Chapter IX: Preface (2)

_The Commissioner of Public Charities_, appointed by the Mayor, is responsible for the care of the city’s dependents. In 1915, 350,362 free lodgings were given to dispossessed families and needy men and women. There are 329 institutions receiving money from the city for the care of dependent children, and 22,753 children were in their charge on January 1, 1916. The care which these children have received has been severely criticized. The conflicting authority of the State Board of Charities and the City Board of Inspection of Charitable Institutions, is said to be responsible for this. In the future, the city is to conduct its own inspections. Widows’ pensions are administered for all of Greater New York by one _Child Welfare Board_ of nine members appointed by the Mayor, of whom two must be women. They serve for a term of eight years without salary.

_The Tenement House Department_ looks after the 103,882 tenement buildings of the city, and has a force of 193 inspectors, of whom eight are women. There are still about 9,000 dark rooms in the old tenements, built before the law was passed requiring a certain amount of light and air, which have not been made over to meet the new requirements.

_The Street-cleaning Department_ employs regularly about 5,400 men at salaries ranging from $720 to $860 a year.

_The Board of Inebriety_ was organized to take charge of persons who are chronic addicts to alcohol or drugs, to treat them as victims of disease, and send them to a farm where treatment looking toward a cure is combined with farm work, truck gardening, etc. The great needs of this work cannot be met until further accommodations are made for patients.

=The Municipal Civil Service Commission=, consisting of three members appointed by the Mayor, maintains a regular staff of examiners of applicants for city positions. The regular payroll of the city includes nearly 85,000 persons, of whom about 30,000 are not under the jurisdiction of the Civil Service. There are also about 20,000 others who are employed part of the time.

There is a free _public employment bureau_ which is growing steadily and is placing over two thousand applicants a month, and a Commissioner of Weights and Measures.

The management of each one of the large departments of city government requires special and technical training. A corporation manager would search the country for the best man to be found for each particular department.

School-teachers and school superintendents are chosen because of their training and experience. Minor city employees are appointed from Civil Service lists; but the custom of American cities is to appoint men at the heads of city departments who have distinguished themselves for party service.

=The Budget for Greater New York= is made up, beginning in June, and being adopted November 1st. Estimates of the needs of each department for the coming year are submitted to the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, and are studied by sub-committees who conduct public hearings, when the representatives of each department and the official examiners report on their estimates and each item may be examined and discussed. A tentative budget is printed for public use and the last week in October public hearings are held. By November 1st the budget must be adopted by the Board of Estimate and Apportionment and sent to the Board of Aldermen for their approval.

“Pay as you go” was a financial policy adopted in 1914 to relieve the tremendous piling up of future indebtedness of the city for permanent improvements of the non-revenue producing class. During the years 1914-1918 an annually increasing proportion of the cost of these improvements was to be included in the tax budget, and by 1918 the entire cost was to be met by taxation, and thereafter no bonds were to be issued for this class of improvement. Every dollar borrowed at 4½ per cent. interest on a fifty-year bond costs $1.69 in interest charges. While taxes are higher for a time under the pay-as-you-go plan, the actual cost of improvements to the city is much less.

The Mayor of New York City is the head of a corporation whose budget of expenditure, in 1916, was $212,000,000. Before the war the general expenses of the United States Steel Corporation were about $34,000,000 a year. The salary of the president of the Steel Corporation, or of any one of the largest business corporations of the country, would be from $50,000 to $100,000 a year. The Mayor of New York City receives $15,000 a year. But a business corporation would insist on having for president a man whose training and business experience had made him peculiarly fitted for the job, while our practice in choosing a man for mayor is to give little consideration to special training and experience in the work of city administration.

V

STATE GOVERNMENT

The State has such large powers over its people, and over all political divisions within it, that it is often called the “Sovereign State.” The State regulates the ownership and transfer of property; it punishes murder and other crimes; it regulates business relations; it prescribes the form of marriage and the reasons for divorce; it authorizes the levying of taxes; it makes its own election laws and provides for education; until recently it has controlled railroads operating within its borders.

=The State Constitution=, adopted by a majority of the voters of the State, is the fundamental law of the State. It can only be changed by a constitutional convention or by the adoption of a constitutional amendment, which is done with considerable difficulty.

A constitutional convention is an assemblage of men chosen by the voters to revise the constitution. The result of their deliberation is then submitted to the voters, who can accept or reject it. The last revision took place in 1915 and was overwhelmingly defeated at the polls. The law now provides for a revision every twenty years if the voters desire it.

An amendment to the constitution can be proposed in the Legislature. It has to pass both houses of the Legislature during two different but successive sessions (a new session of the Legislature comes only every other year, when a new Senate is elected), and must then be submitted to the voters of the State for their approval. A majority vote makes it a law.

