Chapter X: Part 10

The people of Illinois were mainly farmers in 1858. They traveled long distances to hear these giants debate the question of slavery. Some of them were several days coming and going--in wagons, on horseback, or on foot. The newspapers in the larger cities sent men to listen to these debates, and take down the words used by Lincoln and Douglas. The editors knew the people were anxiously waiting to read what these men had to say about slavery.

[Sidenote: =The fatal answer=]

"Can the people of a ... Territory, in any lawful way, against the wish of any citizen ... exclude slavery?" Lincoln asked. "Yes," said Douglas. That was a fatal answer. For, by this answer, Douglas lost the support of the Democrats of the South, although he held the Democrats of Illinois. He could still be senator, but he could never be president.

The debates went on. "I do not perceive," said Lincoln, "that because the white man is to have the superior position, the negro should be denied everything ... there is no reason in the world why the negro is not entitled to all the natural rights [named] in the Declaration of Independence ... I agree with Judge Douglas, he [the negro] is not my equal in many respects--certainly not in color, perhaps not in moral or intellectual endowments. But, in the right to eat the bread, without the leave of anybody else, which his own hand earns, he is my equal, and the equal of Judge Douglas, and the equal of every living man."

[Sidenote: =Lincoln made famous by the debates=]

These debates made Lincoln widely known. He accepted invitations to speak in Ohio, New York, and New England.

[Sidenote: =Lincoln the rail-splitter=]

In May, 1860, the Republicans of Illinois met in state convention. Lincoln was there. The people picked him up, lifted him over their heads, and placed him on the platform. The cheering was loud. Just at this moment John Hanks came into the hall carrying two fence rails, with the Stars and Stripes mounted between them, bearing in large words the following: "Taken from a lot made by Abraham Lincoln and John Hanks in the Sangamon Bottom in the year 1830." The people stood up and cheered, and threw their hats high and shouted for Lincoln, the "rail-splitter." He made them a speech. The convention then and there named him as the choice of the Republican party of Illinois for the next President of the United States.

[Sidenote: =The candidate of the Republican party=]

=163. Lincoln President.= A few weeks later Abraham Lincoln was nominated in Chicago by the National Convention of the Republican party for the presidency. Just as the passage of Douglas' Kansas-Nebraska Bill killed the old Whig party, so the debates between Lincoln and Douglas split the Democratic party into a northern and a southern wing.

[Sidenote: =Lincoln elected=]

Douglas was nominated by the northern wing, and Breckenridge by the southern wing. This division in the Democratic party resulted in the election of Lincoln to the presidency, in November, 1860.

During the fall and winter, seven southern states left the Union, and set up a government called the "Confederate States of America." They had their government all in running order before Lincoln left Springfield.

[Sidenote: =Bound for Washington=]

[Sidenote: =At Independence Hall=]

In February, 1861, Lincoln said good-by to the people of Springfield, and started for Washington to take his seat as president. The people were bound to see him and hear his voice and shake his hand. Along the route there were cheers, bonfires, and military parades with miles of marching men. At Philadelphia he raised a flag over Independence Hall. He made a touching speech in regard to the men of the Revolution who had sat in that hall, and pledged himself to abide by the principles of the Declaration of Independence.

[Sidenote: =The inauguration=]

On March 4, with soldiers guarding the capitol, Lincoln read his inaugural address and took the oath of office which all presidents before him had taken. This speech was listened to with the greatest interest. It was now plain to everybody that Lincoln meant to fight, if fighting were necessary to save the Union.

In April Confederates fired on Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. After awful hardships, Colonel Anderson and his men surrendered the fort to the Confederate troops.

[Sidenote: =The call for men=]

Lincoln immediately sent forth the call for seventy-five thousand men. He made it a call to save the Union which Jackson, Webster, and Clay had done so much to save. War had come--civil war, the most dreadful kind of war. Four more states left the Union, and joined the Confederate States. But the slave states of Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri remained with the Union.

[Sidenote: =Blockade of Confederate States=]

While the Union troops were gathering and drilling in Washington, Lincoln declared a blockade of the ports of the Confederate States. He saw that if he closed the ports of the South he could prevent the shipment of cotton to Europe and so keep the Confederacy from getting supplies in exchange for the cotton. This was a heavy blow to the Confederates.

[Sidenote: =The "Merrimac" and the "Monitor"=]

The South depended on the _Merrimac_ to break the blockade. The _Merrimac_ was a wooden war vessel which had been covered with a double coat of iron. It had a great iron beak with which it could ram wooden vessels. The _Merrimac_ moved to attack the Union fleet, which was stationed in Hampton Roads. The shot fired from the Union vessels and from the shore batteries had no more effect on the iron coat of the _Merrimac_ than hail on a tin roof. She sank one wooden war vessel and set another on fire. What was to hinder her from going up the Potomac and bombarding Washington?

[Sidenote: =Battle between ironclads=]

But Lincoln placed his hope in the _Monitor_. This strange craft, "looking like a cheese box on a raft," reached Hampton Roads that night and took position to defend the Union fleet from the _Merrimac_. The next morning the two ironclads met in battle. It was a battle of giants. "Why do you stop firing?" asked an officer of one of the gunners on the _Merrimac_. "I can do her as much damage by snapping my thumb at her every two minutes and a half," was the reply.

_From a rare photograph taken by Alexander Hesler in Chicago, 1860, and loaned by the Chicago Photogravure Company, who own the original_]

It was a drawn battle. Washington was safe. The South could not break the blockade. This battle between the _Merrimac_ and the _Monitor_ changed the navies of the world. Wooden war vessels now gave place to iron vessels.

[Sidenote: =McClellan in the East=]

Meantime great battles were also being fought on land. In the East the Union army under General McClellan had been hurled back in an attack on Richmond. The Confederates under General Lee, in an attempt to invade the North, had been forced to retreat.

