Chapter XXV: Part I: , pp. 43-50; Part II, pp. 5-20. Proceedings, National

Education Association_, 1892, pp. 310-316; 1905, pp. 304-308, 360-370; 1897, pp. 58-67. Payne, _Elementary School Curricula_, pp. 22, 24-39, 50.

V. General Methods of Instruction

=1.= THE PREPARATORY PERIOD—THE FIRST THREE OR FOUR YEARS.

_a._ Presentation of material usually oral.

1. Reading the story.

2. Telling the story.

3. Developing the story by questions.

4. Pointing the moral.

_b._ The children’s part in the lesson.

1. Telling the story.

2. Writing the story.

3. Solving problems suggested by the story.

_c._ Stories of the preparatory period may be so managed as to form
a real basis for later history—training in putting things together,
in seeing simple relations, in developing a sense of continuity.

=2.= THE INTERMEDIATE STAGE—THE FIFTH AND SIXTH YEARS.

_a._ Some oral presentation along the lines indicated for the
preparatory period.

_b._ The general tendency toward textbook work.

1. Regular lessons assigned and recited.

2. The lesson read with the class during the history period.

_c._ Character of the textbooks.

1. Rarely the work of historical experts.

2. Aim to tell a story rather than history.

3. Accuracy a minor consideration.

4. Show little sense of historical proportion.

5. Their merit is that children can understand them.

6. Some recent books conceived in a more serious spirit and much
better as history.

_d._ The use of maps, pictures, and other special aids to
visualization increasing. Still much to be desired.

=3.= THE LAST TWO YEARS.

_a._ Textbook work becomes more formal.

_b._ Types of textbook recitations.

1. “Hearing” the lesson.

_a._ Teacher announces the heading of paragraph or opening
words of sentence.

_b._ Pupil carries the story forward until relieved by “next.”

_c._ A test of memory.

2. The question and answer method.

_a._ Teachers’ questions suggest analysis of text.

_b._ Short answers by pupil.

_c._ Memory test prominent.

3. A good general plan.

_a._ Teacher announces topic.

_b._ Pupil tells what he knows about it.

_c._ Corrections, additions, and questions by other members
of class.

_d._ Corrections and additions by teacher.

_e._ Questions by teacher designed to apply what has been
learned.

1. Comparison with other topics previously studied.

2. Comparison with conditions in the present.

_c._ The use of two or more textbooks.

1. The pupil prepares his lesson from two or more different books.

2. Different pupils have different books.

3. Aim to bring out difference in point of view or in statement
of facts with a view to making pupils think.

_d._ Outside reading.

1. Other textbooks.

2. Poems and novels.

3. Some references to standard histories and to simpler primary
sources.

_e._ Notebooks.

1. Making and keeping outlines.

2. Reports of outside reading.

3. Reports of class discussions.

_f._ The use of maps, pictures, and other special aids increasing.

_g._ Character of the textbooks.

1. A number of recent books written by competent students of
history.

2. Reasonably good as history.

3. Inferior to more elementary books as apparatus for teaching.

4. Responsibility for the “whole story” tends to reduce textbooks
to outlines and tempts to generalizations which are largely
meaningless to children.

5. The class recitation thus in danger of becoming an exercise in
mere words.

REFERENCES: Bryant, _How to Tell Stories to Children_, pp. 13-21, 83-109. McMurry, _Special Method in History_, pp. 50-85. Hinsdale, _How to Study and Teach History_, pp. 53-66. Bourne, _Teaching of History and Civics_, pp. 148-168. Gordy and Twitchell, _Pathfinder in American History_. Foltz, _zur Methode des Geschichtsunterrichts_, pp. 174-216. _Teachers College Record_, November, 1908, pp. 26-32.

VI. The Biographical Approach to History

=1.= WHAT THE BIOGRAPHICAL METHOD IS.

_a._ The study of individual men and women as individuals.

_b._ The study of individual men and women as representatives of
movements, periods, social groups.

_c._ The persons selected for study usually great or famous.

=2.= REASONS FOR PREVALENCE OF THE METHOD.

_a._ Offers units that are simple, concrete, interesting.

_b._ Satisfies ethical demands made upon historical instruction.

_c._ German experience a potent example.

_d._ Supported by “great man theory” of history.

1. “The history of what man has accomplished in this world
is at bottom the history of the great men who have worked
here.”—CARLYLE.

2. “Great men sum up and represent humanity.”—RENAN.