=The Legislature= has authority under the State constitution to make laws for the State. It meets every year on the first Wednesday in January at the Capitol in Albany, and remains in session until its business is completed, usually about April 1st. It is composed of two divisions or “houses,” the Assembly and the Senate.

Every ten years, in a year ending with the figure five, a census is taken of the people of the State, and on this basis there is a new apportionment of Senators and Assemblymen.

=The Senate= at present is composed of fifty-two members, elected from certain divisions of the State known as Senatorial Districts. In general, each fiftieth of the population of the State is entitled to one Senator. (This rule is not followed mathematically, for a county may not be divided except to form two or more districts within it; no one county may have more than one-third of all the Senators, and no two counties may have more than one-half of the total number. This is intended as a check to a congested district having an undue representation.)

If a county which already has three or more Senators shows a sufficient increase in population to entitle it to another one, the additional Senator adds one more to the fifty Senators already provided for.

=The Assembly= is composed of one hundred and fifty members, and, roughly speaking, every one hundred and fiftieth part of the population of the State is entitled to one Assemblyman. In practice the rural county of small or medium size which does not contain a large city is one Assembly District. Chautauqua, Dutchess, Schenectady, Niagara, Orange, Rensselaer, St. Lawrence, Steuben, Richmond, Suffolk, and Broome have each two Assembly Districts. Albany, Oneida, and Onondaga have three each; Queens has six; Westchester and Monroe, five; Bronx and Erie, eight; Kings and New York, twenty-three each; Hamilton and Fulton counties have only one between them. Nassau County has recently been divided into two Assembly Districts. This division is made by the County Board of Supervisors.

The presiding officer of the Senate is the _Lieutenant Governor_. The presiding officer of the Assembly is elected by its members, and is called the _Speaker_. He appoints the standing committees, and has much control over legislation. He usually belongs to the political party which is in the majority in the Assembly. This party also elects a majority leader to control legislation on the floor. The choice of the other party is called the _leader of the minority_, and he is recognized as the leader of this party in the Legislature. The Senate also has majority and minority leaders.

Assemblymen are elected for one year, and Senators for two years. Both receive $1,500 salary and an allowance of ten cents a mile traveling expenses once during the session.

=How to Get a Law Passed by the Legislature=: A bill may be introduced by any member, beginning, “The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact,” etc.

It may be introduced into either the Senate or the Assembly, or it can be introduced in both houses simultaneously. It has a first reading and is referred to a committee. The committee may pigeonhole it and never report, or it may report it too late in the session for action by the Legislature, or it may report it favorably, or with a recommendation that it be rejected. If it is reported favorably it is put on the calendar to await its turn for consideration. It then comes up for a second reading, when it may be amended and sent back to the committee; after a third reading a vote is taken. If it is passed in one house it then goes to the other house, where it goes through the same procedure. If it is passed by the second house, it then goes to the Governor for his signature. If it is a bill concerning the government of a city it goes to the mayor of the city for his approval.

If either house changes the bill it has to go back to the first house for action in its amended form. The Governor has the power to veto a bill, but it can be repassed over his veto by a two-thirds vote.

=The Governor= is the chief executive officer of the State. It is his business to enforce the laws, through his appointive officers. He has control of the military forces of the State, which must consist of not less than twenty thousand men, of whom two thousand must be a naval militia. He has the power to grant pardons. He is elected for two years, and receives a salary of $10,000 and the use of the Executive Mansion. He may also initiate legislation. At every regular session of the Legislature his duty is to send a “message,” telling the Legislature about the condition of public affairs and recommending measures for their consideration. He may also, at any time, ask for special legislation, and may call the Legislature together in an extra session. He has the power of many important appointments to State positions, but subject to the approval of the Senate.

=The Lieutenant Governor=, with a salary of $5,000 a year, takes the Governor’s place in case of need. He presides over the Senate.

=The Secretary of State= has charge of all public documents and records. He grants certificates of incorporation, and has charge of elections and the taking of the census. His salary is $6,000 a year.

=The Comptroller= must sign every warrant for payment of State funds. He acts as auditor for the State, reports to the Legislature concerning State funds, and superintends the collection of State taxes. He designates the banks in which State money shall be deposited. His salary is $8,000 a year.

=The State Treasurer= is the custodian of State funds, and pays them out only on order of the Comptroller. His salary is $6,000 a year.

=The Attorney-General= is the general legal adviser of the State. He prosecutes and defends all actions in which the State is interested. His salary is $10,000.

=The State Engineer and Surveyor= must be a practical engineer. He has charge of the canals, and the surveying and mapping of all the public lands of the State.