[Sidenote: =Grant in the West=]

In the West events of equal importance were taking place. The Union troops under General Grant defeated the Confederates in many battles in Kentucky and Tennessee. Then with the aid of the Union fleet under Captain David Farragut, Grant captured the Confederate strongholds along the Mississippi River, and so cut the Confederacy in two.

[Sidenote: =Slavery question to the front=]

Lincoln had declared the war was to be fought to save the Union and not to get rid of slavery. But as the war went on, the slavery question would keep coming up. The Confederates used the slaves to build forts, cook for the army, and to do other work. Thus the slave took the place of the white soldier. Other slaves raised food supplies and cared for the women. In this way the slaves were constantly being used to help fight against the Union.

[Sidenote: =Proclamation of Emancipation=]

The time had come to destroy slavery. Lincoln now saw that by freeing the slaves he could strike a heavy blow at the Confederacy. So as commander in chief of the Union armies he issued the Proclamation of Emancipation January 1, 1863.

The war, however, continued more than two years longer. The long list of dead and wounded on both sides saddened Lincoln. Day by day the lines in his kindly face grew deeper.

Finally the news came that General Grant had hammered General Lee's lines to pieces, and that Jefferson Davis and his cabinet were leaving Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy.

_By Augustus St. Gaudens_]

Early in April President Lincoln went to visit the city of Richmond. Here he saw a city on fire, and a mob breaking into houses.

[Sidenote: =Lee surrenders=]

Grant was pursuing Lee's army. He overtook it, and on April 8 offered terms of surrender. Lee accepted. The president's heart was filled with gratitude that no more lives were to be sacrificed on either side.

[Sidenote: =Lincoln shot=]

=164. President Lincoln Assassinated.= The evening of April 14, 1865, Lincoln went to Ford's Theater in Washington to rest his body and mind. As he sat in a box, John Wilkes Booth, an actor, shot him in the back of the head. Booth sprang upon the stage, flourished his revolver, and escaped.

[Sidenote: =Dies April 15, 1865=]

Abraham Lincoln died the next day. Thus the nation lost a great man. He was truly a man "with malice toward none, with charity for all."

Courtesy of
_Youth's Companion_

LINCOLN TOWER OF CHRIST CHURCH, SOUTHWARK, LONDON

_The cost of this tower was met by contributions half in English
sixpences and half in American dimes_]

[Sidenote: =Monuments to his memory=]

Many monuments have been built to honor the name of this great man. The most unique one is in Edinburgh, Scotland--a life-size statue with one hand holding the Emancipation Proclamation and with the other striking the chains from a half-rising slave. Another interesting monument is the Lincoln Tower of Christ Church, London. High on this tower in red, white, and blue tiles, is the American flag. The largest memorial is at Springfield, Illinois, the home of Lincoln and where he lies buried. One of the most celebrated is the St. Gaudens statue in Lincoln Park, Chicago.

[Sidenote: =Lincoln and the South=]

=165. Andrew Johnson as President.= Before the war Lincoln had begun the reconstruction of the South. He did not admit that the Confederate states had ever really left the Union. Whenever one-tenth of the voters in a state would take an oath of loyalty to the Union, he allowed them to set up a new government. Lincoln then recognized this as the regular state government.

_From a photograph taken in 1865, by A. Gardner, Washington, D. C._]

[Sidenote: =Johnson a Southerner=]

Lincoln did not live to apply his wise and moderate rule to more than a few states. Even here he met with opposition from Congress. Andrew Johnson, who succeeded him as President, was a Southerner, though a stout Unionist. He was honest, but rude and harsh in his behavior.

Johnson tried to carry out Lincoln's plans for reconciling the defeated states. But he did not consult Congress before he began. Congress felt that the President was trying to override its power. It made much more harsh conditions for re-admitting the southern states.

[Sidenote: =The President and Congress quarrel=]

The quarrel between the President and Congress ended in an impeachment trial. Johnson retained his presidency by only one vote. Whether or not this trial was deserved may be a question. There can be no doubt, however, but that in dealing with foreign countries Andrew Johnson's motives were wise and patriotic as well.

[Sidenote: =Maximilian "Emperor of Mexico"=]

Mexico had long owed certain debts to England, France, and Spain. The French emperor, Napoleon III, determined to make these debts an excuse for extending his power. He sent soldiers to Mexico, and used them to set up an Austrian archduke, Maximilian, as Emperor of Mexico. President Johnson sent American soldiers to the Rio Grande, and the French forces were withdrawn. Maximilian had now no support and later was shot.

[Sidenote: =The Alaska Purchase=]

In 1867 Johnson purchased Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000. Thus one more European power gave up its possessions in the New World.

=166. The Progress of Reconstruction.= Contentment of mind and regular, peaceful growth of trade and business did not return to the South until long after Johnson's presidency. Congress had little understanding of the difficulties with which it was faced. Under its reconstruction the life of the South was for a time cruelly unsettled. At last the old southern leaders themselves restored order. Then they governed much as before.

[Sidenote: =What Lincoln's death meant to the South=]

Lincoln had earned the respect of the South, for he was a leader great enough to be generous in victory. He might have checked the misrule which nearly ruined the industries of the South, and created more lasting bitterness than the war. The South suffered as great a loss as the North in the death of Lincoln.