=3.= THE KINDS OF PERSONS THAT INTEREST CHILDREN.

_a._ Men of primitive instincts—cave-men, Indians.

_b._ Men who “did things”—especially brigands, pirates,
adventurers, generals, kings.

_c._ These types fully exploited in books for children. Possibly
cause as well as effect of children’s tastes.

_d._ Relatively few tests of children’s attitude toward scholars,
writers, artists.

=4.= GENERAL CRITICISM.

_a._ Personal element essential to school history.

_b._ Events can to some extent be grouped about individuals.

_c._ But “great man theory” not well applied.

1. Persons selected for study often not representative. May be
exceptional. Often at best merely picturesque.

2. Historical characters often distorted for moral ends.

3. Doubtful anecdotes used to excess.

_d._ The “great man theory” not generally accepted by historians.

_e._ Individuals often more easily grouped about events than events
about individuals.

_f._ The general tendency of the biographical method is to leave a
series of disconnected impressions.

REFERENCES: Kemp, _Outline of Method in History_, pp. 264-295. Hinsdale, _How to Study and Teach History_, pp. 30-31, 44-45. Bourne, _Teaching of History and Civics_, pp. 18-20, 86, 356. Mace, _Method in History_, pp. 289-294. Lawless, in _Nineteenth Century_, Vol. L, pp. 790-798. Bernheim, in _Neue Bahnen_, Vol. X, pp. 338-342.

VII. The Social and Economic Point of View

=1.= GREAT MEN NOT EXCLUDED, BUT THE “MASSES” INCLUDED.

=2.= EMPHASIS UPON SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS,—

Occupations, industries, inventions, commerce, manners and customs,
education, amusements, food, dress, upon whatever serves to
illustrate the common life.

=3.= THE POINT OF DEPARTURE.

_a._ The daily life and material environment of the community in
which the school is situated.

_b._ The development of some special invention, trade, art,
industry, related to the immediate neighborhood.

_c._ The constructive activities of children—sewing, weaving,
cooking, making furniture.

_d._ Local history.

=4.= APPLICATION TO HISTORY IN GENERAL.

_a._ Limited by the nature of the material available.

_b._ Difficult to arrange a connected narrative.

_c._ German experience—Biedermann’s _Kulturbilder_. The conditions
of German life at selected stages described, compared, and
contrasted.

=5.= A GROWING RECOGNITION OF THE GENERAL POINT OF VIEW.

_a._ Influence of democratic ideals.

_b._ Industrial education an important factor in securing change of
emphasis.

_c._ An enlarged view of history.

1. Carlyle’s protest against the older historians.

2. Macaulay’s theory of history.

3. The work of John Richard Green.

4. McMaster’s _People of the United States_.

_d._ The economic interpretation of history.

_e._ Material supplied by _Documentary History of American
Industrial Society_, 10 volumes, to be published, 1909-1910.

REFERENCES: Dopp, _Place of Industries in Education_, pp. 97-260. Rice, in _Year Book, Society for Scientific Study of Education_, 1903, pp. 9-14. Wood, _Report on Teaching History_, pp. 11-17. Lamprecht, _What is History?_ pp. 3-35. Dodd, in _Popular Science Monthly_, Vol. LXIII, pp. 418-424. Seligman, _Economic Interpretation of History_. Biedermann, _Geschichtsunterricht ... nach Kulturgeschichtlicher Methode_, pp. 5-45. Bernheim, in _Neue Bahnen_, Vol. X, pp. 285-300.

VIII. Making the Past Real

=1.= WHERE THE TEXTBOOKS FAIL.

_a._ Reading matter usually insufficient for clear images of
material aspects of the past or for definite impressions of past
mental states.

_b._ Within certain limits definiteness and simplicity secured by
brevity of statement.

_c._ But the principle of making a thing elementary by not saying
much about it carried too far.

_d._ Stories inherently simple often expanded; those inherently
difficult often abridged. School history would be more intelligible
if the conditions were reversed.

=2.= SPECIAL AIDS TO VISUALIZATION.

_a._ Material remains in vicinity of school. Visits to historic
places.

_b._ Casts, models, pictures, visualization charts, maps.

_c._ The stereoscope, lantern, and other similar apparatus. Moving
pictures.

_d._ Illustrations in textbooks.

_e._ Historical albums.

=3.= “LIVING THE PAST.”

_a._ Exaggerated views illustrated by demand that pupil “identify
himself completely with the thought, passion and resolution of the
time” under consideration.

