Chapter XXXIX: Appendix: G: the Apocalyptic Literature(595) (2)

305 Simcox, _Camb. Gr. Test._, Rev., p. 41; Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev.,
p. 2; also cf. Moulton, _Intr. to Litr. of Bib._, p. 312, who says,
“A careful reading will show that these words are to be understood,
not as a part of the revelation, but as the writer’s (or editor’s)
comment upon the book.” This view, it will be seen, does not affect
the sense of the verses, but only their origin.

306 “Understanding can only know what is, has been, or will be. It is
impossible for anything to exist for understanding otherwise than as
a matter of fact it does exist in those three relations of time.”
(Kant, _Critique of Pure Reason_, Watson’s “Selections,” p. 186; or,
in a slightly different translation, Edition of Meiklejohn, p. 307).
It is important for us to note that God is thus presented as
comprehending in himself all the possibilities of existence in human
understanding.

307 For the view that the origin of this conception is to be found in
the later Jewish literature rather than in the Old Testament, see
Scott in _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 126. Swete interprets, “Here the
spirits are seven, because the churches in which they operate are
seven.” _Apoc. of St. John_, p. 6.

308 R. V. “loosed us from our sins by his blood.” “The insertion or
omission of a single letter (in the Greek word) makes the difference
between the A. V. ‘washed’ and the R. V. ‘loosed.’ The manuscript
evidence for each is very evenly balanced; the other evidence
likewise. On the whole, the old reading, ‘washed,’ seems more in
harmony with the thought of the book and with Johannine diction in
general.” _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 127.

309 “The continuous return (the coming of the Lord in the power of the
Spirit) prefacing, heralding the full manifestation of his might and
glory, is the grand theme of the Apocalypse.” Reynolds, _Pulp.
Com._, John’s Gospel, Intr., p. lxxxvi.

310 This title, Παντοκράτωρ “the Almighty,” is used nine times in
Revelation, and only once elsewhere in the New Testament (II Cor.
6:18).

311 Tribulation is the pervading undertone of the whole book. “The
moving spirit of the vision in the Apocalypse is the sufferings of
the church” (Ramsay, _The Church in the Roman Empire_, p. 295). “The
ethical keynote is patience” (_New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 129).

312 See notes on “The Place” in the Introduction to this volume.

313 “The earliest use of the name (the Lord’s day) is in this passage,”
Scott, _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 130; Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev.,
p. 5.

314 See Scott, art. “Rev.,” Hastings’ _Dict. of Chr. and Gosp._

315 “The vision of the Divine Christ in Rev. 1 dominates every
subsequent paragraph in the Apocalypse.” Reynolds, art. “Gosp. of
John,” Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._

316 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 7; also see Thayer’s _Gr. Lex. of
New Test._

317 “The association of angels with stars was a common Semitic idea.”
(Moulton). Each star was conceived of by the Jews as having its
angel, as also every force and phenomenon of nature had its separate
angel. It is not strange, therefore, that John grouped them in his
thought.

318 Milligan, _Internat. Com._, vol. iv, Rev., p. 36; also Plummer,
_Pulp. Com._, Rev. p. 8. For the other view see Faussett, J. F. & B.
_Com. on Rev._, p. 589; Stuart, _Com. on Apoc._, pp. 460‐1; and
Trench, _Ep’s to Seven Ch’s_, p. 75f.

319 “This last image is not so strange as it appears at first sight, for
the short Roman sword was tongue‐like in shape.” Hastings’ _Dict. of
Bib._, art. “Sword.”

320 An indication of divine power as well as victory; for “it was part
of the teaching of the Rabbinic schools that the key of death was
one of four (the keys of life, the grave, food, and rain) which were
in the hand of God alone.” _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 133.

321 “The word mystery is not used in the Bible in the modern sense of
‘something that cannot be fathomed or understood,’ but on the
contrary it indicates either something which is waiting to be
revealed or that which when explained conveys understanding. In the
latter sense it comes near to our word ‘Symbol.’ And this is the
sense in which it is to be taken here and in ch. xxii. 7.” (_New
Cent. Bib._, Rev., pp. 133‐4). In the general and broader sense,
however, “The term μυστήριον in the New Testament means truths once
hidden now revealed, made generally known, and in their own nature
perfectly intelligible.” Bruce, _Exp. Gr. Test._, vol. I, p. 196.

322 See art. “Rev.”, Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._; also “_New Test. Doctr.
of Rev._” in the same work, vol. V. p. 334e.

323 Milligan, _Lect. on Apoc._, p. 16.

324 Asia in the New Testament (with the possible exception of Acts 2:9)
always means the Roman province of that name, which embraced only
the western part of what we now call Asia Minor, and consisted of
Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and part of Phrygia, with the islands of the
coast,—see the map in the beginning of this volume. “Asia was one of
the most wealthy and populous and intellectually active of the Roman
provinces,” Ramsay, art. “Asia.” Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._

325 Ramsay, _Letters to Seven Ch’s._, p. 35.

326 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 3; Swete, _Apoc. of St. John_,
Intr., p. liv, and p. 4.

327 Milligan, _Lect. on Apoc._, p. 38; _Stuart_, _Com. on Apoc._, pp.
101‐16, and Excur. II, p. 747 in same volume; also see App’x E in
this volume on the “Symbolism of Numbers.”

328 Sayce, Hibbert Lect’s on _Origin and Growth of Religion_, p. 82.

329 So Milligan, Plummer, and others—see notes in Ch. 20:2f.

330 “Probably the most striking feature of the Seven Letters is the tone
of unhesitating and unlimited authority which inspires them from
beginning to end.” Ramsay, _Letters to Seven Churches_, p. 75.

331 See Ramsay’s _Letters to the Seven Churches_, where there will be
found much accurate information concerning the seven cities that is
based upon an extended residence in those cities, and careful
personal investigation. A more concise account by the same author is
given in Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._, in the separate articles upon
each city.

332 Moulton’s _Mod. Read. Bib._, Rev., p. 196.

333 The exhortation to “hear what the Spirit saith to the churches”
applies not only to what is contained in the seven epistles, but to
the entire Apocalypse which follows. See Ramsay’s _Letters to Seven
Ch’s_, p. 38.

334 Paradise is the word used in the Septuagint for Eden. It occurs but
three times in the New Testament. It originally signified a park or
garden such as was used by Oriental monarchs for a pleasure‐ground,
but in Christian usage it becomes a name for the scene of rest and
recompense for the righteous after death. See art. “Paradise” by
Salmond, Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._

335 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., pp. 59‐60.

