Chapter XIV: Part 14

Socrates believed that the laws of the city should be obeyed even if they were unjust. He drank the fatal cup while telling his friends and followers of a life beyond the grave. It was a favorite doctrine of Socrates that men would live again after the body died.

We know what Socrates taught from the writings of his most famous pupil, Plato. These _Dialogues_ of Plato's, in the form of question and answer, are among the greatest books ever written.

[Sidenote: =A very learned man=]

=265. Aristotle, the Scientist of Ancient Times.= Aristotle was one of the later Greeks. He was celebrated for his learning. He was called a "Scientist," for he was not simply a philosopher as Socrates and Plato were.

[Sidenote: =Followed without question for ages=]

Aristotle was indeed a wonderful man. He studied about every subject known to the ancients and won honors in all subjects; people for centuries and centuries after Aristotle's time accepted what he said and did not try very hard to study further. They thought that the giant mind of Aristotle had found out all there was to know.

Aristotle studied animals and plants, putting them in different classes and finding out many of their characteristics. He also knew a great deal about music and his _Logic_ has been the great text book even down to modern times.

[Sidenote: =One of the earliest geographers=]

We have a special interest in Aristotle because in his studies in geography he taught that the world is round. From men who accepted Aristotle's teaching about the shape of the earth, Columbus, the discoverer of America, got his idea of sailing west to find eastern countries.

=266. The Father of Alexander the Great.= Macedon was a country just north of Greece. Its great king was Philip, father of Alexander the Great. Philip was a brave king and had good soldiers. He taught them to form in bodies sixteen ranks deep and armed them with lances or spears fourteen feet long. A body of soldiers so formed and armed was called a Macedonian phalanx. "When the Macedonians leveled their long spears and advanced with steady step they bore down" the ranks of the enemy.

[Sidenote: =Alexander seeks to imitate the old Greek heroes=]

With these soldiers Philip conquered Greece, but he ruled the Greeks kindly. He even employed one of them to give lessons to his young son. Aristotle was the teacher who opened to this young man all the learning of the Greeks. Alexander was a bright boy and learned quickly. Although not born a Greek, he admired their learning. He was fond of the blind poet Homer, and it was said could repeat his poems by heart.

Achilles was his favorite among the Greek heroes, and he finally made himself believe that Achilles was one of his forefathers. At any rate he resolved to imitate his hero and to conquer cities more splendid than Troy.

HOW THE GREEKS TAUGHT MEN TO BE FREE

=267. Self-Government among the Greeks.= The Greeks were not many in number, if we compare them with modern nations. But we admire them because they were free and had the most democratic government in the ancient world.

[Sidenote: =Greece a city-state=]

They lived in little cities located in the valleys shut in by hills or mountains. Around their cities they built strong walls to shut out dangerous enemies. There were some benefits growing out of living in small cities. The people could know each other. The men could come together quickly and easily to talk of things needed for the good of the city. Only a small part of the men and women in a modern city can get together. These Greeks could know the best men for office, for they were their own neighbors. Now but a few men who want office can be known to all the voters in a city, and still fewer who want to run for governor or for president can be known by all the voters of a state or country.

The most famous of the cities in ancient Greece were Athens and Sparta. Their history is well known to us because of the great deeds of their people. Another reason for remembering them is that the two cities were so very different, as we shall see.

[Sidenote: =The Greeks their own rulers=]

=268. The Government of the Cities.= At first, just as in the case of other nations, the Greeks had kings in all their cities. But unlike the other nations, the Greeks drove their kings out and made for themselves a kind of government called a republic. This was the best and wisest government for a people as intelligent as the Greeks. In a republic all the people, or a majority of them, take part in making and in carrying out the laws. This is the kind of government we have.

But while a republican government is the best, it is also the hardest to run. It demands that each one of its citizens shall be educated so that he may be able to vote wisely.

_From an Athenian vase_]

The Greeks had a hard time keeping their self-government. There were shrewd men among them who seized the power in the city and compelled the people to obey them. Such a man the Greeks called a "tyrant." A tyrant was either good or bad. He sometimes gave the people a better government than they had when they ruled themselves. But the Greeks were liberty-loving and liked to govern themselves even though their government was worse than a tyrant's government. So they generally drove out the tyrants and again set up a government under rulers of their own choosing.

=269. The Two Rival Cities, Athens and Sparta.= The people of Athens were the most democratic in all Greece. The Spartans, on the other hand, were the most soldier-like of the Greeks. The Athenians loved new things while the Spartans liked old ways best. The Athenians made Athens the most beautiful city in the Old World. The Spartans cared nothing for beautiful things. They loved only things that were useful.

All the citizens of Athens came together to make the laws. In the center of their city they met in their assembly, a semicircle of stone seats rising one above another. Here the men of Athens listened to their speakers. Each speaker placed a wreath upon his head before he began speaking.

[Sidenote: =The public life of the Athenians=]

Often there were exciting debates between great speakers called orators. They spoke eloquent words and sometimes stirred people deeply. The Athenians enjoyed these debates almost as much as they did their Greek plays.

[Sidenote: =Athenian orators=]

The people of Athens, because they made their laws after debating them in the assembly, placed emphasis on public speaking. All the citizens were taught how to speak in public and how to appear before the assembly. It was natural for the best orators to have the most influence. But the people were keen and quick to see the difference between orators who were interested only in winning applause and honor for themselves through their speeches and the ones who were true patriots and spoke for the good of the city.