1. Such a demand scarcely met by the most expert historians.

2. Realism of this type not attainable by children and not even
desirable.

_b._ Some impression of how men thought and felt essential.

_c._ Special aids.

1. A man’s own words expressed in letters, diaries, personal
reminiscences, speeches, state papers.

_a._ Value varies with character of person and circumstances
of utterance.

_b._ Words often no clue to real sentiments of author.

2. Characteristic stories and anecdotes.

3. Dramatization of history.

_a._ Plays composed by children. May be based on good
historical material.

_b._ Ready-made plays less effective.

_c._ Historical pageants.

_d._ Historical drama of the professional stage.

4. Imaginary letters, diaries, speeches, prepared by pupils.
Answering the questions: “How should I have felt?” “What should I
have said or done?”

5. Historical poems and novels.

_a._ Value for history easily exaggerated.

_b._ A distinction to be made between those that ate
contemporary with scenes represented and those that are
merely later attempts at reconstruction.

_c._ General use in school due in part to tradition which so
long made history a mere branch of literature, in part to
more general acquaintance with this kind of material than
with material more distinctly historical.

6. Material supplied by detailed histories.

REFERENCES: _Teachers College Record_, November, 1908, pp. 12-25. Wilson, _Mere Literature_, pp. 161-186. Crothers, _Gentle Reader_, pp. 167-200. Stephens, in _California University Chronicle_, Vol. VI, pp. 159-168; _French Revolution_, Vol. II, p. 361. Matthews, in _Forum_, Vol. XXIV, pp. 79-91. Langlois and Seignobos, _Introduction to the Study of History_, pp. 215-225, 301, 319, note. Seignobos, _L’Histoire dans l’Enseignement secondaire_, pp. 15-19.

IX. Time and Place Relations

=1.= TIME SENSE IN CHILDREN.

_a._ Rudimentary at age of entering school. “Yesterday,” “last
week,” “last month,” have a meaning. “One hundred years ago” has
not.

_b._ The sense develops slowly. Even children of twelve or thirteen
often measure short periods of time vaguely.

_c._ From this an argument advanced against dating any events in
distant past for children. Can mean only “a long time ago.”

_d._ The difficulty in part removed by objective assistance—chart,
rolls, knotted cords, and other devices.

_e._ Dates properly introduced at least as early as the fifth year.

=2.= DATES TO BE REMEMBERED.

_a._ Famous events.

_b._ Important events.

_c._ A few in each year fixed as a permanent possession.

_d._ Evidence at present of recovery from extreme reaction against
learning dates.

=3.= THE PLACE RELATION.

_a._ The way prepared by geography.

_b._ Maps to be introduced as soon as children have learned to read
them.

_c._ Two kinds of historical geography.

1. Contemporary maps.

2. Modern maps.

_d._ School history should show how events were influenced by
geographic conditions. Natural features of the earth determine in
great part:

1. Climate, productions, physical development, employments,
habits.

2. Facilities for commerce.

3. Advantages for military and naval defense or aggression.

4. Intellectual tendencies, but to a less extent.

_e._ Place relation to be fixed under same conditions as time
relation.

REFERENCES: Hinsdale, _How to Study and Teach History_, pp. 75-100; 111-126. Vaughan, in _Contemporary Review_, Vol. V, pp. 29-49. Turner, in _Year Book, Herbart Society_, 1899, pp. 7-41. Semple, _American History and its Geographic Conditions_. Brigham, _Geographic Influence in American History Report, New England History Teachers’ Association_, 1907.

X. School History and the Historical Method

=1.= HISTORY FOR SCHOOL PURPOSES USUALLY TREATED AS A BODY OF ASSURED KNOWLEDGE.

_a._ The problem of elementary instruction held to be
interpretation and not criticism.

_b._ Controversial matters omitted so far as possible.

_c._ Little to indicate varying degrees of probability in
historical facts.

_d._ Uncertainties covered by dogmatism of textbooks.

=2.= RAISING THE QUESTION OF HOW WE KNOW.

_a._ Makes for more intelligent view of history.

_b._ Often adds to interest in the subject.

_c._ Affords material for exercise of reasoning power.

_d._ Directly related to everyday problems.

_e._ The question usually excluded from elementary history on
ground of the difficulties involved.

=3.= A SIMPLE APPROACH SUGGESTED.