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL

=The Leading Facts.= _1._ Lincoln, born of poor parents in the
state of Kentucky, went over to Indiana at seven years of age.
_2._ Helped build a cabin and clear the forest and went hunting.
_3._ Lincoln lost his mother, and his father married again. _4._
His stepmother took good care of Abe and his young sister. _5._
Lincoln had little schooling, but read a few books thoroughly.
_6._ He was physically strong at twenty-one, and he had read so
much that he could "spell down" the whole country. _7._ The family
moved to Illinois, and Abe was hired to take a flatboat down the
Mississippi. _8._ He saw a slave auction at New Orleans. _9._
Lincoln was elected captain in the Black Hawk War; elected to the
legislature for four terms. _10._ He studied law and was elected
to Congress. _11._ Attacked Douglas for the Kansas-Nebraska Bill.
_12._ Lincoln and Douglas held joint debates. _13._ Nominated for
the presidency by the Republicans in convention at Chicago. _14._
Douglas displeased the South and the Democratic party was split.
_15._ Lincoln was elected president, the South seceded, and Douglas
stood by the Union. _16._ The battle between the _Merrimac_ and
the _Monitor_ ushered in the age of the ironclad war vessel. _17._
Grant defeated Lee, and Lee surrendered. _18._ Lincoln went to the
Ford Theater in Washington, and was assassinated. _19._ Johnson
started to carry out Lincoln's plans for reconstruction, but
Congress interfered, and tried to impeach him. _20._ Johnson caused
the French to withdraw from Mexico, and bought Alaska from Russia
in 1867 for $7,200,000. _21._ The South was slow in recovering from
the effects of the war.

=Study Questions.= _1._ Describe Lincoln's early surroundings. _2._
Picture Abe and his sister. _3._ How did Abe help get their meat?
_4._ What did he owe to his mother? _5._ What did Abe's new mother
do for him? _6._ What books did Abe read and how did he read them?
_7._ Why was Abe liked in the family? _8._ How tall was Lincoln?
How old was he when the family started for Illinois? _9._ What
did he do soon after going to Illinois? _10._ What did he see in
New Orleans that was new to him? _11._ Prove Lincoln was honest.
_12._ Prove that the men of the countryside had confidence in
Lincoln. _13._ How old was Lincoln when he ran for the legislature?
_14._ Tell the story of Lincoln's experiences in running for the
legislature. _15._ What was his success as a lawyer? _16._ Why did
Lincoln love public speaking? _17._ Why was Lincoln not elected to
Congress again? _18._ How did Lincoln become the champion speaker
against Douglas? _19._ What was the effect of the debate? _20._
What new declaration did Lincoln make in his Springfield speech?
_21._ Why did Lincoln challenge Douglas? _22._ How did Lincoln
become widely known? _23._ What was the fatal question put to
Douglas by Lincoln? _24._ To what rights did Lincoln say the black
man is entitled? _25._ Picture the scene in the state convention
of 1860. _26._ What was the effect of the Lincoln-Douglas
debates on the Democratic party? _27._ Why did this result in
Lincoln's election to the presidency? _28._ Give an account of
the demonstrations made in honor of Lincoln. _29._ Who fired the
first shot in the Civil War, and where was it fired? _30._ How many
slave states in all remained loyal to the Union cause? _31._ What
kind of a war did Lincoln make of this war? _32._ Tell the story
of the _Merrimac_ and the _Monitor_. _33._ How was the _Merrimac_
protected? _34._ How did the Proclamation of Emancipation affect
the strength of the Confederates? _35._ Describe the surrender of
Lee. _36._ Tell the story of Lincoln's assassination. _37._ How
did the nation feel over Lincoln's death? _38._ How has he been
honored? _39._ Describe the statue in Edinburgh. _40._ Where was
Lincoln buried? _41._ What was Lincoln's plan of reconstruction?
_42._ What happened when Johnson tried to carry this out? _43._
Name two matters in which Johnson acted wisely.

=Suggested Readings.= ABRAHAM LINCOLN: Baldwin, _Four Great
Americans_, 187-246; McMurry, _Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley_,
170-184; Wright, _Children's Stories of American Progress_,
159-178, 299-327; Brooks, _Century Book of Famous Americans_,
193-210; Hart and Stevens, _Romance of the Civil War_, 1-112;
Bolton, _Lives of Poor Boys Who Became Famous_, 342-367; Mabie,
_Heroes Every Child Should Know_, 309-319; Nicolay, _Boys' Life of
Abraham Lincoln_; Coffin, _Abraham Lincoln_; Mace, _Lincoln: The
Man of the People_; Hale, _Stories of War_; Southworth, _Builders
of Our Country_, Vol. II, 186-217.

ANDREW JOHNSON: Sparks, _Expansion of the American People_,
433-438; Guerber, _Story of the Great Republic_, 252-256.

TWO FAMOUS GENERALS

ULYSSES S. GRANT, THE GREAT GENERAL OF THE UNION ARMIES

[Sidenote: =Ulysses Simpson Grant, 1822=]

[Sidenote: =Early schooling=]

[Sidenote: =Fond of horses=]

=167. A Poor Boy Becomes a Great Man.= Ulysses Simpson Grant was born in 1822, in Ohio, at a place called Point Pleasant. When he was a year old his parents removed to Georgetown, Ohio, and there a few years later he attended school. He was taught little besides reading, writing, and arithmetic. As he grew up he helped his father and mother by hauling wood, plowing, and doing other useful work. He did not like the leather business, his father's occupation, but he found great pleasure in farm work because he was very fond of horses.

[Sidenote: =He liked to travel=]

Young Grant liked to travel. When the news came that he had been appointed a cadet at the United States Military Academy, he was glad because of the journey to West Point but not because of any other opportunities it offered. He did not like West Point, and studied only to please his father.

[Sidenote: =Fights under General Taylor=]

[Sidenote: =Resigns and returns home=]

After his graduation Grant fought in the Mexican War as lieutenant under General Taylor and later under General Scott. After peace was restored he served in California as a captain, but very soon resigned, and when the Civil War broke out in 1861 he was working as a clerk in his father's store at Galena, Illinois.