Yet while the people of Athens trained their citizens to make the laws they saw to it that their young men were trained to be good soldiers. Training began with the school boy. There were two schools, one called the music school and the other the wrestling school.

[Sidenote: =The music school=]

In the music school the Greek boys did not study music alone, but learned to read and write and do simple sums in arithmetic. More than this, their teachers wanted them to learn the poems written by blind Homer, their wonderful old poet. They learned to play and sing. A stringed instrument called a lyre was the favorite among the Greeks.

[Sidenote: =The gymnasium=]

In the wrestling school the boys learned to run, to jump, to dance, and especially to throw the javelin. At fifteen they attended the gymnasium where they were taught the more difficult athletic games. This led up to the next great event in the young man's life, his preparation for becoming a citizen.

[Sidenote: =Soldier-citizens=]

This important event came at the age of eighteen. It began with a great ceremony. The young men came into the assembly before all the men of the city. Here they were given a spear and shield. With their hands raised they took an oath never to bring shame upon the city nor to desert a companion in arms. They pledged themselves to give over the city of Athens to their children greater than when they had found it.

After this ceremony was over, the young men marched away to be trained for two years more in the art of being soldiers. When they had reached their twentieth year, they returned to Athens to become citizens of the republic, to work for its good, and to enjoy the pleasures of that charming city.

[Sidenote: =Character of Pericles=]

=270. Pericles, the Wise Statesman.= Pericles lived in the "Golden Age of Athens." He was born nearly 500 years before Christ. He was trained in the same manner as any other boy in Athens. He became one of the first orators of Greece and his ability as a speaker gave him great power over his people. He became one of their leading officers. Pericles stood for the people and against those men of aristocratic ways who wanted the city ruled by the few.

Cimon was the leader of the aristocracy. The people of Athens voted to banish him. But after a time Pericles had him brought back to Athens. This shows how very kind-hearted Pericles was toward his great political enemy.

For thirty years Pericles was the most popular man in Athens. He ruled the people kindly and well during this time.

It was Pericles who made Athens the City Beautiful. When you are older you may read all about the many wonderful buildings and monuments he erected.

_After the original in the British Museum_]

The rule of Pericles had one bad result: He was so popular and had been the great man in the government so long that when he passed away there was no one who could take his place. The time in which he lived is often called the "Age of Pericles." After his death history handed his high ideas on to Rome and the rest of the world. No doubt these ideas influenced the great men of Rome.

SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION

[Sidenote: =The Greeks of Asia Minor=]

=271. The Old Wars of the Greeks.= The once greatest enemies of the Greeks were the Persians, living in western Asia. The Persians conquered Asia Minor. Here on its coast the Greeks had planted many cities, and they naturally sent ships and soldiers to aid their kinsmen.

[Sidenote: =The battle of Marathon=]

The king of the Persians, Darius by name, whom we read about in the Bible, sailed with a great army across the sea to Greece. One hundred thousand Persians met ten thousand Greeks on the battlefield of Marathon. The Greeks won.

The old folks and children among the Greeks waited for the news with breathless anxiety. The minutes grew into hours. At last they saw a runner coming. He was covered with dust. He had been on the battlefield and was running to tell the waiting people of the great victory. He dropped dead as he called out, "Victory!" He had run twenty-four miles!

Both Europe and America have celebrated the victory at Marathon by naming one of their races in the great Olympic contest the Marathon race.

[Sidenote: =Xerxes' forces=]

Again, a new king, Xerxes, who reigned over Persia, decided to overthrow Greece. He gathered a vast host from forty-six tributary states. He also gathered a fleet greater than any Greece had.

The city of Sparta gave three hundred brave soldiers. Their leader was Leonidas. The Persian army had to march along the narrow pass of Thermopylae that ran between high mountains and the sea. Here stood the brave Spartans. For two days Leonidas held the pass. Through a mountain road the Persians gained the rear of the Spartan army. But the Spartans did not retreat. Every Spartan fell fighting for his country. A noble example!

[Sidenote: =The battle of Salamis=]

The Greek warships met the Persians in the Bay of Salamis and overthrew them completely. Xerxes took his army and hastened back to Persia. Asia might be ruled by tyrants but the Greeks were bound to be free.

=272. How Alexander Spread Greek Ideas.= But these wonderful deeds were not all the Greeks were to do. We have seen Alexander come to the head of the Greek Empire. He had a wonderful army and resolved to teach the Persians a lesson or two as well as to spread Greek ideas.

[Sidenote: =The march of the Greeks=]

Alexander's army was not large, but it was the best trained in the world. Think of the Macedonian phalanx! All the cities of Persia fell into his hands. Before he was thirty years old, southwestern Asia and Egypt recognized his rule. Alexandria, situated at the mouth of the Nile River, was founded by him. It became a center of Greek ideas and boasted the largest library in the Old World.

=273. Why Alexander Failed.= Alexander's army made its way to India. But its great general, now only thirty-two, was drunk with power. He even permitted the people he conquered to worship him as a god. He loved the wine-cup too well and was stricken with a fever and died.

There was no one to take his place, but much that was finest and best in Greek life remained to the world.

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL

=The Leading Facts.= _1._ Greece, a land of hills, mountains,
plains, bays, and gulfs. _2._ Greeks traded and planted colonies.
_3._ The deeds of Greek heroes. _4._ The great men of the newer
Greece. =5.= The reason why the Persians attacked the Greeks. =6.=
Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis. _7._ Alexander the Great, his
father, his education, his army, and his victories. =8.= Spread of
Greek ideas.