336 Swete, _Apoc. of St. John_, p. 30.

337 Pergamus, though a rarer form, is preferable to Pergamos (A. V.), or
Pergamum (R. V.) as the designation of the city, owing to its softer
sound for the English ear, though the form is otherwise indifferent.
See Ramsay’s art. “Pergamus,” Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._ “Ἡ Πέργαμος
is found in Xenophon, Pausanius, and Dion Cassius, but τὸ Πέργαμον
in Strabo, and Polybius, and most other writers, and in the
inscriptions; the termination is left uncertain in Apoc. i.11 and
ii.12.” Swete, _Apoc. of St. John_, p. 33.

338 “Pergamum was the first place in Asia where as early as the reign of
Augustus was erected a temple to Rome and the Emperor,” Salmon,
_Hist. Intr. to New Test._, p. 239. “An allusion to the rampant
paganism of Pergamum ... but chiefly perhaps to the new Caesar
worship in which Pergamum was preeminent and which above all other
pagan rites menaced the existence of the Church,” Swete, _Apoc. of
St. John_, p. 34.

339 “The name Balaam does not indicate a sect, but a set of principles.”
Briggs, _Mess. of Gospels_, p. 451; also see _New Cent. Bib._, Rev.,
p. 143.

340 This identification is suggested by the present author as a probable
one, for jade is the most notable white stone that was in use in
ancient times, and it is still highly prized for seals, charms, and
kindred purposes in China and the Far East. Dr. Schlieman found
implements made from the coarser kinds of it in the immediate region
of Pergamus among the relics of the oldest of the cities in the
excavations at Hissarlik, the mound of ancient Ilium, near Troas;
and a jade celt engraved with Gnostic formulæ in Greek characters is
preserved in the Christy collection. See art. “Jade,” _Encyc. Brit._

341 Trench, _Ep’s to Seven Churches_, pp. 178‐80. Trench’s view,
however, that the Urim and Thummim consisted of a single stone is
not correct, though his interpretation of this passage is as usual
very suggestive. See art. “Urim and Thummim” in Hastings’ _Dict. of
Bib._

342 See Trench, Stuart, Plummer, Lee, Scott, and others. Lange says
concisely, “Two meanings attached to the white stone among the
Greeks, viz. acquittal in judgment, and the award of some rank or
dignity.” Lange’s (_Com. on Rev._, p. 121). Swete says “The white
stone is the pledge of the divine favor which carries with it such
intimate knowledge of God and Christ as only the possessor can
comprehend.” (_Apoc. of St. John_, p. 40).

343 See art. “Signet,” Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._

344 Hilprecht, _S. S. Times_, Sept. 10, 1904, art. “Babylonian Life in
the Time of Ezra and Nehemiah.”

345 Weizsäcker thinks the new name is “the λόγος of John’s Gospel”
(_Apost. Age_, vol. II p. 171); but by “new” is more likely meant a
hitherto unknown name. Stevens interprets it as “a symbol for the
Messiah,” (_Theol. of New Test._, p. 540). On the other hand Scott
says, “A new name stands for a new character.” (_New Cent. Bib._,
Rev., p. 143); and Ramsay regards it as “perhaps an allusion to the
custom of taking new and secret baptismal names,” (art. “Pergamus,”
Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._); also Düsterdieck thinks that the name
applies to the Christian (_Com. on Rev._, p. 148); and Swete holds
the same view (_Apoc. of St. John_, p. 40). “White” and “new” as
Trench points out, are “key‐words” in the Apocalypse (_Ep’s to Seven
Ch’s_, p. 172).

346 Ramsay explains, “There had been a Jewish colony planted in
Thyatira, and a hybrid sort of worship had been developed, half
Jewish, half pagan, which is called in Revelation the woman
Jezebel,” (_Paul the Trav. and Rom. Cit._, p. 215). Scott thinks it
“most probable that the reference is to some well‐known and
influential woman within the church at Thyatira, whose influence on
the Christian community was parallel to that of Jezebel upon Ahab—a
self‐styled prophetess, whose teaching and example were alike
destructive of Christian morality,” (_New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p.
147). Schürer also holds that Jezebel denoted a definite woman,
(Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._, art. “Thyatira”). Plummer finds in the
name a unity of symbolism with other parts of the book, thus,
“Jezebel anticipates the harlot of ch. 17, as Balaam anticipates the
false prophet of ch. 13” (_Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 66).

347 Swete, _Apoc. of St. John_, p. 42.

348 “To become acquainted with ‘the depths,’ (i. e. the deep things of
divinity, as they would say—called here ‘the deep things of Satan’
in irony) was an essential pretense of the Gnostics.” Düsterdieck,
Meyer’s _Com. on Rev._, p. 152.

349 “I will grant him to see the Morning‐star”. Moffatt, _New Trans. of
New Test._

350 “The word used is κλέπτης a ‘thief,’ and not ληστὴς a ‘robber,’
showing that secrecy, not violence, is the point of the similitude.”
Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 108.

351 “The word ‘white’ (λευκὸς), excepting in Mat. 5.36 and Jn. 4.35, is
in the New Testament always used of _heavenly_ purity and
brightness,” Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 109.

352 The “book of life” is mentioned seven times in the Revelation, an
indication of the place it occupied in the writer’s thought.

353 Ramsay, _Letters to Seven Ch’s_, pp. 377‐78.

354 Milligan, _Internat. Com._, Rev., p. 48.

355 Scott, _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 136.

356 Ramsay, art. “Sardis,” Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._

357 Swete, _Apoc. of St. John_, p. 53; and Ramsay, art. “Philadelphia,”
Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._

358 Bousset’s inference is scarcely justifiable:—“It is the tone of
immediate expectation of the end; the last great struggle throughout
the whole inhabited world is at hand; the storm is drawing near;
already the seer beholds the lightning flash”. (_New Cent. Bib._,
Rev., pp. 153‐4). Swete also interprets similarly, as referring to
“the troublous times which precede the Parousia,” and adds, “This
final sifting of mankind was near at hand.” (_Apoc. of St. John_, p.
55).

359 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 113; Wordsworth, quoted in _Bib.
Com._, Rev., p. 547.

360 Ramsay, art. “Philadelphia,” Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._; and his
_Letters to Seven Ch’s._, p. 400.

361 “The word ‘Amen’ is here used as a proper name of our Lord; and this
is the only instance of such an application.... The ‘faithful and
true witness’ is an amplification of the Amen”. Plummer, _Pulp.
Com._, Rev., pp. 114‐15.

