Chapter V: Introduction: 1. General Introduction (2)

The conditions which gave Occasion for this sole Apocalyptic book of the New Testament have left their impress on its form and thought, viz. persecution from without, and trial and distress within the church. These conditions which are subsumed throughout must be clearly recognized in order to interpret the message aright, and to estimate its proper value for the age which first received it. For, whether we accept the earlier or later date of writing, the deadly power of the Roman Empire was being put forth to repress and destroy the church. At the later date the worship of the Emperor was being made the test of obedience to law, and at either time many Christians in the face of persecution were weak and wavering. The immediate outlook was increasingly dark, and the future prospect full of gloom. The failure of the Messiah to reappear and of the church to triumph; the bitter experience of persecution already endured, and the certainty of greater suffering yet to follow; in a word, the apparent reversal of the brightest hopes of early Christianity, all of these called for some divine message of cheer that would inspirit the discouraged, throw light upon the path of sorrow and shame, and make their lot endurable because of the assuredly glorious outcome of the future. And there was no kind of message so well suited to meet such a crisis as the form of Apocalyptic, which grew out of similar conditions, and had a tone and temper peculiarly adapted to infuse a triumphant hope in the midst of growing religious despair.(49) But let us not fail to perceive that though the Apocalypse was specially designed to meet a great crisis in the life of the early church, its effectiveness does not end there. Its lessons are for us and for all time; it has the course and end of world‐history in view, and this is an ever‐living theme for the church of Christ in every age.

11. The Purpose.

The Purpose of the Apocalypse, as indicated by its introductory words “The Revelation”, is the revealing or unveiling of mystery. In the Christian sense a mystery is a former secret of divine truth that has now been at least partially revealed (Eph. 3:1‐11), while an apocalypse is the process of revealing it, and also the revelation itself containing the truth made known. The comprehensive design of the book is to unfold and interpret the divine purpose and method in human history, especially in relation to the redemptive process, by portraying in scenic outline the present and future course of the church of Christ through conflict to victory, for the vindication of God’s righteousness in the final issue, and for the comfort and encouragement of tried and persecuted Christians in the midst of the pathway of life.(50) The more immediate purpose was to strengthen the church in the strain of present distress, while the ultimate aim is to be found not in the disclosure of history itself, but in the establishment of the moral order of the world, in illustrating the fact that history is a divinely guided “moral process toward a goal”, as the substantial ground of a true philosophy of life, and as a permanent defense against false and partial views. And this purpose is so wrought out by the portrayal of the world as an ideal battlefield full of opposing forces, with alternating scenes of triumph and danger, that the whole becomes a fervent and powerful appeal to the heroic in Christian life and character, and a clear call to new faith and courage. For whatever else may be its lessons, we must not leave out of view this practical purpose of divine monition to the world of men, which has so deeply impressed itself upon every generation of Christians. Its message of warning is inwrought with and reënforced by its prophetic scenes of terror and reward: for the Apocalypse is the book of the future as well as of the past and present, and that future is ever near in prophetic vision, however far it may be in historic relation, and to John’s eye is always filled with the figure of the returning Christ who comes to judgment and to victory. The message, however, viewed in its entirety, while it contains a sympathetic element of encouragement for the saints, and a monitory element of exhortation and warning for all men, is yet fundamentally a philosophic interpretation of the divine method in history for all who would see God in the story of man’s life on the earth—a theodicy based upon prophecy. And any view which assumes for the author a narrow field of vision, such as that he merely grouped together the current apocalyptic conceptions of his time in order to fling them in fierce polemic against the Roman Empire and to foreshadow its defeat and fall,(51) rests upon a manifestly imperfect judgment that fails in religious depth, missing the spiritual significance of the message, and lacks in literary insight, denying the evident marks of originality, genius, and inspiration in the most wonderful and unique composition of its kind that has ever been produced.

12. The Interpretation.

There are two essentially different methods of Interpretation that have been followed in attempting to arrive at the meaning of this manifestly difficult book, which are founded upon different conceptions of its didactic purpose, and proceed upon different lines of inquiry, viz. the Historical, and the Symbolical.