_a._ When anything has happened we may know about it because:

1. We were present when it happened—direct observation.

2. Some one has told us—oral tradition.

3. We have read about it—written or printed tradition.

4. We have seen a picture of it—pictorial tradition.

_b._ In how many ways may we know

1. That John was absent from school yesterday?

2. That Lincoln delivered an address at Gettysburg in 1863?

3. That the “Mayflower” crossed the Atlantic in 1620?

_c._ Which is the best way to know about a thing that has happened?
Is that way always possible? Why? How do we get most of our
knowledge of things that have happened?

_d._ Application to material remains.

In how many ways may we know about

1. The spelling-books of our grandfathers?

2. The bows and arrows used by Indians?

3. The house that George Washington lived in at Mount Vernon?

=4.= SOME SIMPLE ILLUSTRATIONS OF PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH HISTORICAL METHOD.

_a._ The story of how the Egyptians found out that they were not
the oldest people in the world. Herodotus, Book II, chapter 2.

1. How did Herodotus know?

2. Is the story true?

_b._ Petrarch’s troubles in getting books copied. Robinson and
Rolfe, _Petrarch_, p. 28.

_c._ The adventures of the manuscript of Bradford’s _History of
Plymouth Plantation_. Introduction to edition published by the
State of Massachusetts.

_d._ The boundary provisions of a colonial charter. _Teachers
College Record_, November, 1908, pp. 40-43.

=5.= SUCH EXERCISES NECESSARILY LIMITED IN NUMBER.

REFERENCES: _Teachers College Record_, November, 1908, pp. 33-44. _Historical Sources in Schools, Report to New England History Teachers’ Association_, pp. 1-17. Bourne, _Teaching of History and Civics_, pp. 169-187.

XI. Historical Reading for Children

=1.= BOOKS DESIGNED ESPECIALLY FOR CHILDREN.

_a._ Principles of grading not well defined.

_b._ Many books needlessly inaccurate.

_c._ Literary style often bad.

_d._ Some unnecessary “writing down” to children.

=2.= THE USE OF STANDARD HISTORIES.

_a._ Availability of historical works for school purposes not in
inverse ratio to size and scientific value.

1. Treatment of special topics often simpler and more concrete
than treatment of same topics in textbooks.

2. Many passages in detailed histories and biographies of special
interest to children.

_a._ Some of these can be read by children.

_b._ Some can be read to children.

_c._ A factor in cultivating taste for history.

_d._ Talks about writers of important works stimulate
interest in the works.

3. Real obstacles to more general use.

_a._ Cost of standard histories.

_b._ Lack of acquaintance with such works on the part of
elementary teachers.

4. Much good material available in abridgments and volumes of
extracts.

=3.= TEACHING CHILDREN HOW TO USE BOOKS.

_a._ Indexes and tables of contents.

_b._ Attention to marginal references and footnotes.

_c._ Special questions to give facility in finding and using books.

_d._ The number of books need not be large.

4. MANAGEMENT OF COLLATERAL READING.

_a._ Class divisions.

_b._ Special library periods.

_c._ Books used outside of library periods.

_d._ Books taken home.

_e._ References to be exact.

_f._ References to be posted in library.

_g._ Pupil’s record of readings.

1. Full name of author.

2. Full title of book.

3. Publishers, place, and date of publication.

4. Number of pages read.

5. Personal impression.

REFERENCES: Andrews, Gambrill and Tall, _Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries; Report of the Committee of Eight_; _Teachers College Record_, November, 1908, pp. 45-50. Parsons in _Educational Review_, Vol. XXIII, pp. 400-406. McMurry, _Special Method in History_, pp. 271-291. Rice, _History and Literature_, pp. 167-187. Mace, _Method in History_, pp. 309-311. Gordy and Twitchell, _Pathfinder in American History_, Part I, pp. 101-102; Part II, pp. 235-251. Sullivan, in _Metropolitan Teacher_, November, 1904, pp. 193-198.

INDEX

Accuracy in practice, 46, 98.

Adenoids, signs of, 141.

Adjustment, types of, 32, 33, 34.

Aim in inductive lesson, 55.

Aim of education, 1.

Allen, W. H., quoted, 141.

Application, 63.

Appreciation and emotion, 80.
In relation to study, 87, 88.
Lesson for, 78-84.
Other than that involving the æsthetic emotions, 82, 83, 84.
Power of, 79.

Assignments, 172.

Association, importance of in recall, 101.

Attention, types of, 35.
Means of holding, 45.

