Chapter XXIV: Appendix: I. the Teaching of English in Elementary Schools (2)

REFERENCES: Redway, J. W., _New Basis of Geography_, chap. xi. “Equipment for Geography Teaching,” _Journal of Geography_, v, pp. 242-250. Whitbeck, R. H., “Practical Work in School Geography,” _Journal of Geography_, iii, pp. 374-379. Emerson, P., “Field Work in the Class-Room,” _Journal of Geography_, i, pp. 54-57, 81-98.

XIII. The Geographic Preparation of a Teacher of Geography

It is neither possible nor desirable to have every grade school teacher a specialist in geography.

_A._ The scope of work analyzed.

_a._ Larger portion of work will be the geography of continents
in earlier or later grades.

_b._ Small portion of work will be development of principles of
physical and life geography.

_c._ The principles will be expected to be used in continental
work.

_B._ The requisite training of a teacher must then include:

_a._ Some study of larger principles so as to make these
principles usable in all grades.

_b._ Special study of one or more continents so as to give point
of view and method of studying a region causally.

_c._ Training in use of maps, especially atlas and text maps,
weather maps and United States Geological Survey Topographic Maps.

_d._ Knowledge of larger principles underlying geography teaching
in the grades and study of special difficulties in each phase
of elementary school work. Knowledge of subject matter is an
essential basis for study of methods of teaching.

_e._ These requisites suggest the necessary content and order of
procedure in geography courses in training classes.

_C._ Desirable training that teachers should be encouraged to
secure.

_a._ Knowledge of geography beyond the minimum outlined above
and sufficient to make them independent workers and possibly
investigators in some phase of geography.

_b._ Good knowledge of history of United States and Europe.

_c._ Knowledge of elements of anthropology, economics, and
biology, particularly along ecological lines.

_d._ Knowledge of modern industrial problems in the United
States, particularly along lines of agriculture, manufacturing,
commerce, and conservation of forests and water supply.

_D._ Opportunities for securing training in geography.

_a._ Larger and better normal schools and many colleges and
universities now include well planned courses in geography.

_b._ Teachers in service will find splendid opportunities for
geography work at the summer schools of colleges and normal
schools. Also in some cases in certain phases of the subject,
work may be secured in extension and correspondence courses.

_c._ Teachers seeking summer school opportunities should go to
institutions that have summer terms, and not, as a rule, merely
to summer institutions. Geography cannot be adequately taught
without equipment, and only those institutions which are in
operation the year round can have adequate equipment.

SELECTED REFERENCE LIST FOR TEACHERS

_General_:—

_Longman’s Gazetteer._ Longmans. The authoritative pronouncing and spelling gazetteer of the world. Contains excellent brief descriptions of all important places.

_Lippincott’s Gazetteer._ A recent authoritative volume containing excellent brief descriptions of all places of any importance.

_Andree’s Hand Atlas._ Velhagen and Klasing, Leipsig. Recent reference atlas containing excellent climatic maps and maps showing distribution of peoples, religions, plants, animals, etc.

_Stieler’s Hand Atlas._ Perthes, Gotha. The leading reference atlas.

Mill, _International Geography_. Appleton. The best single volume reference book on general and regional geography.

_Stanford’s Compendia_ (reissue). Stanford. The leading reference books on the several continents. Two volumes each on Asia, Australia, North America, Central and South America, Africa and Europe.

_Regional Geography._ Appleton. Accurate, readable, helpful volumes of first importance. Includes volumes on Britain and the British Seas, Central Europe, India, The Nearer East, and North America.

Herbertson, _Senior Geography_. A very useful volume summarizing geography of several continents in a causal order. Especially helpful for Europe.

Mill, _Hints to Teachers and Students on the Choice of Geographical Books for Reference and Reading_. Longmans. A very helpful reference list with brief comments on the individual references. Gives general and special references. A new edition appeared early in 1909.

_The Teaching of Geography_:—

Geikie, _The Teaching of Geography_. Macmillan. A very suggestive book on the essentials of good geography teaching.

McMurry, C. A., _Special Method in Geography_. Macmillan. Discusses the scope of geography and outlines a course emphasizing the teaching by types.

Redway, _New Basis of Geography_. Macmillan. Interesting and helpful for teachers in upper grades who need to teach continents from the practical standpoint.