=Study Questions.= _1._ See map for the boundaries of "Greater
Greece." _2._ Name heroes among the ancient Greeks. Do you know
of any others? _3._ What was their favorite story? _4._ What was
the cause of the Trojan War? _5._ Who was Helen and for what was
she famous? _6._ Who was Socrates? Plato? Aristotle? _7._ How is
Aristotle connected with Columbus? _8._ Who were the Persians?
_9._ Why did they attack the Greeks? _10._ Name the great battles.
_11._ How was Alexander able to beat the Persians in their own
land? _12._ How did Alexander benefit the world in what he did?

=Suggested Readings.= Guerber. _The Story of the Greeks_; Hall,
_Life in Ancient Greece_, II, 166; Harding, _Stories of Greek Gods,
Heroes, and Men_; Tappan, _The Story of the Greek People_; Yonge,
_Young Folks' History of Greece_; Mace-Tanner, _Old Europe and
Young America_, 24-73; Hall, _Four Old Greeks_.

WHEN ROME RULED THE WORLD

=274. Rome, the Eternal City.= Italy looks like a big boot hanging from the Alps Mountains down into the Mediterranean Sea. "Sunny Italy," people call it.

[Sidenote: =An old Roman myth=]

The ancient Romans all believed that their city, Rome, was founded by a hero called Romulus. He had a twin brother, Remus. A wicked uncle threw them while babies into a basket and set it adrift on the river Tiber. But the boys--so the story runs--were found by a she-wolf that nursed them until they became men, strong and cruel. With the aid of others as brave as himself, Romulus founded the city of Rome.

[Sidenote: =How Rome was ruled=]

=275. Rome Becomes a Republic.= Romulus was the first of six kings. The people drove out the sixth because he was cruel, and Rome became a republic. The republic was ruled by two men called "consuls," aided by the advice of great men called "senators." These senators were among the wisest men in the Old World.

=276. Stories of Roman Heroes.= The people of Rome, like the Greeks, had their tales of what the bold heroes of olden times had done.

[Sidenote: =Horatius saves Rome=]

One of the most famous stories is about a hero named Horatius. The Romans sent for him to lead their soldiers against the last king, who was trying to get back the Roman throne. Bold Horatius took his stand on a narrow bridge leading across the Tiber to the city. Here he met the enemy, and defended the bridge with only his good sword until the Roman soldiers broke down the bridge behind him. When the bridge fell, he plunged into the fast rolling stream and swam ashore.

[Sidenote: =The story of Cincinnatus=]

The story that American boys and girls like best, perhaps, is one the Romans never tired of telling their children. It is about an old farmer-soldier named Cincinnatus. Rome's enemies were knocking at the very doors of the "Eternal City." The Romans called for Cincinnatus to head the army. They found him ploughing on his little farm. He left his plough and oxen in the field, took command of the Roman army, and by a night attack completely defeated the enemy. He was the most popular man in Rome and could have held any office in the government. But he returned to his plow as if nothing had happened.

George Washington is often called the American Cincinnatus, for he, too, at the close of our Revolution, laid down his arms and went to live on his farm on the banks of the Potomac.

[Sidenote: =How the common people gained new rights=]

=277. The First Battle between Rich and Poor.= A fierce war between the rich and poor threatened to destroy the republic itself. The rich were selfish and thought they should have all the power. After a long struggle the poor gained some political rights by all moving to a sacred hill and beginning to build a rival city. The rich gave in and the poor in Rome had a right to choose a man who could raise his hand in the assembly and say: "I forbid," which he did by using the Latin word, "veto." This is where we get our word "veto."

=278. The People Called Gauls Take Rome.= For many years the Romans quarreled among themselves. How could they defend Rome from the great bands of brave and fierce people who swarmed down from the North? These were the Gauls. They were very large men who dressed in skins of beasts. They defeated the Romans, burned their cities, and murdered the people.

[Sidenote: =Gauls become Romans=]

After a time the Gauls lived among the Romans and finally became so mixed with them you could hardly tell them apart. They all became Romans, and Rome was then united and strong. The natural result was that Rome conquered all the other tribes or peoples living in Italy.

HANNIBAL TRIES TO CONQUER ROME

[Sidenote: =A Phoenician colony=]

=279. Carthage the Rival of Rome.= Just as Persia was the rival of Greece, so Carthage was the rival of Rome. Carthage had been settled by the Phoenicians, the traders of the ancient world. Carthage, the richest of their colonies, was just across the Mediterranean from Rome. In the days of her greatest power Carthage was said to have nearly a million people. Rome and Carthage quarreled about the island of Sicily, lying midway between them, and Rome was successful in driving her enemy out of the island. The great Carthaginian general, Hannibal, when only a boy took a solemn oath to carry on war with Rome without ceasing. When he later became a famous general he still remembered his oath against Rome. He gathered a mighty army from all Carthaginian colonies as well as from the homeland. Soldiers came from all parts of Spain and Gaul. From Africa came the finest body of cavalry in the world. The strangest part of the body was a long line of war elephants driven by their riders to trample down the Roman soldiers and to break their solid lines.

The army came together in Spain and marched over the mighty Alps into Italy. Their march was slow and hard. There were no roads at all through the mountains. The army was often attacked by people living in the mountains who hurled huge stones upon it.