[Sidenote: =Grant goes to Springfield=]

[Sidenote: =His promotions=]

=168. A Great General.= When Lincoln's call for seventy-five thousand men startled the country, Grant was made chairman of a meeting at Galena called to raise a company of soldiers. He then went to Springfield, where the governor set him to work drilling soldiers and getting them ready for the war. After a time he became colonel of a regiment. A further promotion followed which made him a brigadier-general in command of several regiments. Later still he rose to be major-general, in command of an army.

_From a photograph taken in 1866 by F. Gutekunst, Philadelphia_]

Early in the war it was seen that in order to conquer the Confederacy it must be split in two by gaining possession of the Mississippi River. As a part of the great campaign with this end in view, we find Brigadier-General Grant directing the attacks on Fort Henry and Fort Donelson. These places were less than ten miles apart, in western Tennessee.

[Sidenote: =Captures Forts Henry and Donelson=]

With the help of Commodore Foote and his gunboats, Grant easily captured Fort Henry. To take Fort Donelson was not so easy. The Confederates tried to break through the right wing of Grant's army. After hard fighting they were driven back, and General Buckner asked what terms Grant would give if they surrendered. To this General Grant replied that he would consider "no terms but an unconditional and immediate surrender ... I propose to move immediately upon your works." This answer has become famous.

[Sidenote: =Confederates fall back=]

[Sidenote: =Grant moves against Vicksburg=]

The surrender of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson forced the Confederates to move back their line of defense. After winning the two days' battle at Pittsburg Landing, General Grant turned his attention to the Mississippi River. As long as the Mississippi remained open to the southern forces, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas could send food supplies to the Confederates on the east side of the river. This General Grant wanted to stop, so, early in 1863, he moved southward to take Vicksburg. He beat the Confederates in the field and drove them into Vicksburg. The siege of the city lasted seven weeks. No one could slip in or out. Meat and bread grew scarce. The houses were knocked to pieces by cannon balls, and people found shelter in cellars and caves.

[Sidenote: =The surrender=]

On the Fourth of July, 1863, Vicksburg, with Pemberton's army of more than thirty thousand men, surrendered. There was great happiness throughout the North. President Lincoln sent a message of thanks to General Grant, and Congress voted that he be given a medal.

[Sidenote: =Gettysburg on the same day=]

During this campaign in the lower Mississippi country a large Confederate army had marched north from Virginia, across Maryland into Pennsylvania. This army, under General Robert E. Lee, had won its way as far as Gettysburg. Here, at the end of a great three days' battle, the Confederates were decisively beaten; this defeat came on July 3, and on the very next day came the news that far-away Vicksburg had surrendered to Grant. After defeating the Confederates at Murfreesboro, General Rosecrans was in turn defeated at Chickamauga, and then cooped up in the town of Chattanooga by General Bragg. General Grant was sent to rescue the Union army, which he did in the battles of Lookout Mountain, led by Hooker, and Missionary Ridge, led by Sherman.

[Sidenote: =Lieutenant-general=]

=169. Great Commander of the Union Armies.= President Lincoln saw that General Grant was a great soldier. He sent for him to come to Washington and made him lieutenant-general in command of all the armies of the United States.

[Sidenote: =The "Wilderness"=]

Grant took command at once. His first great object was to capture Lee's army. The shortest way to Lee's army lay through the "Wilderness," a part of the country lying south of the upper part of the Rapidan, in Virginia, and covered with a thick forest of tangled underbrush. The route was dangerous. But into the "Wilderness" Grant plunged with his great army. General Lee was there with his troops. The fighting began. For a month it was almost constant charging, back and forth, and there were long lists of dead and wounded. Grant moved his army southward and nearer Richmond. Lee met him in the bloody battles of Spottsylvania and Cold Harbor.

[Sidenote: =Petersburg taken=]

Then Grant crossed the James River, south of Richmond, and began the attack on Petersburg. This place was taken in the spring of 1865.

[Sidenote: =Richmond given up=]

General Lee told the Confederate president, Jefferson Davis, that he could hold Richmond no longer. He tried to get his army away, but the men were weak from hard fighting, and Sheridan, with his cavalry, was too quick for him.

[Sidenote: =Lee surrenders at Appomattox=]

General Grant wrote to General Lee suggesting that he surrender, and thus prevent the loss of more lives. Lee agreed, and the papers were signed April 9, 1865, at Appomattox Court House. No more generous terms were ever given than those granted to Lee and his men.

After the war was over General Grant served for a time in the cabinet of President Johnson, who had become president at Lincoln's death.

[Sidenote: =Grant elected president=]

=170. President of the United States.= In 1868 Grant was elected President of the United States. He was elected again in 1872. Late in life he made a tour of the world, and everywhere was received with great honor.

[Sidenote: =Dies in 1885=]

He died July 23, 1885, at Mount McGregor, near Saratoga, New York. His body rests in Riverside Park, New York City, where a magnificent monument has been built to his memory.

ROBERT EDWARD LEE, THE MAN WHO LED THE CONFEDERATE ARMIES

[Sidenote: =Robert E. Lee, 1807=]

=171. The Great General of the Confederacy.= Robert E. Lee was born in Virginia in 1807. He went to school at Alexandria, where George Washington once lived, and became a cadet at the United States Military Academy at West Point.

[Sidenote: =Wins fame in Mexico=]

[Sidenote: =In charge at West Point=]

In the war with Mexico Lee earned honor and fame. He rose rapidly in rank. Starting as captain, he became major, lieutenant-colonel, and then colonel. When the Mexican War was over, he took charge of the Military Academy at West Point. After three years, he decided to give up the work at West Point and go West to fight the Indians.

[Sidenote: =Lee goes with his state=]

About this time the people began to insist that, in the United States, slavery must be given up. Even the army officers and men quarreled about it. Lee believed in the Union and did not want the South to leave it. But when Virginia followed other slave states out of the Union and into the Confederacy, Lee went with his native state.