The Historical Interpretation regards the book as a _prophetic review and forecast of history_ veiled in symbol, and seeks the meaning and fulfilment of the visions in certain specific historical events which either have occurred, are occurring, or will occur within the sphere of human life and experience. There are three different forms of this method of interpretation, all of which specialize the prophecy but differ as to the time and nature of the fulfilment, viz. (1) the _Preterist_ view (also called the Contemporaneous‐Historical), which regards that the visions relate mainly to events in the history of the early church, and that they have been already fulfilled in the far past; (2) the _Futurist_ view (also called the Future‐Historical), that the visions relate mainly to events which shall occur in the last days, and that the fulfilment is to be looked for chiefly in the more or less remote future; and (3) the _Progressivist_ view (also called the Continuous‐ or Church‐Historical), that the several visions constitute a continuous and progressive series, covering the whole period of the church’s history from the time of John to the last judgment, and that their fulfilment is therefore to be found in a successive line of historical events, part of which lie in the past and part in the future.

The Symbolical Interpretation, upon the other hand, regards the book as a _prophetic idealization of history_, dealing with the general course and outcome of man’s life upon the earth, and disclosing under the form of symbols the spiritual and moral forces which give to history its deeper meaning; and seeks the significance and fulfilment of the visions not, therefore, in particular events, but rather in classes of events, not solely at one definite time, but at many different times, finding the revelation mainly illustrative of general principles of the divine government rather than predictive of particular facts of history, a view of various phases rather than of historic stages of the church’s experience,(52) and interpreting its symbols in the genuine spirit of Apocalyptic as pictorial representations of the prevailing fortunes of the church in the world as she moves forward to the final consummation.(53) This method of interpretation, which is commonly known as the _Symbolist_ view (also called the Spiritual), presents no such marked difference of form as the Historical, but with a wider outlook regards that the visions relate to all such like events in every age as specially manifest God’s rule in the world sending forth judgment unto victory, and such as particularly exhibit the progressive development of good and evil in human life, together with their constant conflict and their final reward and punishment.

All the current interpretations may be classified under one or other of the above heads, yet in the hands of individual interpreters they are often modified and blend into each other in their application—a manifest recognition of the fact that there is an element of truth underlying each view, which we may perhaps say has been unduly emphasized, for all agree that the interpretation is somehow and somewhere to be found in human life and history.

What might be called still another method of interpretation is the Apocalyptic‐Traditional (or Tradition‐Historical) view of late critical writers on the Apocalypse already referred to, which approaches the question from the viewpoint of literary origin, and attributes certain portions of the book to the introduction of traditional Jewish or Jewish‐ Christian Apocalyptic fragments that have been utilized by the author and applied to the historical conditions of his time, adapting them to a new meaning. This, however, is not so much a separate method of interpretation as it is a corollary of the present Literary‐Critical method of dealing with the book, which regards it as an early Christian work in successive editions that has taken into itself certain Jewish elements. With this origin assumed the interpretation does not differ materially from the Preterist view except, perhaps, that it is less rigorous in its application to current events, and recognizes more fully the idealism of the author; for the historical outlook has measurably lost its value except as an indication of the date of writing, and for most who hold this view the book has no longer any distinctive prophetic message for the church; it has become chiefly a fantastic dream, a pious dream it is true, but only a dream of the far past.

The principal question of interpretation, as will be seen by a consideration of the current views, relates not only to the view‐point, but also to the aim or design of the Revelation. The Historical method centers the chief aim of the book in a _predictive_‐prophetic element which it finds throughout and regards as pointing to specific events in particular periods of history that are designed to teach important spiritual lessons. With this idea of the didactic purpose, it yet presents the widest variation of opinion concerning the viewpoint of the book, and includes upon the one hand the extreme rationalist who considers it a purely human writing, a Jewish apocalypse that has been revamped to include Christian ideas, which blends history with prediction and reflects only the horizon of the first century; and on the other hand the devout mystic who accepts its message as chiefly predictive prophecy of the far future, and interprets it well nigh literally as a prophetic account of the world’s ending amid terror and blood. The Symbolist method, with a quite different conception, centers the aim of the book in an _interpretative_‐prophetic element which it finds in every part, and regards as setting forth the principles of the divine government, and pointing to their exemplification in multiple events occurring in different periods of history that are working together toward the final consummation. According to this method of interpretation the viewpoint is idealistic, universal, and timeless, and the scope of the visions correspondingly wide.