362 “The origin of God’s creation.” Moffatt, _New Translation of New
Testament_.

363 “Laodicea was the one famous medical centre in Phrygia.... The
description of the medicine here mentioned is obscured by a
mistranslation. It was not an ointment but a kollyrium, which had
the form of small cylinders compounded of various ingredients, and
was used either by simple application or by reduction to a powder to
be smeared on the part.” Ramsay, _Letters to Seven Ch’s._, p. 429.

364 See art. “Laodicea” by Ramsay, Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._; and Swete,
_Apoc. of St. John_, pp. 61‐2.

365 See App’x F, “The Literary Structure of the Apocalypse.”

366 See Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._, art. “Stones, Precious;” also the
separate arts. in the same work on the names of precious stones
which we find in the Revelation. Plummer regards the jasper, which
is further described in ch. 21:11 as being “clear as crystal,” to be
the modern diamond, while Cheyne thinks it the opal, and Scott
identifies the sardius with our carnelian.

367 The A. V. reads, “_there was_ a sea of glass”; the R. V. renders,
“as it were a glassy sea”; and the Am. R. V. gives, “as it were a
sea of glass.” The Revisers evidently regarded the phrase as a
figurative way of describing the quiet of the sea. Alford, however,
and Swete interpret literally as “a sea of glass.”

368 Cf. Faussett, J. F. & B. _Com. on Rev._, p. 625.

369 See _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 164.

370 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 145; Swete, _Apoc. of St. John_, p.
68.

371 “Throughout the vision no past tense is used. The vision represents
the worship of heaven (so far as it can be presented to human
understanding) as it continues eternally.” Plummer, _Pulp. Com._,
Rev., p. 145.

372 Bleek, _Lect. on Apoc._, p. 199; Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p.
145.

373 _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 163.

374 _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 163.

375 For Bleek’s view of the arrangement see notes on “The Lamb in the
Midst of the Throne,” under ch. 5:6‐8a.

376 “No one can authoritatively affirm that created beings of a lower
order than man will not in some sense share in the future life.” A.
A. Hodge, unpublished _Classroom Lectures_.

377 See in Am. R. V., I Sam. 4:4; II Sam. 6:2; II Ki. 1:9‐15; I Chr.
13:6; Ps. 80:1, 99:1; Isa. 37:16; Ezek. 10:1‐20.

378 Fairbairn regards the cherubim as typifying “Earth’s living
creaturehood, especially man, its rational and immortal head”. See
his _Typology_, vol. 1, pp. 125‐208. Plummer similarly interprets
the living beings as symbolical of all animal life, and suggests
that the human face of the cherubim represents “humanity as distinct
from the church (which is represented by the four and twenty
elders), and appears to indicate the power of God to use for his
purposes and his glory that part of mankind which has not been
received into the church.” _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 146. Also see art.
“Cherubim,” Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._; and for an apocalyptic
description of the cherubim, _Bk. of Enoch_ (ed. Charles), 14:11,
18; 20:7; 61:10; 76:7.

379 Stuart, _Com. on Apoc._, p. 515; also cf. Düsterdieck, and Plummer.
Other definitions, though differing in statement, have a general
similarity. For example, “The Book of Destiny” (Bacon, _Intr. to New
Test._, p. 284); “The Book of Doom” (Moffatt, _Exp. Gr. Test._, Rev.
p. 382); “The Book of History” (_Temple Bib._, Intr. to Rev., p.
xxxvii); or, better still, “The Book of God’s Counsels” (Lee, _Bib.
Com._, Rev., p. 563). Faussett, following De Burgh, makes the book
“The Title‐deed of Man’s Inheritance Redeemed by Christ” (J. F. & B.
_Com. on Rev._, p. 602). Seiss accepts this interpretation and
explains further by reference to Jewish customs of land tenure
(_Lects. on Apoc._, vol. i, p. 266f.). The definition preferred in
the present volume is “The Book of God’s Plan for the Ages.”

380 “A Roman will, when written, had to be sealed seven times in order
to authenticate it, and some have argued that this explains the
symbolism here” (_Exp. Gr. Test._, Rev. p. 383); but this suggestion
is of doubtful value when the Hebrew use of seven was so well
established.

381 See Düsterdieck, Meyer’s _Com. on Rev._, p. 207.

382 “The ability to open was a consequence of a former act of victory,
viz. the redemption.” Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 164.

383 “The kingship of Christ is more clearly set forth in the Revelation
than in any other part of the New Testament, though not in any
single text, but by the representations of the book throughout,”
Riddle, unpublished _Classroom Lectures on Revelation_. Also see
Pfleiderer, _Influence of Paul on Christianity_ (Hibbert Lect.,
1885), p. 130.

384 “John looked to see a lion and beheld a Lamb,” the change of symbol
seeming to indicate that “the might of Christ is the power of love.”
See Stevens, _New Test. Theol._, p. 542. “The name which most
expresses what Christ is to the Christian is the ‘Lamb.’ ” “This is
used twenty‐nine times in the book.” Porter, art. Rev., Hastings’
_Dict. of Bib._ “This is a dramatic way of expressing the truth that
the efficient factor of history is gentleness.” Dean, _Book of
Revelation_, p. 103.

385 See Bleek’s _Lect. on Apoc._, p. 200f.

386 Cf. Bisping, quoted by Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 167.

387 “This description of the glorified Lord, sublime as a purely mental
conception, becomes intolerable if we give it outward form and
expression.” (Trench, _Ep’s to Seven Ch’s_, p. 64). In fact, “No
scene in the great Christian Apocalypse can be successfully
reproduced upon canvas; the imagery ... is symbolic and not
pictorial,” (Swete, _Apoc. of St. John_, Intr., p. cxxxiv.)
“Symbolism does not appeal to the pictorial sense at all, but rather
to some analytic faculty, or conventional association of ideas.”
(Moulton, _Bib. Idyls_, Intr. p. xx). The incongruity of many of
their symbols from the aesthetic point of view does not seem to have
occurred to the Hebrew mind, for with them the religious idea was
predominant. Many of the events recorded in the Revelation are
manifestly impossible except in a vision.

388 “Here we have the ideas of ch. 1. 5 repeated (i. e. of the love and
redemption of Christ) with the further thought that love like that
displayed in Christ’s death for man’s redemption is worthy not only
of all praise, but of having all the future committed to its care.
It is really a pictorial way of saying that redeeming love is the
last reality in the universe which all praise must exalt and to
which everything else must be subordinate.” Denney, _Death of
Christ_, p. 246.