=Appointive Offices=: Among these are two _Public Service Commissions_, each with five members. The first has jurisdiction over Greater New York, and the second over the rest of the State. In general, they have power to regulate railroads and street-cars, to establish rates, and to compel adequate service. They also control express companies, gas and electrical companies, telephone and telegraph lines. No company can raise its rates without their consent. Their business is to see that the needs of the public are adequately served, and also to protect the companies from unjust treatment. These commissions are considered so important that the salary of each commissioner was made $15,000 a year.

=The State Tax Commissioners= have general supervision of the methods of raising taxes throughout the State. There are three of them appointed for three years, and they must visit every county in the State at least once in two years. Their salary is $6,000 a year each.

=The State Board of Equalization=, which consists of the tax commissioners and commissioners of the land office, has to equalize the assessments in each county, and fix the amount on which the State tax is to be levied.

=The Superintendent of Banks= controls the banks, trust companies, building and loan associations, which make reports to him quarterly, from which he in turn makes a report to the Legislature annually. His salary is $10,000, and his term three years.

=The Superintendent of Insurance= has control over all the insurance companies and reports annually to the Legislature. His salary is $10,000, and term three years.

=The Commissioner of Health= must be a physician. He has general oversight of the health of the State, and supervises the registration of births, marriages, and deaths in the towns and cities. His salary is $8,000, and he has a four-year term.

=The Commissioner of Excise= issues tax certificates for the sale of liquor and collects the excise tax, of which the State gets one-half, and the city or town in which the liquor is sold gets one-half. His salary is $7,000, term five years.

=The Commissioner of Agriculture= appoints the directors of farmers’ institutes, watches over the sale of food products that might be injurious to health, and has general care of the agricultural needs of the State. His salary is $8,000, term three years.

=The Commissioner of Highways=, who is in charge of State roads and improvements, serves for two years with a salary of $12,000 a year.

=The Department of Labor=, which is a very important branch of the State government, works to improve the conditions of labor. There are five commissioners who serve six years, each with a salary of $8,000. In this department are several bureaus: _viz._, Inspection, Employment, Workmen’s Compensation, Mediation and Arbitration, Statistics and Information, Industries, and Immigration.

=The Conservation Commissioner= controls departments for preserving and propagating fish and game, for protecting lands and forests, and the control of inland waters. He appoints a head for each division. (Forests owned by the State must be kept wild. They may not be loaned, sold, or exchanged, and no wood may be cut.) He serves six years, with a salary of $8,000 a year.

=The Civil Service Commission= consists of three commissioners who have the duty of determining the rules with which to test the fitness of applicants for employment under the civil service laws. The civil service is intended to prevent the appointment of men to government positions through partisan politics or personal “pull.” Positions are classified, competitive examinations are held, and appointments made in order of merit. The custom has usually been to have separate lists made out of men and women, and it has been complained that preference has been given to the men’s lists.

There is a _Superintendent of Public Works_, with a salary of $8,000; a _Superintendent of Prisons_, salary of $6,000, and a _State Commission of Prisons_ of seven members who get $10 a day each for each day of service; a _State Board of Charities_; a _State Hospital Commission in Lunacy_ of three members, the president of which is paid $7,000, and other members $5,000.

There is also a _State Food Commission_ of three members who serve without pay, appointed only for the period of the war, and a recently created _Farms and Markets Council_.

While most of the heads of the administrative departments of the State government are appointed by the Governor, the terms of office of many of them are longer than the term of the Governor who appoints them. As a consequence, a Governor may be in office, and important departments like the Excise Commission, the Public Health and Public Service, and Industrial Commissions, may be in the hands of appointees of a preceding Governor. They can be removed from office only by preferring charges and after a hearing. Also certain other important State officials, including the Comptroller and the Secretary of State, are elected by the people, and may differ radically from the Governor on questions of public policy. They may even belong to a different political party.

It is by some considered a weakness in the management of the affairs of the State, that the conduct of some of the most important departments of an administration may be out of the control of the Governor who is responsible for them.

The business of the State requires about 17,500 regular employees, and the payroll is about $22,250,000. It is probable that some of these public officials in the service of the State might be dispensed with if they were required to work as many hours a day and as many days a year as they would be obliged to do in any private business.

VI

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

The sovereign power of the United States is vested in the National government, the federal union of all the States, each self-governing, but all uniting for certain purposes. The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the land.

The National government, like that of the State and municipality, has three distinct divisions: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The legislative power rests with Congress, which is composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate.

=The House of Representatives= is elected every two years by the voters of the States. After the census, which is taken every ten years, Congress determines what the total number of Representatives shall be. These are then apportioned among the States according to population. After the census of 1910 the House of Representatives was increased to 435 members, which gave one member for every 211,877 inhabitants. New York has 43 Representatives, the largest number from any State in the Union. Every State is entitled to at least one Representative, although it may not have the requisite population. _The Congressional District_ from which a member is elected is determined by the State Legislature. Greater New York has 23 Congressmen.