The latter view, which is the one presented in the following outline, affords a fairly satisfactory interpretation that has been steadily gaining ground during the last half‐century, and to the present author seems destined in some form to attain general though perhaps not universal acceptance. The views of the leaders in the symbolical school present no material divergence in general interpretation,(54) and the principles of this interpretation seem likely to prevail throughout the Christian church of the future, though the form and application may be somewhat modified. The objection that “this system of interpretation is out of keeping with the general purpose of Apocalyptic literature”,(55) loses its force if we grant that the book is inspired, and realize that the literary form was chosen because of its adaptability for the treatment of the topics dealt with in the Apocalypse; for once, the Apocalyptic form becomes the vehicle of a divine revelation, it thereby escapes some of the main limitations of its class, one of which was “the consciousness of no new message from God for the generation to which it was addressed”; and accordingly it should here be regarded as only the literary setting in which the message continually overtops the form, the art‐form in which the art is lost sight of through the beauty and power of the truth which it presents. This view, although not without difficulties, is yet believed by a good proportion of eminent scholars to be based upon sound and temperate exegesis, to be best suited to the character of the book, and to give relative value to all the elements of truth contained in other views. The importance of the historical situation of John’s time and of the lessons for that age is fully recognized, the eschatological element throughout is given due consideration, and the application of the prophecy to the entire trend and events of history is made apparent, while the precise time‐relation of the visions is for the most part eliminated, and thus the field of prophetic prospective is maintained in its true breadth, and not narrowed as in the historical interpretation to a particular age or series of events. And the interpretation as a whole rests for its validity upon the scope and tenor of the book throughout, and can therefore be maintained without determining the full or specific meaning of every part. The Revelation thus understood ceases to be either a political diatribe of the first century, or the terrored story of the End; it rises above an epitome of history whether near or far, and takes rank as a true prophetic book in Apocalyptic form, dealing with the all‐embracing plan of God for the ages, and the munificent purpose of redemption; and it is thereby rescued from many conjectural and contradictory interpretations which have obscured its meaning, and becomes a living prophecy of value to the church in every age.

The tendency toward wiser methods in the interpretation of the Apocalypse, and the growing spirit of unanimity concerning its larger lessons, provide good ground for encouragement to the troubled reader. And while, no doubt, the influence of the individual type of mind will continue to be felt in the interpretation, the rationalistic emphasizing the preterist application, the mystic the futurist, and the practical mind the symbolic and universal reference, yet it should always be kept in view that the chief importance of the book for the church at large transcends any question of theoretical interpretation, and lies in its practical worth in providing a rich source of religious inspiration, an invigorating aid to imperfect faith, and an abiding stimulus to the Christian imagination, in enabling the ordinary mind to realize the spiritual in the midst of and transcending the natural, and in making the deep conflict of life with its divine superintendence an ever present fact to the human soul. Indeed the book was evidently written for common use in the early church in public worship (ch. 1:3), which indicates an appreciation of its value in striking contrast with the modern indifference that passes it by as unintelligible. The Apocalypse has also a historical value, quite apart from its general meaning and use, that we should not overlook, for it throws important light upon the political and social conditions as well as the inner thought and development of the Christian church in the latter part of the first century. It reflects throughout the faith and temper in which the early church faced its growing conflict with the world. And it serves to show that at the close of the apostolic age there was a Christianity which was free from the law and universal, and yet continued to adhere to Jewish modes of expression.(56)

13. The Outline Analysis.

I THE PROLOGUE (OR INTRODUCTION): Ch. 1:1‐3:22 1 The Superscription: Ch. 1:1‐3 2 The Salutation: Ch. 1:4‐8 3 The Introductory Vision: Ch. 1:9‐20 4 The Seven Epistles: Ch. 2:1‐3:22