[Sidenote: =In command of army defending Richmond=]

When the war began, Lee, as general, had command of the Virginia troops. After the battle of Fair Oaks, in which General Joseph E. Johnston was wounded, General Lee took charge of the army defending Richmond.

[Sidenote: =Compels McClellan to retreat=]

[Sidenote: =Invaded Maryland and Pennsylvania=]

=172. Lee Fights Battle after Battle.= Lee at once attacked the Union army which was trying to take Richmond. In a seven days' battle he forced McClellan, the Union general, to retreat. He then struck the army of Pope a fatal blow and marched with his victorious soldiers into Maryland. A great battle was fought at Antietam (1862) and Lee returned to Virginia. He won two great victories at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. In the latter battle he lost Stonewall Jackson, his best general. After this, his army rested and ranks filled, General Lee moved rapidly through Maryland and into Pennsylvania. The North became alarmed, but a great Union army was already hurrying to meet the Confederate forces.

[Sidenote: =Greatest battle of the war=]

[Sidenote: =Pickett's charge=]

[Sidenote: =The loss=]

The two armies met at Gettysburg, and there for three days was fought the greatest battle of the Civil War. On the last day General Pickett made his famous charge. Fifteen thousand southern soldiers charged across the valley--more than a mile wide--right up to the muzzles of the Union guns. But the help they expected from another direction did not arrive, and they had to retreat. Lee's army was defeated. More than fifty thousand men--including the killed, wounded, and missing on both sides--were lost at Gettysburg.

_This heroic assault marked the turn of the Confederate tide_]

[Sidenote: =Lee never invades again=]

=173. Facing a Powerful Army.= General Lee then went back across the Potomac, never to invade the North again. From then onward, little was done until, in 1864, General Grant took command of all the Union forces. Then followed three great battles--the "Wilderness," so called because it was fought in a thick forest of tangled underbrush lying in Virginia just south of the upper portion of the Rapidan; Spottsylvania, fought near the Spottsylvania courthouse a little farther southward, and Cold Harbor, fought a few miles northeast of Richmond.

[Sidenote: =Lee's troops wearing out=]

General Lee's troops were wearing out. There were no more men to take the places of those killed and wounded. Food and clothing became scarce, and other supplies were hard to get. General Lee was now made commander in chief over all the Confederate armies. He immediately put Joseph E. Johnston back in command of his old army in the West, but it was too late.

[Sidenote: =Sheridan blocks the way=]

Lee decided in 1865 that Richmond must be given up. He wanted to take his army to Danville, Virginia, on the way to join the army of General Joseph E. Johnston, in North Carolina, but at Appomattox his troops met General Sheridan's cavalry.

[Sidenote: =Terms of surrender=]

=174. The Confederacy Was Lost.= General Lee received a letter from General Grant asking him to surrender. The two generals met at a farmhouse and agreed upon terms. Grant gave the officers and men permission to take their horses home "to do their spring plowing."

The next morning Lee, surrounded by his sorrowing men, mounted his horse, Traveler, and rode slowly away to his home in Richmond. The other Confederate armies surrendered one by one.

_From a portrait painted by Browne, now in the Westmoreland Club, Richmond, Virginia_]

[Sidenote: =President of Washington College=]

[Sidenote: =Dies in 1870=]

After the war General Lee was elected president of Washington College at Lexington, Virginia, now Washington and Lee University. He greatly enjoyed his work of building up the young manhood of the South. He died at Lexington in 1870. A monument to the memory of this great man has been erected at Richmond, and another at Lexington.

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL

=The Leading Facts.= _1._ Grant born of parents who were farmers.
Loved to work with horses. _2._ Sent to West Point; was in Mexican
War under Generals Taylor and Scott. _3._ Was clerk for his
father at Galena. _4._ In the Civil War rose rapidly till made a
major-general. _5._ Captured Fort Donelson and Fort Henry. _6._
Captured Vicksburg; was made lieutenant-general, and sent into
the Wilderness after General Lee. _7._ Fought a month, then moved
around to Petersburg. _8._ Offered Lee terms of surrender. _9._ Was
twice made president. _10._ Died at Mount McGregor. _11._ Robert E.
Lee was born in Virginia and went to school at Alexandria. _12._
Went to West Point, and was in the Mexican War, where he earned
honor and fame. _13._ Took charge at West Point. _14._ Followed
Virginia when she seceded, and was given command of the troops
defending Richmond. _15._ Won several victories over the North.
_16._ Failed at Gettysburg. _17._ Fought to save Richmond. _18._
Surrendered to General Grant in spring of 1865. _19._ Became
president of Washington College.

=Study Questions.= _1._ Tell the story of Grant until he reached
West Point. _2._ What part did Grant take in the war with Mexico?
_3._ What did Grant do at Galena when Lincoln's call came? _4._
Tell of his promotion. _5._ What would happen if Vicksburg and
other Mississippi River places were taken? _6._ What two victories
came on the Fourth of July, and what did both mean? _7._ How did
Grant's victory impress the president? _8._ What can you tell of
the "Battle of the Wilderness"? _9._ What happened at Richmond?
_10._ Picture the scene at Appomattox Court House. _11._ Tell the
story of Grant after the Civil War. _12._ Tell of Lee's promotion
after leaving West Point. _13._ Did Lee want his state to leave
the Union? _14._ Was he a victorious general at first? _15._ What
happened at Gettysburg? _16._ Tell about Lee defending Richmond.
_17._ What did Lee plan to do after Richmond fell? _18._ Why did he
not carry out this plan? _19._ What position did Lee accept after
the war?