389 Moulton’s _Mod. Read. Bib._, Psa. vol. i, Intr., p. xxxiif.

390 The call is most naturally understood as a call for the vision to
appear. Simcox so interprets: “Each of the living creatures by turns
summons one of the horsemen.” (_Cambr. Gr. Test._, Rev., p. 85);
Scott, also, holds the same view (_New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 176);
and Moffatt, prefers it (_New Trans. New Test._, footnote). Plummer,
however, says the call is addressed to John,—perhaps a more common
view; on the other hand Alford, Milligan, and Swete, say the call is
to Christ to come. The view that the call is addressed to the rider
is more likely correct, though the interpretation of the seals is
not materially affected by the view we may take of this part of the
symbolism. In any case, “Each living being invites attention to the
revelation of the future of that creation of which they are all
representatives.” _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 185.

391 “_Conquering, and that he may conquer._ This is the key to the whole
vision. Only of Christ and his kingdom can it be said that it is to
conquer ... only of Christ’s kingdom shall there be no end.”
Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 184.

392 _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 179; also see Mommsen’s _Provinces of
Rom. Emp._, vol. ii, p. 1 (note), Swete regards the first seal as “a
picture of triumphant militarism.” _Apoc. St. John_, p. 84.

393 “White is always typical in the Revelation of heavenly things,”
Plummer, (_Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 183). “If any other than our Lord
is he that goes forth conquering and to conquer, then, though the
subsequent interpretation may have occasional points of contact with
truth ... the true key of the book is lost.” (_Alford, Gr. Test._,
vol. iv, p. 249).

394 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 185. For a different interpretation
see Milligan, _Expos. Bib._, Rev., p. 91.

395 “_A choenix of wheat for a denarius_ &c. The choenix appears to have
been the food allotted to one man for a day; while the denarius was
the pay of a soldier or of a common laborer for one day.” Plummer,
_Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 185.

396 The oil and the wine are interpreted by some (as Wordsworth, and
Milligan) to mean spiritual food which will not be lacking in time
of famine; but this opinion is not sustained by anything in the
text. Swete understands the vision to forbid famine prices, and to
refer only to relative hardships—an unusual view.

397 It is doubtless true, as pointed out by Ramsay, that according to
the usual custom in celebrating a triumph “the Roman generals were
borne in a four‐horse car” (_Letters to Seven Churches_, p. 58).
This, however, does not seem to have been necessarily or always the
case, and even when so, the horses were white. Cf. Swete, _Apoc. of
St. John_, p. 84; and Scott, _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 177.

398 It is interesting to note that God is here described (v. 10) as ὁ
δεσπότης an absolute ruler, a word implying the divine might and
authority, which occurs but once in the Apocalypse, and which is
translated “Lord” in the A. V., and “Master” in the R. V. This term,
it should be understood, is “strictly the correlative of slave,
δοῦλος, and hence denotes absolute ownership and uncontrolled
power.” (Thayer’s _Gr.‐Eng. Lex. New Test._) In its present use “it
would seem to convey the idea of personal relationship, as Paul
speaks of himself as the _slave_ of Christ (δοῦλος).” (Strong, art.
“John, Apostle,” Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._)

399 For an interesting parallel passage in Apocalyptic literature see
_Ascension of Isaiah_, 9.7‐18, where the saints, as here, receive a
preliminary reward; also, _Bk of Enoch_, 22:5f, where the voice of
the spirits of the children of men who were dead “penetrated to
heaven and complained.”

400 “The day of the Lord” is a notable phrase in the New Testament, and
should receive our careful attention, though it only occurs twice in
the Apocalypse (ch. 6:14; 16:14). As Davidson interprets it, “The
day of the Lord is an eschatological idea; the phrase therefore
cannot be rendered ‘a day of the Lord,’ as if any great calamity or
judgment felt to be impending might be so named: the day is that of
final and universal judgment.” (See art. “Eschatol. of Old Test.”;
Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._). This view, however, must not be applied
too strictly; for while it is clear that the final day is usually
the thought in mind, yet through long and continuous use the phrase
“the day of the Lord” seems to have acquired a wider application,
and to have been applied to any striking crisis in the history of
the world, each day of the Lord being, however, a type of the final
and great day. (See Rawlinson, _Pulp. Com._, Isa., p. 228).

401 Cf. _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 124.

402 See App’x G, “Apoc. Lit.”

403 The view here given, limiting the contents of the seventh seal to
the first verse of the eighth chapter, is upon the whole the
preferable one (Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 229; Wordsworth,
_The Apoc._, p. 155; and Vaughan, _Lect. on Rev._, pp. 204‐5),
though it is disputed on exegetical grounds by Düsterdieck and
others (Meyer’s _Com. on Rev._ p. 261f.). It will be found, however,
that it is amply sustained by a broad view of the context. This
verse (ch. 8:1) might well have been included in chapter seven, at
the close of the episode of the sealed ones where it properly
belongs.

404 Lee, _Bib. Com._, Rev., p. 595.

405 Riddle, unpublished _Classroom Lect. on Rev._

406 “Three kinds of significance appear to be attached to sealing in the
Scriptures, viz. (1) to authenticate; (2) to assert ownership; and
(3) to assure safety. The significance of sealing in Revelation
seems to combine both the latter ideas.” (_New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p.
191). Possibly all senses of the term may be here included, which
gives a very forcible meaning. In Charles’ view the sealing in
Revelation is to secure the servants of God against the attacks of
demonic powers, or against the Antichrist. See his _Studies in
Apoc._, p. 130.

407 The omission of the tribe of Dan in the enumeration of the twelve
tribes of Israel has been accounted for in various ways; but most
likely it occurred as suggested by Ewald by an error of
transcription, MAN, (the abbreviated form of Manasses) being
substituted for ΔΑΝ, the correct reading. In favor of this
suggestion is the fact that the correct order of birth of the sons
of Jacob would thereby be followed, except that Joseph is placed
before Reuben because of the prominent place he occupies as the
ancestor of our Lord. See Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., pp. 207‐8.

408 Moffatt, _Exp. Gr. Test._, vol. V, pp. 394‐6; Jülicher, _New Test._,
_Intr._, pp. 287‐8; and Scott, _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 192.

409 “Perhaps no passage in the Apocalypse has had so wide an influence
on popular eschatology.” Swete, _Apoc. of St. John_, p. 98.