_Physical Geography_:—

Mill, _Realm of Nature_. Scribners. A very valuable and simple book on physical and mathematical geography and on biogeography.

Davis, _Physical Geography_. Ginn & Co. An authoritative secondary school text, particularly helpful in reference to the land features.

Davis, _Elementary Meteorology_. Ginn & Co. The leading English book on weather and climate.

Ward, _Practical Exercises in Elementary Meteorology_. Ginn & Co. Very helpful to teachers who have to deal with weather phenomena.

Gilbert and Brigham, _Introduction to Physical Geography_. Appleton. An interesting, authoritative, and well illustrated secondary text on physical geography.

Tarr, _New Physical Geography_. The Macmillan Company. One of the newest and best high school books.

Salisbury, _Physiography_. Henry Holt & Company. Most inclusive and best illustrated volume available. An indispensable library reference volume.

Harrington, Mark W., _About the Weather_. Appleton. Very helpful for teachers in elementary grades.

Dodge, _Reader in Physical Geography for Beginners_. Longmans. Small volume on physical geography, available as an introduction to the subject.

_Biogeography_:—

Ratzel, _History of Mankind_ (3 vols.). Macmillan. A very comprehensive book on the races of mankind, the first volume being particularly valuable for its consideration of the problems of race distribution.

Wallace, _Island Life_. Macmillan. Classic book on animal distribution from geographic standpoint.

Guyot, _Earth and Man_. Scribners. One of the older books, and hence not written from a modern standpoint: but still invaluable for presenting the relation of earth features to life.

Herbertson, _Man and His Work_. A. and C. Black. A very usable and interesting small volume, showing the manner of life of people living in different vegetation regions and amid different surface conditions.

Lyddeker, Hutchinson and Gregory, _Living Races of Mankind_. Hutchinson & Co. Two splendidly illustrated volumes on the races of men, simple, and popularly written.

_Commercial Geography_:—

Adams, _Commercial Geography_. Appleton. An accurate, well ordered, and almost indispensable book on commercial geography. Maps and diagrams are very numerous and helpful for the teacher.

Chisholm, _Commercial Geography_. Longmans. The most inclusive volume in the English language. Contains excellent abstracts of general geography of each country in a good causal order.

_Periodicals_:—

_Journal of Geography._ Published by Teachers College, New York City. Only journal in the country devoted to teaching of geography.

_Geographical Teacher._ Phillips, London. Similar in scope to above journal and contains much of value to American teachers.

_National Geographic Magazine._ Washington, D. C. Leading popular journal of geography in country.

_Geographical Journal._ London. Leading strictly geographical journal in English-speaking world.

IV. THE TEACHING OF HISTORY

BY HENRY JOHNSON, A.M.

I. What History is

=1.= THE WORD “HISTORY” MAY DENOTE:

_a._ Past facts themselves.

_b._ Traces left by past facts.

_c._ The study which investigates such traces.

_d._ The knowledge thus obtained.

_e._ An account or narrative in which such knowledge is embodied.

=2.= THE SOURCES OF HISTORICAL KNOWLEDGE.

_a._ Primary sources.

1. Material remains—roads, buildings, tools, weapons, clothing,
any material object shaped by man or associated with his life on
the earth.

2. Reports of conditions and events made by actual observers.
Such reports may be oral, written or printed, pictorial.

_b._ Secondary sources—reports or accounts based upon primary
sources.

_c._ Accounts based upon other accounts in varying degrees of
removal even from secondary sources.

_d._ Existing sources relate to fragments only of man’s total
experience in the world.

=3.= HISTORICAL CRITICISM—THE FOUNDATION FOR THE DETERMINATION OF PARTICULAR FACTS RELATING TO THE PAST.

_a._ External criticism—investigation of the origin and
transmission of sources; a study of form, language, writing. Is the
material remaining authentic? Who was the author of the document?
What did he say?

_b._ Internal criticism—investigation of the content of sources.
What did the author mean? Are his statements true?

_c._ The need of historical criticism finds daily illustration in
the schoolroom, in ordinary conversation, in the newspapers.

_d._ Historical criticism first formally applied by the Greeks. Not
fully developed until modern times.