II THE MAIN APOCALYPSE (OR REVELATION PROPER): Ch. 4:1‐22:5 1 The Vision of God on the Throne: Ch. 4:1‐5:14 2 The Vision of the Seven Seals: Ch. 6:1‐17, and 8:1 2b The Episode of the Sealed Ones: Ch. 7:1‐17 3 The Vision of the Seven Trumpets: Ch. 8:2‐9:21, and 11:14‐19 3b The Episode of the Angel with the Book, and of the Two Witnesses: Ch. 10:1‐11:13 4 The Vision of Conflict: Ch. 12:1‐14:20 5 The Vision of the Seven Vials: Ch. 15:1‐16:12, and 16:17‐21 5b The Episode of the Frog‐like Spirits: Ch. 16:13‐16 6 The Vision of Victory: Ch. 17:1‐20:15 7 The Vision of the New Jerusalem: Ch. 21:1‐22:5

III THE EPILOGUE (OR CONCLUSION): Ch. 22:6‐21 1 The Final Words of the Angel, with the Promise of Christ: Ch. 22:6‐16 2 The Closing Testimony of John: Ch. 22:17‐20 3 The Author’s Benediction: Ch. 22:21

14. The Literary Structure.

The elaborate and artistic Literary Structure of the Apocalypse, the numerical symmetry of its parts, the parallelism of its visions, and the recurrent climaxes in its development, together unite to give it a unique place among the writings of Scripture; and a clear perception of these relations becomes a distinct aid to the better understanding of its message, for these belong to it as the outer robes which enfold its inner thought. The predominance of the number seven in the arrangement of its subject‐matter throughout, especially the recurrence of formal series of sevens in the Epistles, Seals, Trumpets, and Vials, has commonly led to the conclusion that the book is somehow capable of division into seven parts fundamental to its structure. And although the failure of commentators to agree generally upon any lines of division yet proposed scarcely seems to support this opinion, yet the possible correctness and the general helpfulness of such a division is fully recognized. Any such division which we may make, however, is chiefly one of analysis, for the visions are continuous and develop without any distinctive break of prophetic view. The outline analysis given above divides the Visions, or main portion of the book, into seven parts, the Episodes being made parenthetical and subordinate, as their contents and connection serve to indicate; while the four subdivisions of the Introduction and three of the Conclusion taken together, form another seven. This general division, which is not an uncommon one, agrees in the main, though not in statement or in full detail, with that in the _Pulpit Commentary_,(57) and is one of the most natural as well as the most helpful in bringing out the chief thought of the book. The carefully wrought out and remarkably suggestive division and subdivision into complete series of sevens, given in the _Modern Reader’s Bible_,(58) after the same manner as the Prophecy of Ezekiel, and the Rhapsody of Joel, is worthy of attentive consideration, though it may well be doubted whether such an extensive subdivision found place in the Apocalyptist’s thought.(59) With discriminative literary insight the author of that work says, concerning the general outline of the book, “The seven visions of St. John’s Revelation seem in the line of their succession to trace the figure of an arch, the keystone of the arch being the master‐thought of the prophecy;... On either side of it [in the arrangement of the visions] III is closely parallel with V, and II with VI ... while I and VII are separate from the rest.... As always, literary form is here pointing to the deepest spiritual meaning”. The theme of the central vision according to this view, is “Salvation: the Kingdom of this World becoming the Kingdom of Christ”, which puts the purpose of the Christian warfare to the front, and has much to commend it; for the warfare is in order that the redemptive purpose of God may become effective and triumphant. There are reasons, however, in the scheme of the book which seem to place the main emphasis upon the warfare itself as leading to salvation, and that view has been accepted in this work. Following the fertile suggestion given above, though with a somewhat different conception of the theme of the several visions, we arrive at the following outline of the thought and plan of the chief part of the book,(60) viz:—

IV
III V
II VI
I VII

[Transcriber’s Note: In the book, the above table had the following text for each of the seven sections; they are laid out here to make it look correct with modern readers.]