410 For a like passage where the sealed wear white garments, see _II
Esdr._ 2.34‐42.

411 As Trench, followed by Milligan.

412 Faussett, J. F. & B. _Com. on Rev._, p. 605; also Düsterdieck,
Meyer’s _Com. on Rev._, pp. 242‐50, who aptly says, “The number
144,000 there (v. 1‐8) although not literal but schematic, furnishes
the idea of _numerability_, while here (v. 9) the _innumerability_
of the great multitude is especially emphasized.”

413 As Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev. p. 207, who says, “Here, as
elsewhere, it is the spiritual Israel which is signified.”

414 “Saved by our God, who is seated on the throne, and by the Lamb!”
Moffatt, _New Trans. of New Test._

415 “Where an explanation is made of visions which refer to the church,
the active part is taken by the elders, while angels introduce
visions of which the signification is unexplained.” Plummer, _Pulp.
Com._, Rev., p. 209.

416 “These verses (v. 16, 17) are full of reminiscences of the O. T.
Perhaps there is no passage in the whole of literature that so
combines simplicity of language and sublimity of thought as these
two verses.” Dean, _Book of Revelation_, p. 119.

417 Swete, _Apoc. of St. John_, p. 100; Scott, _New Cent. Bib._, Rev.,
p. 195.

418 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 230.

419 For the first view see Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 238; for the
second view see Düsterdieck, Meyer’s _Com. on Rev._, pp. 264‐5; also
Lange, _Com. on Rev._, p. 204.

420 Vaughan, _Lect. on Rev._, p. 207; and Stuart, _Com. on Rev._, p.
564, where they are described as “presence‐angels;” also cf.
_Tobit_, 12:15, “I am Raphael, one of the seven holy angels who
present the prayers of the saints, and who go in and out before the
glory of the Holy One”; and _Bk of Enoch_, 91:21, “And the Lord
called those seven first white ones, etc.” These instances serve to
show how the Apocalypse of John reflects the current usage of
Apocalyptic literature in his time.

421 Cf. I Thess. 4:16; I Cor. 15:52; and _II Esdr._ 6.20, 25.

422 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 398; also compare with ch. 14:7,
where these terms are apparently used as the sum of creation.

423 Cf. Alford, _Gr. Test._, vol. 4, Rev., p. 638.

424 Cf. Hos. 8:1; Hab. 1:8; and _Apoc. of Bar._ 77.19‐22.

425 Cf. ch. 20:1‐2; also see arts. “Abyss”, and “Pit”, Hastings’ _Dict.
of Bib._; and _Bk of Enoch_, 21:10; and 18:11.

426 Some find in this name a reference to Apollo, the pagan deity, and
point out that the locust was one of the symbols of his cult,
certainly a curious coincidence, but apparently not anything more
than a coincidence. See _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 208.

427 “The balance of authority seems in favor of retaining τεσσάρων
‘four,’ although the Revisers omit it. The altar of incense had four
horns projecting at the corners.” Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p.
265.

428 Light is thrown upon these perplexing figures by a passage in the
_Apocalypse of Ezra_ quoted by Bousset: “And a voice was heard: let
these four kings be loosed which are bound beside the great river
Euphrates, which shall destroy a third part of mankind. And they
were loosed, and there was a great commotion.” Also in the _Bk of
Enoch_ (56:5), “The angels gather themselves together, and turn
eastward to the Parthians and Medes, and stir up their kings,” as
the four angels do here. John’s conception is thus seen to be a
reflection of existing apocalyptic material. See _New Cent. Bib._,
Rev., p. 208.

429 See _Bible Com._, Rev., p. 617.

430 “The master thought of the whole Revelation.” Moulton, _Mod. Read.
Bib._, Rev., Intr. p. xxvi. “The realization of the kingdom of God
... is the end in the light of which God’s purpose in Christ is to
be read.” Orr, art. “Kingdom of God”. Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._

431 Scott, _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 226; also cf. _II Macc._, 2.1‐8;
and _Apoc. Bar._, 6.7‐10.

432 “The episodes are interposed to give us an insight into the inner
aspects of the life of the church in the midst of persecution and
distress.” Ballentine, _Mod. Am. Bib._, Rev., p. 275.

433 Cf. Plummer and Alford.

434 _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 216.

435 Some, as Milligan, take this angel for Christ himself; but
“throughout the book angels are everywhere distinct from the divine
persons”, (Alford, _Gr. Test._, vol. iv, p. 649)—a general rule that
is never deviated from and should not be forgotten. “In no passage
of the book is our Lord represented under the form of an angel”,
(Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 231).

436 “The Jews were accustomed to call thunder the seven voices, and to
regard it as the voice of the Lord.” Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p.
274; also cf. Ps. 29:3f; 77:18; and 104:7.

437 Humphries, accepting the modern composite view, says, “The eating of
the little book recounted in ch x. 10 suggests that borrowing from a
previous source is to be looked for in what immediately follows.”
_St John and Other New Test. Teachers_, p. 96.

438 See commentaries of Westcott, Reynolds, and others on the Gospel of
John.

439 See Thayer’s _Lex. New Test. Greek_ for the distinction between the
use of ναὸς and ἱερὸν; also art. “Temple”, Hastings’ _Dict. of
Bib._, at the beginning. The word ἱερὸν, it will be noticed, is
never used in the Apocalypse.

440 Plummer thinks that the heavenly temple is indicated, because
“nowhere else in the book do Jerusalem and the temple signify the
earthly places”,—a view that deserves weighty consideration.

441 “The outer court of the temple was the addition of Herod.... The
Gentiles might come there, though they might not pass into what was
especially the temple, and which was sacred to Israelites only. And
so it represents here all those outer‐court worshippers, those mixed
multitudes which are found associated with God’s true people
everywhere—of them, but not truly belonging to them.” _Pulp. Com._,
Rev., pp. 300‐01.

442 Stuart, _Com. on Apoc._, p. 590; and Lange, _Com. on Rev._, p. 223,
who somewhat differently regards this as a picture of “the inner and
outer church”, a thought that may perhaps be included; also see
Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 288, who says, “The temple is here
used figuratively of the faithful portion of the church of Christ
... placed in antithesis to the outer court, the faithless portion
of the visible church, which is given over to the Gentiles—the type
of all that is worldly.” Scott, _Par. Ver. of Rev._, p. 33 says,
“The inner shrine alone of the house of God is truly his, and abides
forever”; and Ballentine, _Mod. Am. Bib._, following Bp. Carpenter,
says, “As Jerusalem and Babylon ... so here the Temple and the court
of the Temple are symbols. The gospel has elevated the history and
places of the past into a grand allegory. It has breathed into their
dead names the life of an ever‐present symbolism.”