=Suggested Readings.= ULYSSES S. GRANT: Burton, _Four American
Patriots_, 195-254; Brooks, _Century Book of Famous Americans_,
181-191; Hart and Stevens, _Romance of the Civil War_, 179-183;
Hale, _Stories of War_, 21-29, 74-91, 92-118, 168-187, 226-264;
Bolton, _Famous American Statesmen_, 307-360.

ROBERT E. LEE: Hale, _Stories of War_, 61-73, 119, 149; Mabie,
_Heroes Every Child Should Know_, 289-308; Magill, _Stories from
Virginia History_, 162-172.

MEN WHO DETERMINED NEW POLITICAL POLICIES

RUTHERFORD B. HAYES

=175. A Wise and Independent President.= In 1822 a baby boy was born in the old college town of Delaware, Ohio. His parents named the boy Rutherford B. Hayes. As a youngster he loved his books and his playmates.

[Sidenote: =A leader at college=]

At an early age he entered Kenyon College, Ohio. Here he was a leader among his fellows, not only in college affairs, but in his daily work in the classroom. He graduated with first honors in his class.

For his after-college work Hayes decided to choose the law, and graduated from Harvard Law School. He was just beginning to win success when Lincoln's call to arms aroused the men of the North. It seemed terrible for northern men and southern men to fight against each other, but it had to be done to save the Union.

_From a photograph by Pach Bros., New York City_]

[Sidenote: =Becomes a general=]

Hayes volunteered and was made a major in command. By his fine work as an officer in caring for his men and in bravery on the field of battle, he won the title of general. While he was still fighting, the people at home, looking for a high-minded, honorable man for congress, nominated Hayes.

[Sidenote: =Refuses to leave his post to campaign=]

His supporters sent for him to come home and canvass for votes. He would not go. He said: "An officer fit for duty who, at such a time as this, would abandon his post to electioneer for a seat in Congress, ought to be scalped." Hayes remained at his post and was elected by a large majority.

Hayes had become known to all the people of his state and they wanted him for governor. So friendly was he toward all whether high or low, so honest was he that three times the people chose him to be their governor.

In 1876 the Republicans of the nation selected him to be their candidate for the high office of president. The Democratic candidate was a man of very high reputation, Samuel J. Tilden of New York. He was known as a fighter for honesty and against wrongdoing in public office.

[Sidenote: =Contest over the presidency=]

Unfortunately, the politicians aroused bitter feeling between the North and the South in this campaign. When it was seen that Hayes was winner by only one vote, there were threats of "civil war." But luckily Tilden did not lose his head, and his party, following his advice, accepted the result.

[Sidenote: =Generous toward the South=]

Hayes decided to take the Union soldiers out of the South. The radical Republicans opposed this action, but the majority of the people in the North favored it. The southern people were happy, because now they might manage their elections to suit themselves.

President Hayes also placed a southern man in his cabinet, and this, too, helped along the good feeling between the North and the South.

We can see now that the return of good feeling between the North and the South was necessary, but it was not so easily seen then. Now we can say that President Hayes was a noble and far-seeing statesman when he offered the "olive branch" to the South.

[Sidenote: =A startling change in custom=]

Lucy Hayes, his wife, was a brave woman. She startled society at Washington and in the country at large by issuing a decree that no strong drink should be used in the White House. The temperance people were happy, but others were not, especially the ministers of foreign countries who had always been in the habit of using wine on social occasions. A great cry was raised throughout the country, but Lucy Webb Hayes stood her ground.

JAMES A. GARFIELD AND CHESTER A. ARTHUR

=176. The Towpath that Led to the Presidency.= Like Lincoln, the second of our "martyr Presidents" started life in a log cabin. Garfield was born near Cleveland, Ohio (1831). His parents were poor and his father died while Garfield was yet an infant. Garfield's mother was brave and held her little family together. The children did not have much chance to go to school. Life to them was a hard struggle.

_After a photograph by E. Bierstadt_]

When James reached the age of fifteen, he began driving mules on the towpath of a canal running from Cleveland to Portsmouth. This was the time when canal boats carried both freight and passengers. The towpath was a hard "school," but had many good lessons for a boy wise enough to keep out of mischief.

[Sidenote: =Determined to have an education=]

He had his heart set on an education. He went to school long enough to be able to teach school. He shared his earnings with his mother. Teaching only sharpened his appetite for an education. For a time he went to Hiram College and afterward became a teacher there. He loved Hiram College because it was supported by the Church of the Disciples, of which he was a member. He finished his education at Williams College.

When Lincoln called for men for the war, Garfield, like thousands of others, volunteered. He became an officer and did his work so well that he was promoted to be major general. Like Hayes, he was elected to Congress while in the army, fighting its battles. Again and again, the people of his district sent him to Congress, and finally in 1880 the legislature of his native state made him a United States senator.

[Sidenote: =War, Congress, and the Presidency=]

Garfield was a wonderful orator. Before the Republicans, gathered in Chicago, he placed the name of John Sherman in nomination for the presidency. So great was this speech that the convention turned from all the men who were before it, and nominated Garfield himself.

Garfield won the presidency before he had a chance to take his seat as United States senator. After delivering his inaugural address to the vast crowd gathered, he turned and kissed his mother.

The Republicans had promised to make new rules about men appointed to office. They declared that men should not hold office just because they had worked for the party in power, but that they should pass an examination to find out whether or not they were fit for the position.

While Garfield was leaving Washington to attend the Fourth of July celebration at Williams College, he was shot by a half-crazy, disappointed office seeker. He lived until September. Few young people can now understand how the American people felt during this time. They learned to hate the "spoils system." Garfield's death sealed its fate.

[Sidenote: =Civil service reform=]

=177. Arthur Becomes President.= Chester A. Arthur was thought to be a "politician" merely, but he proved to be a good president. He began to build up a strong navy and started the movement for the reform of the civil service.