Bagley, W. C., referred to, 164.

Baldwin, W. A., referred to, 135.

Cautions concerning the inductive lesson, 63, 64, 65.

Class Management, 157.
As a means, 158.
As an end, 159.

Comparison and abstraction, 59.

Concrete work, 57.

Constructiveness, 17.

Contagious and infectious diseases, 140.

Contribution by children to discussion, 134.

Coöperation, illustrations of, 132, 133.
Of parents, 136, 142.

Course of Study, 232.
Making of, 233.

Creative work, 81.

Criticism of teachers’ work, 225.

Criticism, types of, 225, 226.

Cubberley, E. P., referred to, 252.

Curiosity, 20.

Daily program, 161.

Data, collection of by children, 88, 89, 90.

Deductive lesson, 70.

Demonstration, 229.

Dewey, John, quoted, 26.
Referred to, 65.

Direct instruction in morals, 150.

Discussion by pupils, 131.

Drill lesson, 41.

Earhart, Lida B., referred to, 87.

Eliot, Charles W., referred to, 64.

Elliott, E. C., referred to, 252.

Emulation, 19.

Examination lesson, 101.

Examinations, 228.
As measure of teachers’ work, 104.
Best type of, 103, 104.

Excursions, 58.

Experience of children, 14.
Reconstructed, 32.

Experimentation by teachers, 254.

Experts, children as, 64.

Expression slovenly, 111.

Formal discipline, 235.

Generalization, 62.

Group instruction, 162.

Habit formation, 43.

Habits, teaching children how to form, 97.

Heating and ventilating, 140.

Heck, W. H., referred to, 235.

Heredity, 27.

Hygiene and morality, 149.

Ideals, 9.

Illustrative material, 171.

Imitation, 18.

Independent work, 9, 13.

Indirect instruction in morals, 150.

Individual and society, 2.

Individual differences, 239.

Individual instruction, 163.

Individualistic attitude, 111.

Inductive lesson, the, 51.

Industrial arts, 236.
Opportunity in, for coöperation, 132.

Inference, 75.

Instincts, 15-24.

Institutes, 230.

Intellectual education, 5.

Interest, and effort, 24, 25, 26, 27.
As an end, 8.

Interpreter, teacher as, 81.

Jackman, W. S., referred to, 137.

James, William, quoted, 6.

Judgments, tentative, 67, 90.

Language, in relation to reasoning, 61-62.
Vague, 111.

Leisure, training for, 6.

Lesson Plans, 167.
Deductive lesson in arithmetic, 181.
Deductive lesson in geography, 197.
For a drill lesson, 180.
For appreciation, 202, 212.
In arithmetic, 177.
In history, 183.
In nature study, 195.
On irrigation, 175.
Reasons for, 167, 168.

Lighting schoolrooms, 139.

McMurry, C. A. and F. M., referred to, 54.

McMurry, F. M., quoted, 7.
Referred to, 87, 169.
And Smith, D. E., referred to, 103.

Measuring results in education, 247.

Memorization, 92, 93.
By wholes, 93, 94, 95.

Moral-social education, 5.

Moral training, 145.

Motives, 42, 130, 136, 236, 237, 238.

Notes and annotating, 89.

Objective work, 57.

Observations, 58.

Organization of material, 168, 169.

Outline prepared by pupils, 108.

Ownership, 21.

Physical condition and morality, 149.

Physical education, 5.

Physical welfare of children, 139.

Play, 16.

Preparatory step, 51-56.

Presentation, 56.

Principles in deductive lesson, 74.

Problems, 118.
Children’s, 53, 169.
In deductive lesson, 74.
In recitation lesson, 108.

Pugnacity, 20.

Punishments, 154.

Pupil participation in school government, 160.

Pyle, W. H., and Snyder, J. C., quoted, 94.

Questioning, 114.
Direct, 114.
Alternative, 114.
Suggestive, 115.
Large scope, 116.
Planning, 116.
Novelty of form, 117.
Technique of, 119, 120.
By children, 130, 131.

Questions, pivotal, 170.
Preparation of, 171.
Pupils, 120.

Recitation lesson, the, 107.

Reflection, 72, 91.

Repetition, 44.

Responsibility, increased, of school, 146.

Review for perspective, 102.

Review lesson, 101.

Review, purpose of, 101.

Rugh, C. E., quoted, 153.

Russell, Jas. E., referred to, 235.