443 See Mommsen’s _Prov. of Rom. Emp._, vol. ii, pp. 214‐17, note.

444 On the return of the Jews to Palestine, expected by many as a
fulfilment of prophecy, see the very satisfactory remarks of
Davidson, art. “Eschatology”, Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._, vol. i, pp.
737‐8.

445 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 289; Faussett, J. F. & B., _Com. on
Rev._, p. 613; Wordsworth, _The Apoc._, lect. viii; and others.

446 Cf. ch. 1:12f, where the seven candlesticks are the seven churches.

447 See Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 289f, who is remarkably clear on
this passage.

448 “The two martyrs represent the martyr church as sharing the royal
priesthood of the Messiah, and as endowed with the gifts of prophecy
and miracle‐working like the prophets of old,” Briggs, _Mess. of
Apost._, p. 318.

449 _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 291; _Bib. Com._, Rev., p. 639; Vincent,
_Word Stud. in New Test._, 1 c.; also Alford, _Gr. Test._, vol. iv,
p. 661.

450 Scott, _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 234.

451 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 310.

452 In a footnote of the Revised Douay Version, however, the
interpretation there given is, “The church of God. It may also, by
allusion, be applied to our blessed Lady”—an interpretation to which
no objection can properly be made.

453 “This threefold description (i. e. ‘the Old Serpent, he that is
called the Devil, and Satan’) gathers up the primitive, the
prophetic, and the New Testament conception of the supreme Power of
Evil.” _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 230.

454 See Thayer’s _Gr. Lex. of New Test._

455 See Farrar, _Early Days of Christianity_, p. 527; and Stuart, _Com.
on Apoc._, pp. 627‐8.

456 Faussett, J. F. & B. _Com. on Rev._, p. 619; and Maurice, _The
Apoc._, p. 181.

457 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 312; Wordsworth, _Lect. on Apoc._,
p. 200, “St John now reverts to an earlier period.”

458 Lee says, “Verses ten and eleven commemorate by anticipation the
victory of believers.” _Bib. Com._, Rev., p. 662; Plummer, favoring
a similar view, suggests that, “The song of the heavenly voices may
be intended to end with the word ‘Christ’ (v. 10), and the following
passages may be the words of the writer of the Apocalypse, and may
refer to the earthly martyrs.” _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 312.

459 Bleek, _Lect. on Apoc._, p. 268; Stuart, _Com. on Apoc._, p. 623.

460 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 312.

461 Charles, art. “Bk of Secrets of Enoch”, Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._
“The underlying conception here probably is that the Dragon and his
angels attempted to storm the highest heaven, and in the end were
cast out of heaven altogether.” _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 230.

462 Sayce, _Hibbert Lect’s._, (1887), p. 102.

463 Gunkel, _Schopfung und Chaos_, 1895.

464 Porter, art. “Rev., Book of”, Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._

465 “To read the ideas of Rev. xii into the scattered Babylonian
allusions, in order to get the Marduk myth, is too fragmentary to be
relied upon as a basis for such a theory;” Moffatt, _The Expositor_,
Mar., ’09, art. “Wellhausen and Others on the Apoc.” For a statement
of Gunkel’s tradition‐historical view see art. “Rev.” in Hastings’
_Dict. of Bib._; also art. “Apoc. and Recent Criticism”, Barton,
_Am. Journ. of Theol._, Oct. ’98. Delitzsch in his first lecture on
_Babel and the Bible_ (1902) regards all references to the Dragon in
Scriptures as echoes of Babylonian mythology. Davidson in art.
“Angel”, Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._, regards such passages containing
accounts of conflicts between God and other powerful beings as
“reminiscences of Cosmic or Creation myths.”

466 Moffatt supports the reading, “I stood” (A. V.), and in this view he
is supported by Ramsay.

467 See _Apoc. of Baruch_, 29.4 and _II Esdr._ 6.49.

468 Scott, _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 221.

469 Düsterdieck, Plummer, Faussett, and many others. Milligan is
especially clear in his exposition of this passage, _Internat.
Com._, vol. iv, p. 105.

470 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 331.

471 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., pp. 331‐2.

472 Scott makes the sea out of which the first Beast emerges to be “the
Mediterranean, from beyond which the empire of Rome rose before the
eyes of the Jews”; and the earth to be the domain of “the Roman
empire, from which came the priests of Caesar‐worship—a priesthood
native born”, which constituted the second Beast. (_New Cent. Bib._,
Rev., pp. 235 and 239). Plummer says, “The sea is the type of
instability, confusion, and commotion, frequently signifying the
ungovernable nations of the world in opposition to the church of
God.... The other beast pertains to the earth, thus dividing the
whole world between them.” (_Pulp. Com._, Rev., pp. 330 and 334).

473 Cf. _Pulp. Com._, Rev., pp. 341‐43; Faussett, J. F. & B. _Com. on
Rev._, pp. 621; and Vaughan, _Lect. on Rev._, p. 342; also Bp. of
Ripon’s “Excur. on Rev.”, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., pp. 582‐85.

474 The identity of the Second Beast with the False Prophet of chs.
16:13, and 19:20, can scarcely be doubted when both contexts are
considered, though some historical interpreters have identified the
False Prophet with Mohammed, the false prophet of Islam, apparently
without any special reason except that Mohammed is the most noted of
all the false prophets of history, whereas the False Prophet in
Revelation is the representative of all false religions in all time,
an admirable symbol.

475 We should not forget the great lesson of history here emphasized,
that the natural religions of men are always intertwined with the
civil power in heathen lands; and, also, how often in the past, even
in Christian nations, the professed faith in Christ has been
inwrought to its great undoing with the authority of the nation.

476 Salmond, _Hist. Intr. to New Test._, p. 245; Bousset, _Bib. Encyc._,
art. “Apoc”.; also Scott, _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 239.

477 The first is Alford’s view, _Gr. Test._, vol. iv, pp. 675‐79; the
second is Moulton’s _Mod. Read. Bib._, Rev., pp. 207‐09.

478 For a further discussion of the symbolism of the Second Beast see
notes on ch 17.

479 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 336.