IV—A Vision of Warfare—the Church‐Historic World‐Conflict of the Evil against the Just. (Ch. 12:1‐14:20)

III—A Vision of Threatening—the World’s Punishment Threatened. (Ch. 8:2‐9:21, and 11:14‐19)

V—A Vision of Judgment—the World’s Judgment Executed. (Ch. 15:1‐16:12, and 16:17‐21)

II—A Vision of Trial—the Church’s Trial Foreshown. (Ch. 6:1‐17, and 8:1)

VI—A Vision of Vindication—the Church’s Vindication Manifested. (Ch. 17:1‐20:15)

I—A Vision of Sovereignty—the Throne during Conflict. (Ch. 4:1‐5:14)

VII—A Vision of Triumph—the Throne after Victory. (Ch. 21:1‐22:5)

If we follow the natural order of the visions from I to VII, we find it to be one of _progression_, viz. from Sovereignty to Trial, then to Threatening, and on through Warfare, Judgment, and Vindication to Triumph, each being a separate step in advance: if we compare I with VII, II with VI, and III with V, we find the order to be marked by _parallelism_, viz. Sovereignty corresponding to Triumph, Trial to Vindication, and Threatening to Judgment, vision IV, that of Warfare, holding the balance between them: while if we regard the central vision in relation to the rest, we find the arrangement to be one of _climax_, vision IV forming the connecting link between I and VII, II and VI, and III and V, the visions preceding and following it forming an ascending and descending scale to and from the center, viz. that of Sovereignty leading through Warfare to Triumph, that of Trial through Warfare to Vindication, and that of Threatening through Warfare to Judgment. The movement of thought is thereby indicated to be from the throne challenged to the throne triumphant, from the church tried to the church vindicated, from the world threatened to the world judged, through a world‐conflict which forms the acme of the dramatic purpose, and discloses the entire sweep of redemptive history as buttressed upon the eternal throne. The seven visions, according to this view, are not bound together by any temporal succession, but each displays a world‐process complete in itself, and they are so arranged that the climax is reached at the center instead of the end, after the analogy of Hebrew poetry, the central vision furnishing the key to the interpretation of the whole.(61) The value of such an analytic interpretation, when sustained by the contents of the book, lies not alone in the help which it affords in penetrating the deeper purpose of the writer, and of the revelation made through him, but in the illuminative effect which, in a case like this, it throws upon the disputed question of unity; for if any such clearly marked and continuous current of thought can be shown to thread its way throughout the entire book, despite all by‐ currents and eddies, then the various theories of diverse or composite authorship cease to be credible except to pure theorists.

15. The Literature.

The Literature relating to this difficult book is very extensive, more works, strange to say, having been written on the Apocalypse which has been so imperfectly understood than upon any other part of Scripture, though many of them are now rightly regarded as of little value. A careful study of one or more of the leading authorities representing each of the current methods of interpretation will give a fair view of the whole field, and will serve to show that in many points there is essential agreement among all schools of thought, though for advanced work one’s reading must necessarily cover a wider range, for the student should then know all the best that has been said upon the problems of the book. The most important qualification, however, for this difficult study is to approach the whole subject with an open mind and a fresh spirit of inquiry, resolved to be quite untrammelled by traditional interpretations, to investigate with scrupulous care the various points of view, and to apply with fearless courage all the _well‐established_ results of investigation, especially those of the later fruitful studies in Apocalyptic literature, which enable us to approach more nearly the viewpoint of the earliest readers of the book, but which yet remain to be duly correlated with our previous knowledge, being confidently assured that there is “light yet to break” for the earnest soul upon the deep things of the Apocalypse.