=Qualifications for Representatives to Congress=: A man must be twenty-five years old and have been a citizen of the United States for at least seven years, and be a resident of the State from which he is chosen. The salary is $7,500 a year, with an allowance for a clerk, for stationery, and for traveling expenses.

=The Senate= is composed of ninety-six members, two members from every State in the Union, elected for a term of six years. In order that there shall always be experienced men in the Senate, only one-third of that body is elected at a time. The Senate is divided into three classes, and the men belonging to one of the three classes are elected every two years.

A Senator may be re-elected as many times as a State chooses, and many Senators have served twenty years or more. This makes the Upper House of Congress a very conservative, stable body of men. Senators, as well as Representatives, receive a salary of $7,500 a year. The _Vice-President_ of the United States is the presiding officer of the Senate.

The election of Senators was formerly a prerogative of the State Legislature. The Seventeenth Amendment to the National Constitution, passed in 1913, provides that they shall be elected by direct voice of the voters of the States.

=Qualifications of Senators=: A candidate for the Senate must be thirty years old and have been a citizen for at least nine years.

=Sessions of Congress=: A new Congress comes into existence on the fourth day of March every odd year, although it does not meet in regular session until the following winter. The long session begins the first Monday in December in the odd-numbered year, and usually lasts until spring or summer. The short session begins the same time in the even-numbered year and lasts until the following March 4th, when the new Congress, elected the previous November, comes into existence, although it does not meet until the following December, unless the President calls an extraordinary session. A Congressman, therefore, is elected more than a year before he takes his seat. The Sixty-fifth Congress will end March 4, 1919. The members of the Lower House of the Sixty-sixth Congress will be elected in November, 1918.

=Congressional Committees=: The work of Congress is largely done through committees. The House of Representatives, as constituted to-day, is an unwieldy body. It is obvious that four hundred and thirty-five men is too large a number to work effectively as a whole. Every bill, even a recommendation from the President, is referred to an appropriate committee. It is only because of these many committees that it is possible to transact the very large amount of business that comes before Congress every year.

=How a Bill Is Passed=: The procedure in Congress is similar to that in the State Legislature. A bill may be introduced by any member in either house, and must pass through both houses.

=Powers of Congress=: Congress has absolute power to levy and collect taxes. Revenue bills must originate in the House of Representatives. Congress has the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and support an army and navy, and to regulate commerce. It controls naturalization laws and immigration; it establishes post-offices; grants patents and copyrights. It has the power to coin and to borrow money. It also governs the District of Columbia and the Territories.

=An Amendment to the Constitution of the United States= must be passed by a majority of two-thirds of the votes cast in both houses of Congress. It is then submitted to the States for ratification by the State Legislatures. When the Legislatures of three-fourths of the forty-eight States have ratified such an amendment by a majority vote of their members it becomes law.

=The Executive=: The President of the United States has greater powers than have the heads of many other nations. He is the Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy; he conducts official business with foreign nations and makes treaties with them, subject to the approval of the Senate; he appoints, with the consent of the Senate, ambassadors, ministers, high officials of Army and Navy, justices of the Supreme Court, and a vast number of other officers. He may veto measures passed by Congress, but they can be passed over his veto by a two-thirds vote.

The President has power to initiate legislation by sending a message to Congress, giving them information about important affairs and recommending legislative measures for their consideration. The degree to which he can force legislation through Congress depends both on the strength of the party in Congress to which he belongs, and on the personal power and prestige of the President himself. President Wilson is the first President, for more than a century, to appear in person before a joint session of Congress and read his message.

=Election of the President=: The President is chosen by presidential electors, elected by the voters of the various States, the number of electors for each State being the same as the total number of Representatives and Senators in Congress from that State. The electors of a State meet at the State Capitol on the second Monday of January following the election, to cast their votes for President. The electors are merely machines to register the vote of the State, and usually the entire electoral vote of a State goes to one candidate, although the majority of the popular vote for him may have been small. This system makes the presidential election virtually an election by States. A State “goes” Republican or Democratic. The struggle is concentrated in a few doubtful States. To win or lose them may mean to win or lose the election. It has happened that one candidate has actually received a larger popular vote than his opponent, and yet has not been elected, because the number of votes in the electoral college from the States that gave him a majority was smaller than the number of electoral votes from the other States. There is a movement toward the abolition of the electoral college and direct nomination and direct election of the President by the voters.

=The Vice-President= must be eligible to the office of President. He is elected for the same term, and his salary is $12,000 a year. His only duty is to preside over the Senate and to succeed the President in case of need.

=The Cabinet= consists of ten officials appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate to conduct for him certain departments of public business. The salary of a Cabinet member is $12,000.