480 “Philo reproached Jewish apostates for allowing themselves to be
branded with the signs of idols” (_New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 191),
an allusion evidently to the same practice as that referred to here
in Revelation, and showing that the language used is something more
than merely a figure of speech.

481 “In apocalyptic writings the interpretation, if added, is only a
less obscure form of the enigma, and not a solution of it”. Schürer,
_Hist. Jewish Peop._, part II, vol. iii, p. 47.

482 “It is difficult to understand why all this mystery should be about
the name of a dead emperor who was no favorite with Jew or Roman, or
why the name should be written in Hebrew for the Christians of Asia,
or how so prominent a name should so soon be forgotten, especially
in view of the expectation of his return, which obtained so long.”
(Dean, _Book of Revelation_, p. 151.).

483 See Salmon, _Hist. Intr. to New Test._, p. 23Of.; also Milligan,
_Expos. Bib._, Rev., p. 235; and Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p.
337. Farrar’s interpretation (following Reuss, Hitzig, and others)
is _Neron Kesar_, using Hebrew letters in the spelling and omitting
most of the vowels, as follows (see _Early Days of Christianity_, p.
540), viz:—

N=50
R=200
O=6
N=50

N(E)RON=306
K=100
S=60
R=200

K(E)S(A)R=360

This interpretation is the one now generally accepted by the
advanced school of commentators in the present day. On the other
hand if the last letter of the name (N) be dropped we have the value
of 616, which is the alternate reading in some manuscripts. Moulton,
however, says the number contains “probably a temporary allusion of
which the point is now lost” that gave a clue to the general
significance, viz. “world‐religion and superstition in
contradistinction to world‐force.” (_Mod. Read. Bib._, Rev., p.
209). “The non‐identification of Nero with the 666 by any early
writer is significant.” (Cowan, art. “Nero”, Hastings’ _Dict. of
Bib._). “Surely not ‘Nero Kaisar,’ but ‘Ashhur‐Ramman’!” Cheyne,
_Fresh Voyages on Unfrequented Waters_, p. 171—1914).

484 Porter, art. “Rev., Bk. of,” Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._

485 Following the Hebrew custom of offering the first fruits to God, the
term is probably used in this figure as the symbol of that which is
given to God, though it may possibly refer to those who share in the
first resurrection.

486 “Παρθένοι ‘virgins,’ is a word equally applicable to men or women,”
Plummer, _Pulp. Com., Rev._, p. 347; also Swete regards the word
“virgins” as a metaphor for purity, as most interpreters; cf.
Thayer’s _Gr. Lex. of New Test._, for the secondary use of the term.
It is evident that the phrase “These are they that were not defiled
with women”—or “among women”—may properly be interpreted as applying
to men who were not so defiled, though it here apparently represents
a class, whether men or women, who are declared to be free from
impurity, a phrase that in such a book as the Apocalypse is more
likely to refer to that which is spiritual than to that which is
physical. Alford, however, (_Gr. Test._, vol. iv, p. 685), and
Moffatt, also, (_Exp. Gr. Test._, vol. v, p. 436), both interpret
literally as “virgins.”

487 “The writer is controverting a fear that at the advent of the
Messiah those who survived on earth would have some advantage over
those who had already died.... John, however, does not share the
current pessimistic belief that death was preferable to life ... but
affirms that if death came in the line of religious duty it involved
no deprivation.” Moffatt, _Exp. Gr. Test._, Rev., pp. 439‐40.

488 “In Jewish Apocalyptic writings ever since Daniel, a Son of Man had
been spoken of who would come to judge the world in the clouds of
heaven,” (Pfleiderer, _Hibbert Lect._ (1885), p. 34. An early
messianic interpretation was given to the term, apparently because
of its fitness, though in Daniel’s vision “the son of man,” a figure
in human form, is understood by most late interpreters to be used as
a symbol of Israel, whose higher qualities are set in contrast with
the four beasts, and its messianic use is believed to have arisen
later, though, perhaps, soon after that period. For an instructive
discussion of this familiar title, “the Son of Man”, so difficult to
adequately interpret, see Charles’ edition of the _Bk. of Enoch_,
app’x B; also art. “Son of Man” in Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._; and
Sanday’s art. “Jesus Christ” in the same; together with art. “Son of
Man” in Hastings’ _Dict. of Chr. and Gosp._

489 “_Another angel_; i. e. in addition to those already mentioned, and
not implying that he who sat on the cloud was an angel”, Plummer,
_Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 350.

490 For the first view see Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 350; Alford,
_Gr. Test._, vol. iv, p. 691f; and Swete, _Apoc. of St. John_, p.
187. For the second view see Scott, _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 250;
and Moffatt, _Exp. Gr. Test._, Rev., pp. 441‐42.

491 Cf. _Bk. of Enoch_, 100.3.

492 Moulton’s _Mod. Read. Bib._, Rev., p. 210.

493 See Intr. to Johan. B’ks., _Temple Bib._

494 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 3.

495 “The whole of God’s wrath in final judgment is not exhausted by
these vials, but only the whole of his wrath in sending plagues on
the earth previous to the judgment.” Alford, _Gr. Test._, vol. iv,
p. 693.

496 Moulton, _Mod. Read. Bib._, Rev., p. 198. Lange suggests that “the
crystal sea may appear as though illuminated and reddened by the
fiery glare of the Anger Vials.” (_Com. on Rev._, p. 290); Alford
thinks the fire in the sea is significant of judgment, (_Gr. Test._,
vol iv, p. 693); and Swete says, “The red glow of the sea spoke of
the fire through which the martyrs had passed, and yet more of the
wrath about to fall on the world which had condemned them.” (_Apoc.
of St John_, p. 191).

497 So Düsterdieck, Faussett, Plummer, Alford, and others; for the Greek
preposition ἐπὶ with the accusative, see Thayer’s _Gr. Lex. of New
Test._ Swete, however, regarding the sea to be of glass, interprets
“on the sea itself, which forms the solid pavement of the final
approach to the throne,” (_Apoc. of St John_, p. 192), a view which
scarcely accords with our idea of a sea.

498 Scott, _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., pp. 253‐4. Also see Westcott and Hort
in _App’x to Gr. Test._, “Notes on Select Readings,” p. 139, who
favor the Revisers’ view (λίθον); and Swete, _Apoc. of St. John_, p.
195, who supports the former reading (λίνον).

499 Scott, _New Cent. Bib._, Rev., p. 254; Plummer says, “The reason of
the employment of the term ‘vial,’ or ‘bowl,’ is most likely to be
found in the expression ‘cup of God’s anger,’ in ch. 14.10.” _Pulp.
Com._, Rev., p. 392.