After five months the army finally reached the plains of Italy, though hundreds of brave soldiers had been lost.

Rome was stirred to her depths. A great army was raised to meet the Carthaginians. But Rome had no general like Hannibal. For fifteen years he remained in Italy, defeating every general sent against him.

[Sidenote: =How Hannibal made war=]

Hannibal's greatest victory was on the field of Cannae. Rome raised a mighty army, 86,000 men. Hannibal had only 50,000, but he had faith in his veterans, especially in the African horsemen. He arranged his troops so that his center gave way easily. When the Romans thought victory near, Hannibal's heavy troops on each wing attacked them from both sides and his African horsemen struck them in the rear. The Romans lost in killed and wounded 70,000 men.

The Romans hit upon the plan of sending an army to attack Carthage. Hannibal had to rush his troops home to save his beloved city. In the great battle of Zama Hannibal was defeated and Carthage fell.

[Sidenote: =The fate of Carthage=]

Rome would not permit a rival, so she wholly destroyed Carthage, her great fleets of ships, her hoards of money, her stores of goods and her great buildings. It is said that Romans sowed salt where Carthage once stood so that nothing might ever grow there.

ROME CONQUERS THE WORLD BUT GROWS WICKED

=280. How Rome Came to Win Victories.= The wars made great soldiers out of the Romans, who, now that they had trained generals, began to conquer all the nations about them. They invaded Macedonia, Greece, Asia, and Africa, destroying the mighty nations which had grown out of the work of Alexander the Great.

[Sidenote: =How the Romans defeated the phalanx=]

How do you suppose the Romans defeated the Macedonian phalanx? The Roman generals planned the battle with the Macedonians so that it always occurred in a forest or on rough broken ground where the phalanx could not stand in solid columns. With the phalanx already in disorder the Romans charged and defeated them easily.

[Sidenote: =Roman slaves=]

=281. The Effect on the Romans.= Long before the Romans began to conquer other nations they were a simple farmer-like people living by raising grain and horses and cattle and sheep. But as soon as they began to conquer other nations many of the Romans grew proud and haughty. A great many grew rich from what they took from the defeated nations. Hundreds of Romans who had been small farmers now lived on great farms. On these farms or plantations the work was done by slaves, who were prisoners taken in battle. Some of these slaves were rude men taken in wars against half-savage people. Others, like the Greeks, were well educated, and really knew more than their masters. Those who belonged to this class of slaves were treated kindly and often played the part of tutors to the children of their rich masters.

=282. The Rich and Poor Quarrel Again.= The rich men oppressed the poor in many ways. A great many poor went to Rome to live because they found it hard to make a living on their little farms. Then, too, the great city was full of interesting doings. Besides, the city did not permit her poor to starve. Great shiploads of grain were brought from Egypt to feed them.

[Sidenote: =The Gracchi=]

In Rome at this time there lived two brothers called the Gracchi. They were both great orators and rose to high positions in Rome. They saw their city was in a bad way on account of the many poor that were flocking to it.

The Gracchi tried to change this by taking away from the very rich landowners a part of their land and giving it to the poor. The Gracchi wanted to make farmers out of the poor. This plan roused the anger of the rich. They raised riots against the brothers and both men were killed. Rome never forgot the Gracchi, and even in our time they are looked upon as noble men laboring for the good of their country.

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL

=The Leading Facts.= _1._ What Italy looks like on the map. _2._
Romulus and Remus. _3._ The founding of Rome; the six kings.
_4._ A republic with "consuls" and "senators." _5._ The story
of Horatius; of Cincinnatus. Our Cincinnatus. _6._ The first
quarrel, and the removal to the second hill. _7._ The capture of
Rome by the Gauls; the Gauls become Romans. _8._ Rome and Carthage
rivals. _9._ Quarrel over Sicily. _10._ Hannibal takes a great
oath. _11._ Hannibal's army. _12._ How it reached Italy and how
long it remained. _13._ Hannibal's victory at Cannae. _14._ The
Romans invade Carthage and defeat Hannibal at Zama. _15._ How
Rome defeated the phalanx. _16._ Romans before conquests a simple
people. _17._ Effect on the Romans of conquering the world. _18._
Second great contest between rich and poor. _19._ The Gracchi to
the rescue. _20._ Death of the Gracchi and why they are remembered.

=Study Questions.= _1._ Why did the Romans believe the story of
Romulus and Remus? _2._ Tell the story of Horatius and Cincinnatus.
Which do you like best? _3._ Tell the origin of the word "veto."
_4._ Who was Hannibal and how could he stay so long in Italy with
his army? _5._ Who built Carthage? _6._ Describe the battle of
Cannae. _7._ Why did the Romans scatter salt over the ground where
Carthage stood? _8._ How did Rome overcome the Macedonian phalanx?
_9._ What bad effect did the world conquest have upon Rome? _10._
Tell the story of the Gracchi.

=Suggested Readings.= Tappan, _The Story of the Roman People_,
1-122; Yonge, _Young Folks' History of Rome_, 13-202; Harding, _The
City of the Seven Hills_, 7-165; Lang, _The Red Book of Heroes_,
43-94; Guerber, _The Story of the Romans_; Mace-Tanner, _Old Europe
and Young America_, 74-93.