=4.= HISTORICAL SYNTHESIS—PUTTING THE FACTS TOGETHER INTO A BODY OF ORGANIZED KNOWLEDGE.

_a._ The chronological order—facts arranged according to time of
occurrence.

_b._ The geographical order—facts arranged according to place of
occurrence.

_c._ The logical order—facts arranged according to their intrinsic
nature.

_d._ One order used exclusively.

=5.= HISTORY AS AN ACCOUNT OR NARRATIVE.

_a._ The subject embraced.

1. A single person.

2. A single people—whole known period or a part of it.

3. The whole world—universal history.

_b._ General conceptions of history writing.

1. A narrative of memorable events. Aim, mainly to please.
Content determined by taste of authors and their public. Epic
poets and story-tellers early contributors. Classical type fixed
by Herodotus, the “father of history.”

2. A collection of precedents supposed to be useful to statesmen,
generals, and others. Aim, didactic. Content determined by the
kind of examples or lessons needed. But these, according to
early conceptions, to be valuable must be true to the facts.
Facts largely political and military. A conception introduced by
Thucydides and developed by Polybius.

3. Scientific history. Aim, to exhibit the past as it was and
to explain how it came to be what it was. Content determined
by what is regarded as significant in illustrating the idea of
development in human affairs.

_c._ These general conceptions correspond roughly to stages of
human culture.

_d._ History generally regarded merely as a branch of literature up
to 1850.

_e._ Side by side with scientific histories, works of the older
types are still being produced.

REFERENCES: Langlois and Seignobos, _Introduction to the Study of History_, pp. 63-70, 211-231, 296-321. Bernheim, _Einleitung in die Geschichtswissenschaft_, pp. 5-13, 33-43, 72-78. Fling, _Outline of Historical Method_, pp. 5-124. Robinson, _History_, Columbia University Press, 1908. Rhodes, in _Atlantic Monthly_, Vol. LXXXV, pp. 158-169. Winsor, in _Atlantic Monthly_, Vol. LXVI, pp. 289-297.

II. The Problem of Adapting History to Children

=1.= SPECIAL GUIDANCE SOUGHT IN THE “NATURAL” TASTES AND INTERESTS OF CHILDREN.

_a._ These determined by experiment.

_b._ Sometimes regarded as a final criterion.

_c._ Reinforced by the culture epoch theory.

_d._ Conclusion: “The childhood of history for the child, the
boyhood of history for the boy, the youthhood of history for the
youth, the manhood of history for the man.”

_e._ The conclusion interpreted.

1. Facts to be selected and arranged according to their cultural
stages and not according to time or place of occurrence.

2. Manner of treatment to accord in general with the conception
of history first developed by the race.

3. Scientific history thus excluded.

_f._ General comment: Important to distinguish between the natural
tastes and interests of children and the cultivated intelligence of
children.

=2.= APPROACH FROM THE SIDE OF HISTORY.

_a._ Kinds of historical facts.

1. Facts relating to physical appearance of men and their
material environment.

_a._ Possibility of direct appeal to the senses.

_b._ The simplest illustration of change in the world.

_c._ Material aspects of the past sufficiently unlike those
of the present to be interesting.

2. Facts relating to what men did.

_a._ Direct sense appeal not applicable.

_b._ Only actions now in progress can be observed.

_c._ With these as a basis actions in progress in the past
more or less readily imaged.

_d._ That action appeals to children an axiom of history
teaching.

3. Facts relating to thoughts and feelings of men, the motives
that moved them to do or to say.

_a._ Known only through deeds and words.

_b._ Real understanding of the past measured by pupil’s
ability to enter this inner life of history.

_c._ Important to recognize difficulties and limitations.

_d._ The mental states of a Clovis, a Charlemagne, a
Napoleon, or even of a cave-man, an Indian, a pioneer,
largely beyond the experience of children and of most adults.

4. In each of these groups the simplest facts relate to
particular objects, particular acts, thoughts, feelings.

5. Collective facts, facts relating to social groups, to
institutions, to general causes that act in history, much more
difficult.

_a._ How represent a wave of prosperity? a panic? a
revolution? society itself?

_b._ Such expressions made intelligible by resolving them, so
far as possible, into their concrete elements.

_b._ The kinds of facts enumerated common to literary, didactic,
and scientific history.