500 The term “the angel of the waters” reflects the apocalyptic style of
thought, for it is not unusual in apocalyptic writings to assign a
presiding spirit to natural phenomena. Cf. _Bk. of Enoch_ (ed.
Charles), 60.16‐21; also Intr. to same, p. 34. In the Apocalypse of
John, just as in other writings of the same class, we find that
“angels are associated with cosmic or elemental forces as fire and
water which they direct.” Davidson, art. “Angel,” Hastings’ _Dict.
of Bib._ Also cf. chs. 7:1; 9:11; and 14:18; in connection with
16:5.

501 “A figure possibly drawn from the action of Cyrus in diverting the
waters of the river when he took the city of Babylon.” _Bib. Com._,
Rev., p. 721.

502 Düsterdieck, Meyer’s _Com. on Rev._, p. 419; also Alford, _Gr.
Test._, vol. iv, p. 700. For a different view see Milligan,
_Internat. Com._, Rev., p. 122; and Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, p. 395.

503 “All is over”. Moffatt, _New Trans. of New Test._

504 See _Ascension of Isaiah_, ch. 7, where the firmament is the abode
of evil spirits; also cf. Eph. 2:2, in which Satan is called “the
prince of the power of the air,” apparently reflecting the thought
of the time, which regarded the air as the abiding place of evil
spirits.

505 “Every Apocalyptic writer painted the final catastrophe after the
model of the catastrophes of his day, only on a vaster scale and
with deepened shadows.” Harnack, art. “Rev.,” _Encyc. Brit._; also
see _Assumption of Moses_, 10.8.

506 _Twentieth Cent. New Test. in Modern English_, ch. 15.1; the Am. R.
V. reads, “In them is finished the wrath of God”.

507 Frogs which were unclean to the Hebrews become here a fitting type
of unclean spirits.

508 See art. “Har‐Magedon,” Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._

509 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 396. “The final world‐combat.”
Moulton, _Mod. Read. Bib._, Rev., p. 212. See note on ch. 19:11‐21,
where this same event is again referred to.

510 See division made by Purvis in art. “Rev.”, Davis’ _Dict. of Bib._;
also the analysis given in the introductory part of _Twent. Cent.
New Test._, vol. iii, Rev., “Table of Contents.”

511 “The comparison of Rome to Babylon underlies much of Jewish
apocalyptic literature.” Chase, art. “Babylon, in New Test.”,
Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._

512 Plummer gives a different idea of Babylon, interpreting it as “The
degenerate portion of the church of God ... all the faithless of
God’s church in all time”, an interpretation that is not accepted by
most commentators. _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 413.

513 See App’x A, Division V; also “Excur. on Rev.” by Bp. of Ripon,
_Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 582.

514 “This practice was customary with harlots” (Juv., “Sat.”, vi. 123;
Seneca, “Controv.”, 1, 2). _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 415.

515 “The City of the World, the ideal concentration of all this world’s
splendor and wealth and might.... The Evil‐World‐Metropolis.” Scott,
_Paragraph. Ver. of Rev._, pp. 1‐2. For a convincing presentation of
this view, see Lee, _Bib. Com._, Rev., pp. 734‐45. “The Anti‐
Church”,—i. e. the world in antithesis to the church, Seiss, _Lect.
on Apoc._, vol. iii, p. 112. “By Babylon the whole ungodly, anti‐
christianized world is intended ... an ideal city, embracing all of
anti‐christianity.” Lange, _Com. on Rev._, pp. 278‐303. “Under this
one name (Babylon) ... the whole adverse force is concentrated.”
Moulton, _Mod. Read. Bib._, Rev., p. 212. In this view of the
interpretation which is adopted in the present volume, the Harlot is
the anti‐christian world, the perpetual Babylon.

516 For other views see _Pulp. Com._, J. F. & B., _Com. on Rev._, and
_Internat. Com. in loco_.

517 As with Milligan and others.

518 This description of the Woman as “the great Harlot that sitteth upon
many waters” is evidently taken from the Prophecy of Jeremiah (Jer.
51:13), where the many waters refer to the many canals of Babylon.
Here the phrase is used figuratively, referring to the “many
peoples” (v. 15) that are subject to Babylon in the Apocalypse, and
affords a good example of the Apocalyptic use of Old Testament
symbols in a sense that is somewhat different from their original
meaning.

519 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 417; Faussett, J. F. & B., _Com. on
Rev._, p. 630; and many others. This is the common view with the
symbolist interpreters. It should be remembered that the
identification of the particular kings or kingdoms that were first
in mind in this symbolism,—for there probably were such,—is not
important; the special thought is that of _all kingdoms in all
time_.

520 “The absence of the article before ὃγδοος ‘eighth,’ shows that this
is not the eighth in a successive series, in which the kings already
mentioned form the first seven.” Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p.
417.

521 “The Beast is the sum total of what has been described under the
form of five kings, then one king, and then one king again.”
Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 416f. “This eighth is the Beast
himself in actual embodiment. He is ἐκ τῶν ἑπτᾶ—not ‘one of the
seven’, but the successor and result of the seven, following and
springing out of them.” Alford, _Gr. Test._, vol. iv. p. 711. Also,
see Milligan, _Internat. Com._, Rev., pp. 127‐8. To regard the Beast
that is “an eighth,” and, of the seven, as a reference to Nero is an
anomalous interpretation that is without parallel in the book, and
cannot, therefore, be sustained.

522 “_One hour_ denotes ‘a short time’ (i. e. a time that is relatively
short in the measure of eternity). The Bible in this way constantly
describes the period of the world’s existence, especially that
period which intervenes between the time of the writer and the
judgment‐day (cf. Rom. 16:20; I Cor. 7:29; and Rev. 6:11; 12:12;
22:20, etc.).” Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 417.

523 Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 417.

524 See art. “Rev.”, Hastings’ _Dict. of Bib._ vol. iv. pp. 257‐8.

525 Cf. Plummer, _Pulp. Com._, Rev., p. 333.

526 Moulton, _Mod. Read. Bib._, Rev., p. 212.

527 “Rome never has been, and from its very position never could be a
great commercial city.” Alford, _Gr. Test._, vol. iv, p. 718. By the
universal nature of the figures employed it is evident to most
readers, that “the whole passage points not to any single city, at
any one single period, but to the World‐City throughout all time.”
Lee, _Bib. Com._, Rev., p. 770.