THE ROMAN REPUBLIC BECOMES THE ROMAN EMPIRE

[Sidenote: =Conditions that favored Caesar=]

=283. The Rise of Julius Caesar.= When a country is torn by quarrels between rich and poor, very often some great man rises, seizes the government, and rules the country himself. He may use the army in compelling all parties to submit quietly to his rule. So it was in Rome.

Caesar was "tall and erect, with hooked nose, and piercing glance." He made the common people believe him to be their friend. They probably thought that he was another Gracchus.

[Sidenote: =Governor of Gaul=]

=284. Caesar Governor of Gaul.= Caesar was chosen consul, and then later made governor of Gaul. In Gaul the people were half savage and were constantly fighting.

They made friends with Caesar because he helped them defeat the Germans. The Germans were carrying fire and sword into Gaul until Caesar put them to rout.

[Sidenote: =War with the Gauls=]

Caesar now decided that he must conquer all the country of the Gauls. He called for more of the Roman legions, such as had defeated the Macedonian phalanx. One after another the tribes of Gaul were overcome. Then suddenly, when Caesar least expected it, the Gauls rose as one man and defeated the Romans. But Caesar would not give up. He finally defeated the Gauls and sent their great leader a prisoner to Rome.

=285. His Invasion of England.= The Britons were kinfolk of the Gauls and had sent them help in the fight against Caesar. The Britons were also half savage, and Caesar resolved to make them feel the power of Rome. But Caesar found the Britons ready for him when his ships tried to land his soldiers. The Britons, though bravely fighting for native land, were finally defeated.

_The Lighthouse, Dover Castle_]

Caesar made two invasions into England, but when his soldiers were needed at home, he withdrew.

[Sidenote: =Trouble at home=]

=286. He Crosses the Rubicon.= There were other great generals in Rome and they now became jealous of Caesar's many victories and of his popularity. They prepared to punish him. But Caesar was too quick for them. He marched his army rapidly into Italy until he reached a little stream called the Rubicon. To cross this stream meant war--victory or defeat. He stood awhile--so the story runs--in deep study. "The die is cast," said Caesar, and plunged into its waters.

=287. Caesar the Ruler of Rome.= Caesar's enemies fled from Rome, so quickly did he come. He now held the great city in his hands. He followed his enemies and defeated them in a great battle. Other armies were raised against him, but he was the final victor. He sent a famous dispatch to Rome: "I came, I saw, I conquered." Julius Caesar was now master of the civilized world.

[Sidenote: =The plot against Caesar=]

But in ruling the world Caesar had changed Rome from a republic into an empire. Many good Roman nobles could never forget that fact. Caesar planned to give Rome a good government. He was in many ways a wise ruler. Still many people could not forgive him. So those who believed Rome should still be a republic and others who were merely jealous of him, planned to kill him. As he came into the Senate Hall one day they stabbed him.

But the death of Rome's greatest man did not set her free. Another and a worse tyrant ruled Rome.

WHAT ROME GAVE TO THE WORLD

[Sidenote: =How Rome ruled=]

=288. Great Lawmakers and Governors.= Of all the ancient nations Rome was the most famous in establishing laws in regard to the ownership of property and in regard to the way men should act toward one another.

Her consuls and senators were men skillful in planning laws not only for Rome but for the nations which she had conquered.

[Sidenote: =The Colosseum=]

=289. Romans Were Great Builders.= The buildings of Greece were beautiful but those of Rome were large and strong. The Colosseum, built as a place of entertainment for the people, was a gigantic affair seating 87,000 people. In this were held fights between gladiators, men trained to kill each other, and between men and wild beasts. The effect was to make the Romans lovers of such cruel sports.

Other famous buildings put up by the Romans were the Forum and the Pantheon. You may see remains of these now in Rome. They are visited by hundreds of Americans every year.

[Sidenote: =Roman roads=]

The Romans also built wonderful roads in all parts of the empire for the use of armies and for travel and trade. Some of these roads are still used. They built strong bridges over the rivers and erected aqueducts in different parts of the empire. These Roman aqueducts brought good, pure water from the hills to supply the needs of the townspeople.

=290. The Romans Gave a Literature to the World.= Not all Romans were educated. All boys and girls did not then go to school, as they do in America. Only the sons of the well-to-do could become educated.

[Sidenote: =Classic Roman writers=]

Rome became famous for her great writers. Even Julius Caesar found time to write the story of his war against the Gauls. High school boys and girls read Caesar's _Commentaries_. There was Vergil, a great poet, who told the story of how the Greeks beat the Trojans. Vergil made these Greek heroes the ancestors of the Romans. Horace was another of Rome's great poets. He amused the Romans "by his genial and quiet humor." But Cicero was the great orator of Rome. His voice went ringing down the senate halls as he challenged Catiline, who had plotted to overthrow the republic.

=291. Rome Prepared the Way for the Spread of Christianity.= When Rome seemed sunk in wickedness there came out of Palestine the story of Jesus. His disciples were carrying the glad news everywhere over the empire. Paul, the most learned of these followers of Christ, carried the story to Greece and to Rome.

[Sidenote: =Early Christian martyrs=]

The emperors tried to stamp out the new religion, but the more they opposed the more it grew. Hundreds of Christians perished holding firm to the faith. Many were destroyed by wild beasts in the Colosseum before the eyes of thousands of Romans. But the new religion appealed to many, and especially to the poorer classes. The Emperor Constantine (305 A. D.) soon accepted the new religion and gave it protection. It then spread rapidly. Priests were sent into the villages to preach and to set up churches. Above the priest was a bishop in charge of all the churches in a district or province.