Cabinet members have no vote in either House of Congress, and are not responsible to it in any way. Like the President himself, they may belong to the party which is in the minority in Congress. The Cabinet is an advisory body to the President, but its members have no legal standing in that way, and he may ignore them if he chooses. Each Cabinet officer is the administrative head of his department.

The Secretary of State heads the Department of State, and is responsible for all official negotiations and relations with foreign governments. He is the medium of communication between the President and the Governors of the States.

The Secretary of the Treasury manages national finances, administers revenue, currency, and national banking laws.

The Secretary of War has charge of all matters of national defense, river and harbor improvements, and is responsible for the maintenance of the Army.

The Attorney-General is the legal adviser of the President and the National government.

The Postmaster-General conducts the affairs of the United States Post-Office Department and the transportation of the mail.

The Secretary of the Navy has charge of the Navy and its equipment, yards, and docks.

The Secretary of the Interior and his department have charge of public lands and Indian affairs. He has the granting of pensions and patents.

The Secretary of Agriculture has for his business the improvement of agriculture in the United States. He also has charge of the Weather Bureau, animal and plant industry, and the forest service.

The Secretary of Commerce must aid and develop the commercial interests of the country, including mining and transportation. He takes the census every ten years.

The Secretary of Labor and the Department of Labor are designed to protect the welfare of the wage earners. To this department belong the Bureau of Immigration and the Children’s Bureau.

The tendency of the past few years has been to enlarge the powers of the National government. With the rapid increase of means of transportation distant parts of the country have been brought close together. Sectionalism is diminishing. To “States’ rights” is being added a national pride. In the administration of the business of the nation, State boundaries can often no longer be considered without a distinct loss of economy and efficiency. To give one example: the State control of railroads resulted in obstructive and entirely different requirements being made by neighboring States, on the same railroad passing through several of them. The power of separate States to control, independent of each other, such things as marriage and divorce laws, has resulted in the deplorable situation that a couple may be legally married in one State and the marriage may not be recognized in another.

It is evident that with the growth in influence and importance of the United States, the National government is gradually assuming many functions which formerly were left to the separate States.

VII

WHO CAN VOTE

There is one way in which the government of a republic like the United States differs from other forms of government—_viz._, in a republic _the source of all power rests with the people_. They choose the men to whom they give the right to speak for them and to represent them.

The right to vote for the man who is to represent you, who is to make the law for you and to enforce that law, is the most sacred right of a free country.

The success or failure of government in the United States, and in every political division of the State, rests with the men and women who have the power of the vote.

One of the great dangers of a democracy is the carelessness and indifference of the voter. If a government “by the people” is to be a success, the people themselves must see to it that honest, responsible, and efficient officials are chosen.

=Every Person in the State Is Either a Citizen or an Alien. Citizenship Is Conferred by the National Government and the State Has No Power to Confer or Withhold It.=

=A Citizen= is defined in the Constitution of the United States: “All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State in which they reside.” Native-born Indians who have had land allotted them and have given up their tribal life are citizens. All persons born out of the country of citizen parents are also citizens, except where the father has never resided in the United States.

=Naturalization=: Congress makes uniform laws of naturalization for all the States.

=An Alien= is a person born in a foreign country who lives here but is still a subject of some other country.

=An Alien May Become a Citizen= of the United States, and thus of New York State, after he has lived in the country five years continuously, and in the State one year. He must be able to write his own language, to read and speak English, and be of moral character. His first step is to go to a Federal court, or a court of record, and swear that it is his intention to become a citizen and renounce his allegiance to any foreign power. He is then given his “first papers.” Not less than two years, or more than seven years later, he must appear again with two witnesses to swear to his good character and loyalty, and file a petition. After ninety days his application is heard by the court and he is examined by the judge and renews his oath of allegiance. If the judge is satisfied he is given his certificate of naturalization which makes him a citizen. Fees amounting to five dollars are now charged.

=Only White Persons and Negroes May Become Naturalized=: Chinese, Japanese and East Indians cannot become citizens unless born in the United States. Polygamists are excluded.

=An Unmarried Woman= can take out papers of naturalization and become a citizen in the same way as does a man.

=A Married Woman= is only a citizen if her husband is a citizen. Under the present law, she cannot become naturalized by herself. Also, under a strict interpretation of the law, she has the residence of her husband and must vote from the same place.

=A Woman Born= in the =United States= who =marries= an =alien=, although she may never leave her own country, =ceases to be an American citizen= and becomes a subject of the country to which her husband belongs. Therefore, the wife of a man not a citizen of the United States cannot vote in this country.[2] If a resident of the United States, she resumes her citizenship at the death of her husband, or if she is divorced. =A foreign-born woman= who =marries= a =citizen becomes= a =citizen=. Children under age become citizens with their parents.

