has been increased from two to four years.

=Courts=—=Supreme Courts=: The first judicial department, and the first judicial district of the State are formed by New York and Bronx Counties. Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond form the second. The Special and Trial terms of the Supreme Court try both criminal and civil cases with and without a jury, as in other counties.

=County Courts= are held in Kings, Queens, Bronx, and Richmond Counties, and each of them except Richmond has a _Surrogate’s Court_. New York County elects two Surrogates, for a term of fourteen years each, at a salary of $15,000 a year. In place of the County Court, New York County has a _City Court_, which tries civil suits and is a naturalization court, and a _Court of General Sessions_, which tries criminal cases. The _Court of Special Sessions_, with a chief justice and fifteen assistant justices appointed by the Mayor, tries cases of misdemeanors, and offenders sent to them by the City Magistrates. One division of this court is the Children’s Court, with one presiding justice and five associate justices, with a court in each borough. These justices hold office for a term of ten years.

=Magistrates’ Courts= are held by a large number of magistrates, appointed by the Mayor, and a chief magistrate who has general supervision of them. _Municipal Courts_ are held in various parts of the city to try small civil suits. There are forty-five Municipal Court districts, in each of which there is a judge elected by the people of the district for a term of ten years.

There are separate Night Courts for both men and women, a Domestic Relations Court, which deals with cases of non-support of wives and children, and poor relations, and a Traffic Court, which deals solely with violations of the traffic laws.

* * * * *

To even mention the various institutions in the city of New York which are engaged in improving the health and social welfare of the people would take many pages. There is great need among them of a more clean-cut division of activities, and less overlapping of authority.