_c._ Degree of difficulty presented by a given type of facts not
essentially different for different kinds of history.

_d._ A principle of grading thus suggested as applicable to one
kind of history as to another.

1. Any facts readily visualized possible material for school
history.

2. Clear visualization a factor in stimulating interest.

3. Clear visualization of the man, the act, the situation, a
necessary key to his mental states.

4. Elementary history, therefore, to be largely descriptive
and narrative, to be made up of concrete examples rather than
generalized knowledge.

_e._ Time and place relations essential to the conception of any
fact as historical. As difficult for one kind of history as for
another.

_f._ Special conditions imposed by scientific history.

1. Facts in palpable conflict with present knowledge not to be
regarded as historical.

2. Facts to be characteristic of persons, peoples, places,
periods; not exceptional, abnormal, bizarre.

3. Facts to be so presented as to exhibit relations, cause and
effect, continuity.

4. Facts to be so presented as to arouse some consciousness of
how we know what we know about the past and why we do not know
more.

5. These conditions quite possible to meet within the limits
suggested by the principle of grading already set forth.

REFERENCES: _Teachers College Record_, November, 1908, pp. 1-25. Bernheim, in _Neue Bahnen_, Vol. X, pp. 265-300, 337-357. Seignobos, _L’Histoire dans l’Enseignement secondaire_, pp. 3-25. Muzzy, in _Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland_, 1906, pp. 13-28, especially 17-19. Channing, in _North Central History Teachers’ Association_, 1907, pp. 14-18. Laurie, in _School Review_, Vol. IV, pp. 655-660. Salmon, in _Year Book Society for Scientific Study of Education_, 1902, pp. 47-54; McMurry, in same, 1903, pp. 47-51. _American Historical Association_, 1905, pp. 135-145. Hinsdale, _How to Study and Teach History_, pp. 42-52, 67-74. Rice, in _Educational Review_, Vol. XII, pp. 169-179; Burnham, in same, Vol. XXVII, pp. 521-528. Peabody, in _National Education Association_, 1893, pp. 284-285. Barnes, _Studies in Historical Method_, pp. 57-105. Mace, _Method in History_, pp. 255-308. Suzzallo, in _Teachers College Record_, May, 1904, pp. 11-19; Marker, in same, pp. 20-33.

III. The Question of Aims and Values

=1.= THE FAITH OF EDUCATORS IN THE UTILITY OF HISTORY ATTESTED BY PROGRAMS IN THE SUBJECT FOR EVERY GRADE OF INSTRUCTION FROM THE KINDERGARTEN TO THE UNIVERSITY.

=2.= CURRENT DISCUSSIONS CONFUSING.

_a._ Aims sometimes defined without reference to the nature of
history. History then repudiated wherever it happens to interfere
with “the uses of history.”

_b._ Aims sometimes inconsistent with each other.

_c._ Little to indicate that one of the aims of historical
instruction is to teach history.

=3.= AIMS COMMONLY PROPOSED.

_a._ Discipline—training of the memory, the imagination, the
judgment.

_b._ Culture—“enriching the humanity of the pupil.”

_c._ Inspiration—furnishing ideals of conduct, patriotism, social
service.

_d._ Practical knowledge—teaching pupils how to act in the present.

_e._ The illumination of other studies, especially literature and
geography.

_f._ The cultivation of a taste for historical reading.

_g._ The explanation of the present—nothing in the world to-day
really intelligible apart from its history.

=4.= SPECIAL MODERN EMPHASIS UPON THE SOCIAL VALUE OF HISTORY.

_a._ An application of a general point of view in education.

_b._ Special demands upon history.

1. Must show in the form of concrete examples what society is and
how it works.

2. Must “give a vivid and intense realization of social duties
and obligations.”

=5.= PERTINENT QUESTIONS.

_a._ Are the aims proposed in fact promoted by a given kind of
instruction?

_b._ Are they promoted as effectively as they might be by some
other kind of instruction?

_c._ Are they the most useful of the possible ends that history
might serve?

=6.= OBSERVATIONS AND EXPERIMENT NEEDED TO FURNISH DATA FOR ANSWERS.