It is not likely that any one commentary will prove entirely satisfactory to the thoughtful reader, owing to the wide variation of opinion upon many minor points among those holding the same general view. Milligan is very suggestive though not always convincing, for he is oftentimes too indefinite in interpretation to be satisfying to the reader, telling us that “no detail of historic events need be looked for”. His discussion of principles, however, is always illuminative, even when his application is not quite so clear; and not infrequently his work is of more value in showing the inconclusiveness of other views than in establishing his own. We are indebted to him, through the general circulation of his works, perhaps more than to any other writer, for the present prevalence of the symbolic view in the English speaking world, and his _Lectures_, and one or other of his _Commentaries_, should be read by every student. Plummer, in the _Pulpit __ Commentary_, will be found more satisfactory by the general reader, especially if he inclines to the symbolic interpretation, and there is, in fact, no better commentary for common use, though we may not agree with all his conclusions. To his wise and discriminative judgment the present author wishes to express a deep indebtedness. The short introduction to that volume, with its scholarly notes on manuscripts, versions, &c, will also be found very helpful to the busy student. Farrar, supporting the preterist view, gives the historical conditions of the Neronic period in a striking way, many of which are equally applicable to the whole latter part of the first century. Lee is especially valuable for the condensed _résumé_ of opinions concerning many obscure passages throughout the book, though the great diversity of views at times presented is apt to be confusing. Faussett is excellent from his point of view, ranking among the best premillennial interpreters. Seiss is also a popular authority with those who share the premillennial expectation, but his exegesis is often faulty, and his interpretation fanciful. Moulton’s _Modern Reader’s Bible_ vol. John, is indispensable for its literary analysis and aid in gaining the general perspective, and should be in the library of every student. The Introduction to Revelation in the _New Century Bible_, by C. A. Scott, gives an admirable and concise statement of the present status of opinion concerning the problems of the book, and the notes of the same volume are especially valuable for their references to Jewish Apocalyptic. This is the best small book for the use of the student who wishes to get an outline of the modern view concerning the incorporation of Jewish apocalypses. For those who are acquainted with the Greek text, Alford, Stuart, and Düsterdieck will be found quite helpful, even though they belong to a former generation, for each has a special excellency; but the late work of Swete, the _Apocalypse of St. John_ (1906), which is both thorough and scholarly, is indispensable for the critical use of the student in that it meets more fully the questions of modern inquiry and present discussion, and maintains a moderate view of the opinions now to the fore concerning the origin of the book. On the other hand Briggs’ _Messiah of the Gospels_, and Moffatt’s _Historical New Testament_ give a good account of late theories of composite authorship and deserve attention. Also the able work of Moffatt on Revelation in the final volume of the _Expositor’s Greek Testament_ has been issued (1910), and deserves careful notice. The author adopts the modern critical view, that portions of the book have been incorporated from current apocalypses, and devotes considerable attention to source‐criticism as an aid to interpretation, but too much time is given to pointing out what he regards as parallel thought in Greek, Roman, and Jewish writings, and this often has little interpretative value. The work is adapted to the ripe scholar rather than the earlier student, and though rejecting extreme views, it will not be found altogether satisfying to those of more conservative mind who believe that the Apocalypse is entitled to a primary rather than a secondary place among the books of Scripture. Another work awaited with much interest is the volume on Revelation in the _International Critical Commentary_ which is in course of preparation by Charles, the eminent authority upon Apocalyptic.(62) This volume when issued will no doubt add much of value to the modern point of view, and serve to throw additional light upon the relations of Apocalyptic literature to this its greatest masterpiece. His _Studies in the Apocalypse_ (1913) serves to indicate the general line of interpretation to be expected, and it must be said that this is somewhat disappointing to the conservative reader, for it is highly critical. One naturally hesitates to disagree so widely with such an eminent scholar and distinguished apocalyptist as has been found necessary to do in the following pages; but it should be remembered that all Scripture is written for the world of men, and that the opinion of no one scholar or number of scholars can authoritatively determine the meaning of any part of it, but that rather the interpretation must be arrived at by a general consensus of opinion among men of learning and piety throughout the world. That this opinion, though now veering toward the critical view, will not be eventually sustained by more thorough research is the confirmed judgment of many scholars. But with it all there are many points of interpretation formerly in dispute that may now be regarded as already settled, their essential meaning in any case being substantially the same, and thus the book so long aglow with mysteries has virtually become every man’s book in the light of intelligent interpretation.

Finally, with special emphasis it should be said, that it is of prime importance for those who would understand the Apocalypse in its proper relations to Biblical thought, that a careful study should be made of the prophecies of Daniel, Ezekiel, Zechariah, Isaiah, Amos, Joel, and Habakkuk, together with the Book of Psalms, in connection with the Revelation, in order to catch the inner thought of the book; also of some portion of the Apocalyptic literature, particularly the _Book of Enoch_,(63) the _Apocalypse of Baruch_, and the _Fourth Book of Ezra_, for these will furnish the atmosphere of Jewish thought in which the Apocalypse was conceived, and will provide substantial aid in understanding the peculiarities of its literary form and the general spirit of the work, as well as in freeing the mind from the trammels of traditional interpretation. But, above all, we should not forget that the book of Revelation is a properly recognized part of canonical Scripture in practically the universal judgment of the entire Christian world, and that notwithstanding its many and persistent difficulties of interpretation, it is yet entitled to our earnest study and attentive thought as containing a living and abiding message from Almighty God, through his Son Jesus Christ our Lord to John the last of the apostles, and through him to the sin‐ burdened souls of men the world over.