An American-born man may live abroad many years and not lose his citizenship.

A naturalized citizen is considered as losing his citizenship if he returns to his native country and resides there two years.

A citizen has the right to withdraw from the United States, renounce his allegiance, and acquire citizenship in another country.

An alien enjoys the same protection of the law as does the citizen. The government extends its protection to the native-born and the naturalized citizen alike. A naturalized citizen is protected while abroad, even in his native country, by our government in exactly the same degree as a native-born citizen would be. A naturalized citizen may fill any office in the land with the exception of that of President.

=A Citizen Is Not Always a Voter=: Women were citizens of New York State before they were given the right to vote, if (1) they were born in the United States, (2) were married to citizens, or (3) if, unmarried, they had taken out their own naturalization papers.

=The State Confers the Right to Vote and Fixes the Qualifications for Voters.=

=Who May Vote=: “Every citizen of the age of twenty-one years who shall have been a citizen for ninety days, an inhabitant of the State for one year, and a resident of the county for four months, and a resident of the election district for thirty days, has a right to vote” (Act II, Sec. I, Constitution of New York State). Foreign-born women whose husbands are citizens must live in the country five years before they can vote. In time of war soldiers and sailors may vote wherever they are, and their ballots are counted in their home districts.

It is reasonable that a certain length of residence should be required before a person is permitted to vote, in order that he may have a chance to become familiar with the interests of a community, and acquainted with the qualifications of the candidates.

=Who May Not Vote=: A naturalized citizen who has not been naturalized for at least ninety days before election; a person whose name and address is not registered with election officials at least ten days before an election; a person convicted of bribery or an infamous crime; a deserter from the Army or Navy. A person who bets on an election is disqualified for voting at that election.

The Governor may restore citizenship to a person who has lost it.

=The State Cannot Interfere with the Rights of Citizens=: While the State prescribes the qualifications for suffrage for its own citizens, by the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the National Constitution, the Federal government prohibits any State from abridging the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, and declares that the State in making the qualifications for the suffrage cannot discriminate because of _color_ or _race_.

The Fourteenth Amendment further provides that when the right to vote is denied to any of the male citizens of a State, its basis of representation shall be reduced in proportion.

Several of the Southern States have restricted the suffrage by educational and property qualifications, but have excluded from these qualifications those who were voters in 1867 (before the negroes were enfranchised) and their descendants. This discrimination of the so-called “grandfather” clause was held unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1915, but the reduction in representation has never been enforced. Massachusetts has an educational qualification and Pennsylvania a tax qualification, which also exclude many male citizens; but the Fourteenth Amendment has never been seriously enforced in either case.

=The National Amendment for Woman Suffrage=: An amendment to the Federal Constitution is pending which provides that the _right to vote shall not be denied on account of sex_.

While New York State has given the vote to its women, this permission does not extend beyond its borders. New York women lose their vote if they go to Pennsylvania, New Jersey, or any adjoining State. Twelve States have given women full suffrage, and nineteen States have given them the right to vote for President. The Woman Suffrage Amendment, when passed by Congress and ratified by three-fourths of all the States, will secure the right to vote to all the women of the United States.

FOOTNOTES:

[2] A bill is now before Congress to change this law and make it possible for a married woman to choose her country for herself, as a man does, and to require that she be obliged to go through the same process of naturalization that a man does, including the oath of allegiance. It is only through a Federal law that this change can be made.

VIII

POLITICAL PARTIES

A political party is a group of voters organized for the purpose of putting certain policies into effect, to elect certain men to office, and to control the machinery of government. Under a popular government, where public officials are chosen by the people and political policies are formulated by them, political parties have seemed the most expedient device as yet discovered to accomplish these ends.

The political party was not originally a part of the government; but as the country developed and government needs and opportunities multiplied, party machinery grew more complex, and its powers increased to such a dangerous degree that for the sake of its own integrity, the State was forced to regulate it. Party conventions, primaries, and much of the party machinery are now controlled by law.

=Two Parties=: The United States has always had two principal parties. They have had different names, and under the same name they have advocated different principles. The first parties were the Federalists, who believed in a strong central government that should exercise all the powers that the Constitution could be interpreted to permit, and the Anti-Federalists, who believed in limiting the functions of the Federal government and reserving as much power as possible to the States.