REFERENCES: McMurry, _Special Method in History_, pp. 1-17. Kemp, _Outline of Method in History_, pp. 104-113. Barnes, _Studies in Historical Method_, pp. 106-121. Lloyd, in Spencer, _Aims and Practice of Teaching_, pp. 141-148. Rice, _History and Literature_, pp. 3-26, 149-166. Woodward, in _Essays on Teaching of History_ by Maitland and others, pp. 69-78. Hinsdale, _How to Study and Teach History_, pp. 2-17. Bourne, _Teaching of History and Civics_, pp. 77-92. _Year Book, Herbart Society_, 1898, pp. 25-56. Snedden, in _Journal of Pedagogy_, Vol. XIX, pp. 259-268. _Proceedings, National Education Association_, 1892, pp. 348-352; 1894, pp. 397-412; 1895, pp. 139-142, 306-308; 1896, pp. 410-413. Report, _Committee of Seven_, pp. 158-162. Kirk, in _Education_, Vol. XVI, pp. 15-18; Crawford, in same, Vol. XXII, pp. 281-286; McMahon; in same, Vol. XXIII, pp. 109-114. Langlois and Seignobos, _Introduction to the Study of History_, p. 331. Lea, in _American Historical Review_, Vol. IX, pp. 233-246. Harrison, _Meaning of History_, pp. 1-23. _Teachers College Record_, November, 1909, pp. 55-56.

IV. The History Program for the Elementary School

=1.= THE PREPARATORY PERIOD—THE FIRST THREE OR FOUR YEARS.

_a._ Myths, fairy tales, fables, Oriental, Greek, Roman, later
European. Some use of American folk lore.

_b._ Simple biographies from American or world history. May or may
not be arranged chronologically.

_c._ Stories connected with anniversaries, birthdays, Thanksgiving,
Christmas.

_d._ Stories from the Bible.

_e._ Stories of primitive life.

_f._ Stories of inventions.

_g._ Stories from local history.

_h._ Various studies of a geographical or sociological character.

_i._ Several or all of these types of material may be represented
in a single program.

_j._ Some schools carry this kind of work into higher grades.

=2.= THE INTERMEDIATE STAGE—FIFTH AND SIXTH YEARS.

_a._ Beginnings of textbook instruction.

_b._ More attention to chronological order and geological setting.

_c._ Subject: ancient history, the Middle Ages, English history,
American history. Chief emphasis on American history.

_d._ Material usually biographical.

_e._ Some schools begin this stage of work in the fourth year.

=3.= THE LAST TWO YEARS.

_a._ Subject usually the United States.

_b._ The subject often divided.

1. Colonial period for the seventh year.

2. Later period for the eighth year.

_c._ Some schools have English history in the seventh year.

_d._ Civics frequently combined with history, especially in the
eighth year.

_e._ Occasionally some Greek and Roman or general European history
in one or both of these years.

=4.= THE PROGRAM PROPOSED BY THE COMMITTEE OF EIGHT.

First grade: Indian life. Explanation of holidays.

Second grade: Indian life. Holidays. Local history.

Third grade: Heroes of other times. Holidays.

Fourth grade: Historical scenes and persons in American history,
colonial period.

Fifth grade: Historical scenes and persons in American history
continued. Great industries of the present.

Sixth grade: European background of American history.

Seventh grade: American history to the Revolution. European
background continued.

Eighth grade: The United States since the Revolution. Great events
in European history.

REFERENCES: Bourne, _Teaching of History and Civics_, pp. 72-74, 106-114, 353-365. Reports of Committees: _Committee of Ten_, pp. 163, 177-181; _of Fifteen_, pp. 62-67; _of Twelve_, pp. 171, 174-175; _of Seven_, pp. 162-172; _of Eight_, pp. 1-91; Salmon, in _Year Book, Society for Scientific Study of Education_, 1902, pp. 31-60. McMurry, _Special Method in History_, pp. 18-33, 238-268. Kemp, _Outline of Method in History_, pp. 133-263. _Elementary School Record_, Vol. I, No. 8, pp. 199-216. Rice, _History and Literature_, pp. 27-74. Magnusson, in _New York Teachers Monographs_, March, 1903, pp. 90-97. Greene, _History in the Kindergarten. Warfield, in Education, Vol. XIV, pp. 1-5. Gordy and Twitchell, Pathfinder in American History_,