Scales or units of measurement, 253.

School exhibits, 226.

School, the, its functions, 12.

Scientific work in education, 249.

Scott, C. A., referred to, 137.

Seat work, 164.

Smith, D. E., and McMurry, F. M., referred to, 103.

Snyder, J. C., and Pyle, W. H., quoted, 94.

Social instinct, 22.

Social phases of the recitation, 129.

Standards in education, 105.

Stevenson’s _Bed in Summer_, quoted, 94, 95.

Stone, C. W., quoted, 255.
Referred to, 105.

Study lesson, the, 86-99.

Study, methods of, in relation to methods of teaching, 86-91.

Summaries, in plans, 171.

Supervision, the teacher in relation to, 224.

Supplementing the textbook, 110.

Suzzallo, Henry, referred to, 61.

Teacher, influence of, 154.

Teachers’ meetings, 229.

Technique involved in creation related to appreciation, 79.

Textbooks, use of, 108-109.

Thinking in relation to memorization, 94.

Thorndike, E. L., referred to, 27, 28, 105, 235, 252.

Titchener, referred to, 35.

Topical outlines, 102.

Topical recitation, 107.

Types, teaching by, 66.

Verification, 75, 97.
The habit of, 92.

Visiting, school, 227.

Vocational education, 5.

Wonder, 23.

Printed in the United States of America.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] James, _Talks to Teachers_, p. 66.

[2] F. M. McMurry, “Advisable Omissions from the Elementary Curriculum,” _Ed. Rev._, May, 1904.

[3] Dewey, _Interest in Relation to Will_, p. 12.

[4] Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_, Chapter V.

[5] For statistics and further argument concerning individual difference, see Thorndike, _Educational Psychology_, Chapter VIII.

[6] For this classification of attention, see Titchener, _Primer of Psychology_, Chapter V.

[7] McMurry, _Method of the Recitation_, Chapter VI.

[8] Suzzallo, in _California Education_, June, 1906.

[9] For a full discussion of this point, see Eliot, _Educational Reform_, the essay on “The Function of Education in a Democratic Society.”

[10] See Dewey, “The Relation of Theory to Practice in the Education of Teachers,” _The Third Year Book of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education_.

[11] For a discussion of this and other aspects of the problem, see Earhart, _Teaching Children to Study_; McMurry, _How to Study_, and _Teaching How to Study_.

[12] W. H. Pyle and J. C. Snyder, “The Most Economical Unit for Committing to Memory,” _Journal of Educational Psychology_, Vol. II, pp. 133-142.

[13] D. E. Smith and F. M. McMurry, “Mathematics in the Elementary School,” _Teachers College Record_, Vol. IV, No. 2; D. E. Smith, “The Teaching of Arithmetic,” _Teachers College Record_, Vol. X, No. 1.

[14] E. L. Thorndike, “Handwriting,” _Teachers College Record_, Vol. XI, No. 2; Stone, _Arithmetical Abilities and Some of the Factors Determining them_.

[15] Quoted by Johnson in a monograph on “The Problem of Adapting History to Children in the Elementary School,” _Teachers College Record_, Vol. IX, p. 319.

[16] _Teachers College Record_, Vol. IX, pp. 319-320.

[17] “Stenographic Reports of High School Lessons,” _Teachers College Record_, September, 1910, pp. 18-26.

[18] Baldwin, _Industrial School Education_. A most helpful discussion of industrial work.

[19] W. S. Jackman, “The Relation of School Organization to Instruction,” _The Social Education Quarterly_, Vol. I, pp. 55-69; Scott, _Social Education_.

[20] Allen, _Civics and Health_, p. 53.

[21] Dewey, _Moral Principles in Education_.

[22] See chapter on Social Phases of the Recitation.

[23] _Moral Training in the Public Schools_, p. 41. The essay by Charles Edward Rugh.

[24] Bagley, _Classroom Management_, Chapter XIV.

[25] See discussion of the study lesson, _ante_.

[26] McMurry, _How to Study_, Chapter III.

[27] See _ante_, Chapter XI.

[28] Adapted from a plan prepared by Lida B. Earhart, Ph.D., for the author’s syllabus on _Theory and Practice of Teaching._

[29] Some discussion of the course of study as an instrument in supervision is given in the chapter on “The Teacher in Relation to the Course of Study.”

[30] For a discussion of the doctrine of formal discipline, and for bibliography, see Thorndike, _Educational Psychology_, 1903 edition,