=The Republican and Democratic Parties=: It is difficult to define the difference between the present principal parties. The Republican party is the successor of the Federalists. It was formed shortly before the Civil War to prevent the extension of slavery. In general it has believed in a liberal interpretation of the Federal Constitution, and has wished to see the powers of the National government extended. The Democratic party has advocated “States’ rights,” the right of the individual States to settle their own affairs. It has held to a strict interpretation of the Constitution, and has believed in limiting the power of the National government. Besides the doctrine of States’ rights, the principal difference between the Republican and Democratic parties has been the tariff. The Republican party has advocated a high tariff, and the Democratic party a tariff “for revenue only.” While these have been the two issues most discussed between the two parties, even on these questions the lines have often been confused. Democratic members of Congress have advocated measures which distinctly contradicted the principles of States’ rights, and the Republican party as often has adopted them for its own purposes. The Democratic party has not always stood on its low-tariff platform, and Republicans have often been against protection. Even before the present war old party lines had begun to fade. With the dangers threatening the country, which war has brought, these lines have been almost obliterated. What they will be when the war is over no one can predict with certainty.

The Republican party came into power in 1860, when it elected Abraham Lincoln President, and until 1913 it controlled the National government, except for two terms of four years each when Grover Cleveland was President.

In general the Southern States are Democratic, preserving a “solid South.” The Northern States are apt to be Republican.

=The Progressive Party= was organized in 1912 as the result of a split in the Republican ranks, by men who wanted more progressive measures than those advocated by either the Republican or Democratic party. It advocated public ownership of mines, forests, and water power; a larger measure of justice for the working-classes and suffrage for women. It has disintegrated, but it had a large effect in liberalizing both the older parties, and many of its policies have been adopted by them.

=The Prohibition Party= was organized in 1872 to bring about complete prohibition of alcoholic drinks. It has elected candidates to the Legislature and has secured an ever larger measure of local option and even State-wide prohibition.

=The Socialist Party=, organized in 1900, advocates government ownership of land, railroads, telegraph and telephones, mines, and all vital industries. It has become largely the party of the industrial workers.

Minor parties have come and gone, but they have usually left a lasting effect on the dominant parties.

In New York State, any organization is considered “a party” which polled at least 10,000 votes for Governor at the last election.

=Party Organization=: The individual voter, or group of voters, is helpless to change conditions or to elect a man. It is only through the organization of many men who want the same thing that they become effective. Political parties are organized for National, State, and local campaigns.

The great work of the political parties is the nomination and election of a President every four years. For this purpose there must be a national party organization.

=The National Committee= of each party is composed of one member from each State. It organizes the National Convention of the party, which is held early in the summer before the presidential election, and at which party policies are formulated, and candidates for President and Vice-President are nominated. In the spring the chairman of the National Committee calls a meeting of this committee to decide where and when the convention shall meet.

Besides nominating candidates for President and Vice-President, the convention adopts a “platform” in which is set forth the principles which the party holds and its attitude on important public questions. A new National Committee is appointed to carry on the campaign and to act until the next convention.

The platform adopted by the party at its National convention is an expression of the principles for which the party stands. A “plank” may be put in simply to catch votes; on some question the plank may not be explicit, but may “straddle” the issue. While in the main the National platform sets forth the principles to which the party is committed and its proposals for future action, the speech or letter of acceptance of the candidate for the presidency usually contains a more reliable statement of the policies which he would advocate if elected.

=The State Committee= is the party organization in control of the party in the State. It is composed of one man from each of the one hundred and fifty Assembly Districts in the State, who are elected by the enrolled members of the party in each district. The chairman is elected by the committee to serve for two years.

Party members are all those who at the last registration, or last general election, enrolled in the party.

State platforms count for little. They usually “point with pride” to things the party has done, and denounce the acts of the opposing party. Most voters pay little attention to them.

=The County Committee= consists of one man from every election district in the county; the _City Committee_, one from each ward or election district in the city. (New York County has its own organization, different from the others.) The chairman of each of these committees is elected at the party primaries. He is usually an experienced politician, and each committee is the party authority locally.

=The Election District=: The election district captain, or county committeeman, is the man who comes in direct personal touch with the voter. His business is to deliver the vote of his election district to his party. He must know every voter in his district, find out how each one is going to vote, and keep track of new voters, especially the first voter who has yet to choose his party. He is an inspector at elections; he selects poll clerks and watchers, and handles the money sent by his party to his district. The Assembly District leader or County Chairman distributes the patronage and the election district captain may recommend men to him. The more offices that can be filled, and the greater the number of “the faithful” who can be provided for, the stronger the party at the next election. The one quality necessary for the election district captain is complete loyalty to his chairman and party.

If ordinary party members pay no attention to the organization locally it is bound to fall into the hands of those who make their living out of politics.

=Party Funds= are contributed by members of the party, subscriptions from interested men, from party candidates and interests which expect to be benefited if a certain party comes into power.

It is a crime to levy on the salary of any public official for campaign expenses, but such contributions are often still expected.

If a party elects its candidate, he has many officials to appoint, and these offices are often unfortunately regarded as rewards for party loyalty and work. The civil service was created to take offices away from party control and prevent the “spoils system.”