The government of the new church was formed like that of the empire and became strong. Other religions were driven out. In time the many offices of the empire were in the hands of the priests or under their influence. Many years later these two governments of the church and the empire quarreled over their rights to rule the people.

THE DOWNFALL OF ROME

[Sidenote: =How the Teutonic tribes lived=]

=292. The Coming of the Huns and Teutons.= North of the Alps, beyond the Danube and the Rhine, and between the North Sea and the Black Sea, was a vast region of wild lands. Here the German or Teutonic tribes had lived for hundreds of years. They had made little advance in ways of living. They still dwelt in poor villages. They loved to fight, or waste their time in idleness and feasts. They were noted for their love of liberty and pure family life. At the time of the invasions (4th century) they were learning to live in towns, to unite in confederations, and to be ruled by elected kings. They had so increased in numbers that more land was needed to afford them a living. This was the main cause of their moving south to the Roman frontiers.

[Sidenote: =Gradual coming of the Germans=]

For three hundred years the Germans were restless in their northern homes. But the Roman armies were strong enough to keep them beyond the Danube. Some had come over as soldiers in the Roman legions. By 330 half the troops were German. Some of the more peaceful Germans were allowed to make settlements within the empire. Other Germans came in as slaves, but mainly to work on the farms.

By the end of the fourth century after Christ the Romans had become too weak to keep the Germans back.

_From a print after the painting by Ulpiano Checa_]

[Sidenote: =Battle of Chalons=]

But the Germans were gentle compared with the fierce Huns from Asia who made the next great invasion into Europe. And under their terrible chief, Attila, they swept over Europe like firebrands, laying waste all they could not carry away. At last the Germans and the Romans united and defeated the Huns at Chalons (451). The Huns moved eastward, passed through northern Italy, and soon reëntered Asia. Europe was saved.

=293. End of the Empire.= Other German tribes entered the empire, took possession of the lands, and even formed governments under their chiefs. In a quarrel over lands the German troops removed the Roman emperor and declared their chief, Odoacer, king (476). This marks the end of the Roman Empire and the rise of the kingdom of Italy, though the present United Kingdom, formed after centuries of division, among small, jealous city states, is only sixty years old.

Other invasions went on for many years. Europe was in disorder and confusion for nearly four hundred years. It was a time of seeding, when the rough, brave, liberty-loving German peoples were intermarrying with the Greeks and Romans and learning from them the finer ways of living. From this fusion a new society was built on the ruins of the old, as shown in the nations of Italy, France, and Spain.

THE ANGLES AND SAXONS IN GREAT BRITAIN

=294. The Britons.= There were already two groups of people in these islands. Under the rule of the Romans one group, the Britons, had been weakened as fighters.

[Sidenote: =Britons fight among themselves=]

Rome called her legions out of Britain to fight the Germans. This left the Britons without good soldiers to keep order and the tribes began fighting one another. One tribe, the Britons proper, invited bands of Jutes from Denmark (449) to help them. After the Britons had forced back their enemies the Jutes refused to go away. They took possession of the land, making it their home.

[Sidenote: =Where the name England came from=]

=295. Coming of the Anglo-Saxons.= Other German tribes, chiefly the wild Angles and Saxons, now came over from Europe. The new tribes soon brought the Britons under their rule. They gave their names to the land they had taken--Angle land or England. The Angles and Saxons are the forefathers of the "English" people. The Britons who would not submit were driven into the lands to the west known as Wales, and became the "Welsh."

=296. Rome Brings Christianity to the Germans.= When the western Roman Empire passed away in 476, the church remained the only strong central government in all that vast territory. It acted as a steady light when all about was dark and changing. Its priests came to be the only educated class, giving it great influence.

[Sidenote: =Clovis, king of the Franks, converted=]

Even before the invasions began, missionaries went among the German tribes on the frontiers to preach the religion of Christ. Many of the Germans had accepted the new religion either before or soon after entering Roman territory. Clovis, king of the Franks, was influenced by his Christian wife to accept the new religion. His army followed, and was baptized with its leader.

[Sidenote: =England becomes Christian=]

Missionaries under Augustine were sent from Rome to England. Through their earnest preaching and noble living the king of Kent and his followers accepted the new religion. A church was built at Canterbury. Others carried on the work until all England had accepted Christianity. Other missionaries went to the northern Germans, and many of these people became Christians.

These early missionaries were mostly monks. Their homes (monasteries) were like small settlements among the people. They not only preached the new religion, but showed people better ways of farming and living. In their schools, they taught people to read and write.

WORK COPYING MANUSCRIPT, 1200 A. D.]

CHARLES THE GREAT, RULER OF THE FRANKS

=297. Charlemagne.= While the Germans were still moving into the Roman Empire the Franks had set up a government under Clovis. They had become Christians and lived on friendly terms with the church. They grew strong and settled down to a more orderly and quiet way of living. Their first great king, Charles Martel, the Hammer, checked the invasion of the Mohammedans at Tours (732), and again Europe and Christianity were saved. But the greatest of all the leaders of the Franks was Charlemagne, the grandson of Charles Martel, for he was not only a great conqueror but a wise and able ruler.

Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, was by far the most famous man of his time. He seemed to be a happy fusion of Germanic strength and Roman learning. He was tall and strong, with large, bright eyes, fair hair, and a face round and laughing. He exercised much, riding, hunting, and swimming. He liked the Frankish costume: "... next to his skin a linen shirt and linen breeches, and above these a tunic fringed with silk; while hose fastened by bands covered his lower limbs, and shoes his feet, and he shielded his shoulders and chest in winter by a close-fitting coat of otter or marten skin. Over all he cast a blue coat: always too he had a sword girt about him."

[Sidenote: =Character of Charles=]

[Sidenote: =The School of the Palace=]

Charles ate and drank with care, never taking too much of either food or drink. During his meals his attendants entertained him with reading and music. He liked the stories and deeds of the olden time and the books of Augustine. He was a good speaker, easily understood. He loved learning, but had little education himself. He had the famous School of the Palace in his own home to educate his own children and those of the nobles. Wise teachers like Peter of Pisa, and Alcuin of England were brought to his court. He helped the priests in their study and in building schools. Charles loved the church and gave much to aid its educational and religious work. He really brought learning to the people.

[Sidenote: =Charlemagne's wars=]

Charles the Great was for three years ruler with his father (768-771), then sole ruler until 814. His kingdom was surrounded on all sides by fierce enemies. Most of his long rule was taken up in fighting the wild Germans to the north and east, the Arabs in Spain, or the Lombards and others to protect the church in Italy. He was a great warrior. Before his death he had brought most of western Europe under his rule.

[Sidenote: =Crowned Emperor of Rome=]

=298. The Crowning of Charlemagne.= So successful was he that it seemed the Roman Empire was again to live in the memories of men. God was surely with him. How simple it then seemed to bestow the symbol of divine blessing upon Charles! On Christmas day, 800, Charles was in Rome. And on that sacred day of the Christians he entered the great church and knelt in prayer before the altar. In that solemn moment the pope, as the messenger on earth of God, quietly stepped to where Charles was kneeling. Lifting the crown which he held in his hands, he placed it upon the head of the king of the Franks and proclaimed him Emperor of Rome (800). What glorious memories it must have brought to the thousands gathered there! In their joy they cried out: "Long life and victory to the mighty Charles, the great and pacific emperor of the Romans, crowned of God!"

[Sidenote: =How he governed=]

=299. The Ruler Charlemagne.= Charles was a great ruler as well as soldier. He divided his territory into districts over each of which a count ruled. An army officer cared for all military matters. At certain times inspectors passed over the several districts. These three officers reported directly to Charles and were checks on the conduct of each other.

[Sidenote: =His just laws=]

Some of the orders which he sent to his officers show how great and just a ruler he was. He orders that "all shall live entirely in accordance with God's precept, justly and under a just rule, and each one shall be admonished to live in harmony with his fellows." Let no one "do injury to the churches of God, or to the poor, or the widows, or the wards, or any Christian." He then lays down the rules of living for the clergy, nuns, bishops, and other church officers, that their lives may be holy and their influence good.

He wanted to see justice done all over his kingdom--to the poor as well as to the rich. Wonderful stories, some true, have been woven about the name of the great emperor.

[Sidenote: =Why his empire fell=]

He built up a great empire, but it was too great to live long. There were too many races with different ways of living, and the provinces were too far apart. When the strength and wisdom of his hand and head passed away in death, the great empire began to crumble and fall apart.

SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPILS

=The Leading Facts.= _1._ Julius Caesar takes the popular side.
_2._ Governor of Gaul. _3._ Conquest of Gaul and the Germans. _4._
Caesar invades Britain. _5._ Crosses the Rubicon and becomes ruler
of the Roman Empire. _6._ Why he was assassinated. _7._ What Rome
gave to the world. _8._ Rome famous for its wonderful buildings
and roads. _9._ Her great literature. _10._ How Rome prepared the
way for Christianity. _11._ Coming of the Huns and Teutons marks
the downfall of Rome. _12._ The removal of the Roman emperor and
Odoacer made king. _13._ Anglo-Saxons in Britain. _14._ Rome takes
Christianity to the Germans. _15._ Charles the Great. _16._ The
Palace School. _17._ The crowning of Charlemagne.

=Study Questions.= _1._ Who was Julius Caesar? _2._ What did he
do to make people remember him? _3._ Why did good men join in
murdering him? _4._ Name the different things given to the world
by Rome? _5._ Explain how Rome helped Christianity. _6._ Who
were the Huns and the Teutons? _7._ Tell about the following in
Charlemagne's career: (1) The battle of Tours; (2) How Charlemagne
looked and dressed; (3) His Palace School; (4) How he ruled the
Franks; (5) How he was crowned; (6) Why his empire crumbled at his
death.

=Suggested Readings.= Tappan, _The Story of the Roman People_,
123-237; Harding, _The City of the Seven Hills_, 184-211; Yonge,
_Young Folks' History of Rome_, 229; Clarke, _The Story of Caesar_;
Guerber, _The Story of the Romans_.

THE COMING OF THE NORTHMEN

[Sidenote: =The vessels of the Northmen=]

=300. The Vikings or Sea-Rovers.= The Northmen lived in the lands of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. They lived on the inlets of the ocean, or viks, and were called "vikings." Their boats were long, and each one had a high prow with the head of a dragon or other fierce-looking animal upon it. They drove their vessels by sail or oar. Often there were as many as fifty rowers in a boat, their bright shields hanging over the sides. When the sun shone on them they looked like great moving lights. The Northmen were great sea-rovers and pirates.