Since the days of the Civil War, we had been too busy with affairs at home to think much about the need of a navy. But beginning with President Arthur's administration we have increased its size from time to time, until during the war with Spain, our people came to feel the navy's value.

_From a photograph by Sarony_]

Under Arthur the spoils system received its first deadly blow when Congress passed and Arthur signed a bill establishing the merit system. By this system, men are appointed to office only after they have proved their fitness by an examination. Under it men cannot be turned out of office except for just cause.

GROVER CLEVELAND

[Sidenote: =Early life=]

=178. A Man Who Was Twice President.= Grover Cleveland saw the light of day in the old state of New Jersey in 1837. While he was yet a boy his parents moved to central New York. Here he received a common school education. He was a good pupil and made friends with boys who loved honesty and fair play. His parents were poor and could not send him to college. He was always sorry for this and tried to make up for it by hard study. The lives of men great in history and literature were what he liked best to read.

After going to Buffalo, young Cleveland entered upon the study of law. He studied long upon the fine points of the law. In time he became one of the ablest lawyers, not only in Buffalo, but in the State of New York. The fact that young Cleveland was chosen sheriff of Erie County shows that a great many people already looked upon him as a courageous man.

_From a photograph by Bell_]

[Sidenote: =Lawyer, mayor, and governor=]

When Buffalo needed a mayor who was not afraid to do his duty, the people elected this man who had been a good sheriff.

The people of the State of New York wanted a man of the Cleveland type for governor. He carried the state by a great majority. He was a great governor as he had been a great mayor. He was honest and straightforward, and treated all men alike. Long before his time as governor was up, the people began to talk of him for president.

[Sidenote: =Runs against Blaine=]

Cleveland ran against a widely known and popular man, James G. Blaine of Maine. But the Republicans split and Cleveland won. The Democrats were happy over the result, for this was the first time they had elected a president since 1856.

The Republicans had kept a high tariff ever since the Civil War. The result was that our treasury at Washington was full of money. Cleveland sent a message to Congress asking that the tariff be cut down, but the high-tariff Democrats joined the Republicans in supporting it.

Cleveland had made many enemies in his own party by refusing to appoint unfit men to office. When, therefore, he ran for president again in 1888, he was beaten by Senator Harrison of Indiana.

But four years later, in 1892, he defeated Harrison and again became president.

[Sidenote: =The panic of 1893=]

=179. The Panic of 1893.= Cleveland had hardly taken his seat as President when hard times struck the country. Business men and laborers suffered greatly. They could not pay their debts. Men, women, and children suffered for want of bread.

[Sidenote: =The great railroad strike=]

The Pullman Car Company of Chicago cut down the wages of its workmen. The men called a strike which finally extended over half the states of the Union.

Chicago was the center of the strike. Hundreds of cars were burned and lives were threatened. It was impossible to carry the United States mail or freight from one state to another. Grover Cleveland ordered United States soldiers to Chicago to keep the mails going and the freight running. This broke the back of the strike. Cleveland had shown how to settle strikes in a new way.

Cleveland served twice as President and after his second term of office he moved to Princeton, New Jersey, the seat of Princeton University. Here he became famous for his lectures given before the student body.

BENJAMIN HARRISON

=180. A General Who Became President.= Early in our national history it had happened that the son of a President of the United States had also become President. In 1833 a boy was born in Ohio, the grandson of a President, who was also to gain this high position. His grandfather was William Henry Harrison, who was elected President in the stirring campaign of 1840. His parents named him Benjamin.

_From a photograph by L. Alman_]

Young Harrison, a happy and well-born boy, received his education in the public schools. He entered Miami University at an early age and graduated at eighteen.

Harrison, like so many of our other presidents, studied law. He was very soon admitted to the bar, and in 1854 he went to live in the Hoosier State at Indianapolis.

[Sidenote: =Enters the army=]

He answered the call to arms. He was made a lieutenant, but had hardly learned his duties before he was promoted to be captain of a company of one hundred men. Hardly a month passed before an order came making him a colonel of a regiment of a thousand men. He led this regiment until the last days of the war, and the boys were proud of "Colonel Ben."

For personal bravery and for skill in handling his men in one of the battles in Georgia, he was made major general.

[Sidenote: =Active in politics=]

After the war Harrison returned to the law. In political campaigns he was much sought after to speak in all parts of the state.

He did not accept office until he was elected United States senator in 1881. Senator Harrison was nominated for the presidency in 1888. He set the example of making speeches "on his front porch" to admiring crowds who came from different states.

[Sidenote: =A picturesque campaign=]

In this campaign the Democrats pointed to Harrison as a man who wore his "grandfather's hat." The Republicans made this campaign like that of 1840. There was great enthusiasm, big wagons carrying log cabins with raccoons and barrels of hard cider, great balls rolling on, and happy songs. Tippecanoe clubs were formed in all parts of the country. The result was the election of Harrison.

[Sidenote: =Pensions and the tariff=]

Under President Harrison a tariff law was passed with a reciprocity agreement. By this arrangement, the United States agreed to reduce its tariff if other nations would reduce theirs. President Harrison had a warm spot in his heart for the old soldiers, and he signed with pleasure a new pension law.

The farmers and the silver men of the West were becoming dissatisfied with the action of Congress. In 1890 their forces elected several new Congressmen, and in the next year formed the People's party. Most of the votes of this party were drawn from the Republican side, hence in the next campaign Harrison was defeated by Cleveland.