=The Use and Abuse of Party=: The political party has a very definite place in popular government. In the conduct of a campaign organization is indispensable. The danger lies in the difficulty of sufficiently safeguarding the interests of the public from the spoilsmen of either party. It is through the party that citizens must work for political measures, but it is also through the party machine that anti-social forces are able to successfully carry out their plans.

There is tremendous power for a party in its control of the government of a city or a State. A multitude of offices have to be filled, franchises to be granted, valuable contracts let, and there are a thousand opportunities for public plunder and private enrichment. The party in power nationally, has untold possibilities in the control of the fabulous resources of the country. In order that a party may come into power in the National government, it is necessary for it to be in control in the State, and to control the State it tries to hold minor political divisions. To gain control locally it partitions out the offices where they will do the most good; it gains support from every quarter through any means; it seeks to have men in positions of authority who can be so controlled that they will subordinate everything to the party welfare.

The average voter not infrequently supports his party at all elections, without regard for the merits of the candidates. He is often a Republican or a Democrat, without any clear idea of the different principles of the two parties. Or he may have become a Republican or a Democrat because he agreed with the party in regard to some National question. So he follows it blindly in State and city elections, which have nothing to do with National questions. It is seldom that important issues of party principles are involved in a local election; but the tradition of party support is strong and the temptation to hold party allegiance even at the expense of the public is almost irresistible.

=The Independent Voter=: Undoubtedly the number of independent voters is growing. Whenever for any reason a group of non-partisan voters abstain from party allegiance, are alert to the sincerity of party promises, and are watchful of the qualifications of candidates, both parties begin to clean house and put up as candidates the best men available, in order to bid for the independent vote. Such a body of non-partisan voters may be the decisive factor in an election, especially if the two parties are about evenly divided.

The independent voter is not popular with the machine politician. The larger the number of non-partisan voters the more difficult it is for him to perform his duties, and to control and deliver the vote.

In city and village elections, party issues have no place, and there is a growing feeling that qualification for office should be the only consideration.

It all comes back to the voting citizen. Politics and political parties are what the people make them.

IX

HOW CANDIDATES ARE NOMINATED

While any man’s name can be put in nomination for any office, he has little chance of being elected in most elections without being the candidate of a political party. For a long time parties were allowed to nominate candidates as they chose, and party bosses dictated nominations without regard for the wishes of the rest of the party or for the interests of the public. For some time past the State has regulated the methods of nominations.

Candidates for all offices are nominated in one of three ways: (1) At a party convention; (2) by direct primaries; (3) by petition.

=Candidates for President and Vice-President= are nominated at National conventions, which are the most spectacular events of our political life. Delegates to the National convention are elected at special party primaries held the first Tuesday in April of the presidential year. Every State is allowed double as many delegates as it has Senators and Representatives in Congress. The four men corresponding to the representation of the State in the Senate are delegates-at-large; the others are district delegates. The National convention is, therefore, composed of about one thousand delegates, and its meetings draw other thousands of spectators. There are few auditoriums in the country big enough to house the convention. There are usually several candidates, each one of whom is the choice of a group of men in the party. The name of each candidate is presented to the convention by a carefully selected orator, under circumstances planned to arouse enthusiasm, and, if possible, to stampede the convention.

A majority vote is sufficient to nominate the candidate in the Republican convention, but the Democratic party requires a two-thirds vote. Sometimes not one of the candidates presented is able to secure a majority. Days may be consumed in discussion and bargaining, and in the end an unexpected candidate, a “dark horse,” may be nominated. The members of the National Committee who are to serve during the next four years are elected in the convention, one member from each State.

=How Candidates for Office in New York State Are Nominated=: The direct primary is the method now used in New York State by which candidates for all offices except those in towns and villages are nominated, and the conduct of these “official primaries,” as they are called to distinguish them from the unofficial primaries of the party, is carefully prescribed by State law. A primary election is held thirty days before the general election, and is conducted on the same plan and in the same general way as the election. Candidates of each party for all the elected offices are nominated by the enrolled party members. At the same time leaders for the district of each political party are elected. The ballots for each party are printed by the State and differ in color. The candidates whose names are printed on the primary ballot are designated by party committees, and other persons may have their names added by petition.

=Who May Vote at the Official Primaries—Enrolment of Voters=: Only those who have enrolled themselves as members of the party are permitted to vote at the official primaries. At the time of the registration of voters in the cities, or at the last general election in the country, voters are given a party enrolment blank to fill out. These enrolments are placed in sealed envelopes and opened a week after the regular election, when enrolment lists of each party are made out. Such enrolment is not compulsory, but unless a voter enrolls he is not able to take part in the nomination of candidates. By enrolling he does not pledge himself to vote the party ticket at the election (except in the case of the Socialist party); but he is allowed to vote at the primary for candidates of the party in which he enrolls.