A few authorities are named below, which will be found sufficient to give most that is of value in interpretation for the general reader; others are referred to in the foot‐notes. For a fuller list, especially of the older books, consult the Schaff‐Herzog _Encyclopaedia_, or Smith’s _Dictionary of the Bible_, art. “Revelation”; while for the later literature see Hastings’ _Dictionary of the Bible_, and the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_.

FOR THE ENGLISH READER.

Preterist View:—

Farrar, _Early Days of Christianity_;

Maurice, _Lectures on the Apocalypse_.

Futurist View:—

Faussett, in _Jamieson, Faussett, and Brown’s Commentary_.

Seiss, _Lectures on the Apocalypse_.

Progressivist View:—

Wordsworth, _Lectures on the Apocalypse_;

Barnes, _Notes on the Book of Revelation_.

Symbolist View:—

Milligan, in _Expositor’s Bible_, and in _Popular (International)
Commentary_;

Plummer, in _Pulpit Commentary_;

Lee, in _Bible (Speakers’) Commentary_.

FOR CRITICAL STUDY.

Preterist View:—

Düsterdieck, in _Meyer’s Commentary_;

Stuart, in _Commentary on the Apocalypse_.

Preterist View—Modern Critical:—

Moffatt, in _Expositor’s Greek Testament_;

Swete, _Apocalypse of St. John_.

Progressivist View—Modified Historical:—

Simcox, in _Cambridge Greek Testament_.

Futurist View—Modified Historical:—

Alford, in _Greek Testament_.

FOR RECENT CRITICAL VIEWS.

Moffatt’s _Historical New Testament_;

Scott’s “Revelation”, in _New Century Bible_;

Dean’s _Book of Revelation_;

Alexander Ramsay’s “Revelation and Johannine Epistles”, in _Westminister New Test._;

Briggs’ _Messiah of the Apostles_;

Barton, art. “The Apocalypse and Recent Criticism”, in _Amer. Journ. of Theol._, Apr. 1884;

Porter, art. “Revelation”, in Hastings’ _Dictionary of the Bible_;

Bousset, art. “Apocalypse”, in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_.

Moffatt, art. “Wellhausen and Others on the Apocalypse”, in the _Expositor_, Mar. 1909;

Charles, _Studies in the Apocalypse_;

Charles, _Revelation of St. John (I. C. C.)_;

Beckwith, _Apocalypse of John_.

FOR GENERAL DISCUSSION.

Fairbairn, _On Prophecy_;

Bleek, _Lectures on the Apocalypse_;

Vaughan, _Lectures on the Revelation of St. John_;

Milligan, _Lectures on the Apocalypse_; and _Discussions on the Apocalypse_;

Scott, “Book of Revelation”, in the _Practical Commentary_;

Stevens, _Theology of the New Testament_, Part VI;

Ramsay, _Letters to the Seven Churches_;

_Introductions to the New Testament_ by Salmon, Dods, Bacon, Jülicher, and others;

_Introductions to Revelation_ in the leading _Commentaries_, and in the _Modern Reader’s Bible_, the _New Century Bible_, the _Temple Bible_, and the _Modern American Bible_; and the text of Revelation in the _New Translation of the New Testament_, by Moffatt.

The Text here given is that of the _American Standard Edition of the Revised Bible_, copyright 1901 by Thomas Nelson & Sons, which is used by permission of the publishers.

The arrangement of the text belongs to the present volume, and is offered as a contribution to the correct interpretation. This in itself is of the nature of a commentary, though no changes have been introduced into the body of the text. The paragraphs, however, have been changed, and many new paragraphs made, in order to emphasize the thought of the text.

SCRIPTURE TEXT

THE REVELATION [OF JOHN]

I The Prologue

1 The Superscription