[Sidenote: =Movements of the Northmen=]

In the eighth and ninth centuries these Northmen or Norsemen began moving out in great bands. Some overran the northern part of France and settled on the river Seine. They were called "Normans," and this region is now Normandy. Others sailed to the west and founded Iceland and Greenland. And their "sagas" or records tell us that Leif Ericson and his men even sailed as far as the coast of North America, although the settlements they made then did not prove to be lasting.

[Sidenote: =The conquest of England=]

The Northmen, called Danes by the English, had made many attacks on the coasts of England. Now they came in armies to take the land for homes. As they were heathen they took the riches from the churches and slew the priests. They captured place after place, driving the English before them, until the greater part of England fell into their hands. Young Alfred, king of Wessex, finally forced them to stop. While he drove them back some distance, he could not make them leave England.

ALFRED THE GREAT

[Sidenote: =Childhood of Alfred=]

=301. Alfred the Boy.= Alfred was born in 849. His mother was a good woman who gave much time and care to her children. Alfred learned early to read and to love books. A story is told of how Alfred won a beautiful book as a prize from his mother for learning to read it sooner than the other children. He spent much time in learning about wise men, in order to become wise himself.

[Sidenote: =Alfred fights the Danes=]

As he grew older he found other serious work to do. He aided his brother Ethelred, king of Wessex, to give battle to the Danes, who were moving south. In one battle Alfred led the English "with the rush of a wild boar," and defeated the Danes. Later the Danes drove them back and killed the English king. Alfred now became king of Wessex (871).

[Sidenote: =The story of the cakes=]

=302. Alfred as King.= Soon after Alfred became king his army was beaten and his men fled. With a little band of followers he hid in the marshes and there built a fort on an island. A story is told of how he was lost while wandering alone, and asked for shelter at the hut of a herdsman. The good wife told him to watch some cakes on the fire while she was busy. Alfred was bending his bow and arrows, and forgetting the cakes, let them burn. When she came back and saw the burnt cakes the good wife scolded the king.

"Can't you mind the cakes, man?
And don't you see them burn?
I'm bound you'll eat them fast enough,
As soon as 'tis the turn."

Of course she did not know he was the king or she would not have scolded him.

[Sidenote: =Makes a treaty with the Danes=]

The next spring Alfred raised a large army, drove the Danes back, and forced them to make peace. By this treaty, and another later one, the Danes were given that part of England north and west of the river Thames. Alfred and his people ruled over the country south of them. The land of the Danes was called "Danelagh." They soon settled down to till the soil. Years later they became Christians and intermarried with the English.

To protect England from other sea-rovers, Alfred now built many ships, and thus became the father of the English navy. The army was also made larger. Later, Vikings again reached the shores of England, but Alfred's navy beat them off. Peaceful times now gave Alfred a chance to help his people in other ways.

=303. What Alfred Did for England.= It is difficult to know what the law is if it is not written, and injustice is often done to the people. Alfred now began the work of collecting and changing the laws of England. It is interesting to know what he thought of his work, as shown in his writing: "I, Alfred, gathered these laws together, and commanded many of them to be written which our forefathers held, those which seemed to me good. And many of those which seemed to me not good, I rejected, and in other wise commanded them to be held. For I durst not venture to set down in writing much of my own, for it was unknown to me what if it would please those who should come after us."

[Sidenote: =Advances learning=]

In those far-away days learning and schools were found in monasteries and in the churches. When the Danes came they destroyed most of these buildings. The people, therefore, were growing up in ignorance. Alfred felt then, as we feel now, that the people should be educated. So he invited wise men from other countries to come to England to teach his people. He built many churches and monasteries, and set up schools where the people might go to learn. But there must be books for them to read.

The learning of that day was mostly in Latin. Besides the priests and monks very few could read that language. "I wondered extremely," said Alfred, "that the good and wise men who were formerly all over England, and had perfectly learned all the books, did not wish to translate them into their own tongue."

[Sidenote: =Translates Latin books into English=]

He now began earnestly the work of making English books for his people. He translated a book containing a history of the world, and an account of two voyages to the north seas. He then put into English the famous book _Bede's History of England_. A book on religion by Pope Gregory the Great, and another of wise sayings, were soon after translated into English. In this way Alfred helped his people to learn to read, and to read good books. The English people have saved these works that their children for many generations to come might learn good things from them. Now, however, they must be translated into the English of our day before most of us can read them, for our language has changed greatly since Alfred's time.

Alfred also helped his people to learn new trades, and to do their work better in those trades they already knew. He had skilled workers from other countries come to England to help his people.

[Sidenote: =King Alfred's purpose=]

Alfred was a true and good man. He loved his home and his people. He said: "To sum up all, it has ever been my desire to live worthily while I was alive, and after my death to leave to those that should come after me my memory in good works."

[Sidenote: =His time well-ordered=]

The daily life of the king was orderly. The twenty-four hours were divided into three parts; eight hours were given to the business of the people (governing), eight hours to study and prayer, and eight hours to exercise and rest. "As he had no clock, he measured out his time by burning candles, each of which lasted for four hours. In order that the candles might burn evenly and mark the time properly, he enclosed them in lanterns of thin horn" which he had invented.

[Sidenote: =Alfred the Great=]

Good King Alfred died in 901. A thousand years later the English raised a statue to him at Winchester. Because of his many good works he is called "Alfred the Great." He is one of the noblest men in all history.

THE NORMAN CONQUEST

ENGLISH ARCHERS]