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL

=The Leading Facts.= _1._ Hayes studied law, and served in the
Civil War. _2._ He was elected to Congress while still in the
field. _3._ He received only one more vote than Tilden for
President. _4._ He was wise and fair in his treatment of the South.
_5._ Garfield was a poor boy who had to work hard for an education.
_6._ He was a war veteran and was elected senator before becoming
President. _7._ His remarkable ability as an orator caused him to
be nominated for the presidency. _8._ His assassination helped to
bring civil service reform. _9._ Arthur when President, worked for
a larger navy. _10._ He supported civil service against the spoils
system. _11._ Cleveland, after being mayor of Buffalo and governor
of New York, was elected President twice, though not in succession.
_12._ A severe panic occurred while he was President. _13._
Harrison studied law, and became a general during the Civil War.
_14._ His election was like that of his grandfather, William Henry
Harrison. _15._ Changes in the tariff and in pension laws took
place during his presidency. _16._ At the following election the
farmers and those favoring silver money combined in the Populist
party, reducing the Republican vote and causing the election of
Cleveland.

=Study Questions.= _1._ Tell something of Hayes' early life. _2._
How did he come to be chosen Congressman? _3._ What was unusual
about his election to the presidency? _4._ How was his election
accepted by the country? _5._ What kind of a President did he make?
_6._ What can you tell of Garfield's youth? _7._ What positions
did he hold before becoming President? _8._ What brought about his
nomination? _9._ What reform did the nation demand after Garfield's
assassination? _10._ What two things did Arthur work for? _11._
What positions did Cleveland hold? _12._ Name two important things
that happened while he was President. _13._ Tell something of
Harrison's career and election. _14._ What was done about the
tariff and pensions during his presidency? _15._ Why was Harrison
defeated by Cleveland in the next election?

=Suggested Readings.= Higginson, _History of the United States_,
330-347; Guerber, _Story of the Great Republic_, 281-285, 288-293.

THE BEGINNING OF EXPANSION ABROAD

WILLIAM McKINLEY AND THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR

[Sidenote: =William McKinley, 1843=]

[Sidenote: =Teaches school=]

=181. William McKinley.= William McKinley was born in Ohio in 1843. As a boy his chief delight was to roam the fields and woods surrounding Niles, his home town, or to fish in the fine streams near by. When he was about nine years old his parents moved to Poland, Ohio, where there were good schools for children. McKinley studied hard, and at seventeen years of age entered Allegheny College at Meadville, Pennsylvania. But his health had never been very good and he fell ill from hard study. He returned to Poland, and there a little later he taught school.

[Sidenote: =Enlists to fight for the Union=]

[Sidenote: =Wins praise and promotion=]

In 1861 Lincoln's call for troops to save the Union fired the whole North with patriotism. McKinley, though then only eighteen years of age, enlisted at once. Under fire at Antietam and in later battles of the war, he won praise and promotion for his heroic deeds. The active army life was good for him, and when the war was over he was a strong and healthy man. He enlisted as a private and came out as a major. All his promotions were for merit and bravery.

_From a photograph by Courtney, taken at Canton, Ohio_]

[Sidenote: =Studies law=]

He returned to Poland and took up the study of the law. But his means were small and he had a hard struggle. In 1867 McKinley was admitted to the bar and opened an office in Canton, Ohio.

[Sidenote: =Becomes a successful lawyer and speaker=]

Like many another young lawyer he had numerous difficulties and disappointments, but he worked hard and in time became a successful lawyer. He was a good speaker and soon was much in demand in political campaigns.

[Sidenote: =In Congress=]

[Sidenote: =Elected president=]

The people admired him. They felt that he could be trusted. They sent him, for seven terms, to represent them in Congress at Washington, and twice they made him governor of Ohio. In 1896 he was elected president of the United States.

[Sidenote: =The Cubans revolt=]

=182. Spanish Persecution in Cuba.= Since the earliest days of Spanish rule, Cuba had been discontented and had engaged in frequent wars with Spain because of heavy taxation and bad government. Again and again the Cubans revolted, but they were not strong enough to succeed and Spanish oppression continued. In 1895 the people rose in a last desperate effort to free themselves. To crush them Spain sent a large army under a cruel general. Large numbers of unarmed Cubans--men, women, and children--were gathered into camps guarded by Spanish soldiers and cut off from food and other supplies. Thousands died of starvation and disease.

_Lying in ambush for the advancing column of the enemy_]

[Sidenote: =Americans aroused=]

[Sidenote: =Red Cross Society goes to Cuba=]

These and other harsh things done in an attempt to break the spirit of the Cubans filled the American people with bitter indignation. On the recommendation of President McKinley, Congress voted fifty thousand dollars for relief work. Money, by private contribution, also flowed in from all parts of the country. The Red Cross Society, led by Clara Barton, hastened to the island to relieve the awful conditions of hunger and disease.

_From a photograph taken in 1900 by Francis B. Johnston, Washington, D.C._]

The American people were aroused. They demanded that the United States interfere in behalf of the suffering Cubans, who were fighting to be free. They were eager to take up arms for freedom and humanity.

[Sidenote: =Battleship "Maine" blown up=]

Indignation was brought to its highest pitch when, on February 15, 1898, the United States battleship _Maine_ was sunk in Havana Harbor, two hundred sixty of the crew perishing. What was the cause of the explosion has never been found out, but Americans then believed it to be the work of the Spaniards.

[Sidenote: =War declared=]

In April the United States demanded that the Spanish troops be taken from Cuba and the Cubans be given their independence. Spain was given three days in which to reply. She immediately declared war against the United States.

[Sidenote: =Dewey destroys the Spanish fleet=]

=183. A War for the Sake of Humanity.= The war had hardly begun before Admiral George Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet and pounded to pieces the shore batteries in Manila Bay, Philippine Islands. Dewey, with his fleet, sailed under orders from Hong-kong, China, entered the bay, and did his work without the loss of a man. This deed made him the naval hero of the war.

[Sidenote: =California volunteers lead in numbers=]

Thousands of men, North and South, rallied to the call of President McKinley. The states of the far West responded with noble enthusiasm. California, largest in population and wealth, led in the number of its volunteers.

[Sidenote: ="Rough Riders" win fame=]