Chapter X: Conclusion: OF THE CAMPAIGN IN PENNSYLVANIA.--After these battles, (4)

They now declared that it was time to leave a government which had fallen into the hands of their avowed enemies. Since the time of Calhoun they had been firm believers in the doctrine of State rights, which taught that a State could leave the Union whenever it pleased. In December (1860) South Carolina led off, and soon after Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas passed ordinances of secession. In February (1861) delegates from these States met at Montgomery, Ala, and formed a government called the "Confederate States of America". Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was chosen President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice-President. United States forts, arsenals, customhouses, and ships were seized by the States in which they were situated. Buchanan did nothing to prevent the catastrophe. General Scott urged action, but the regular army was small, and the troops were widely scattered. The navy had been sent to distant ports. The Cabinet largely sympathized with the secessionists. Numerous unsuccessful efforts were made to effect a compromise.

It was the general expectation that there would be no war, and the cry, "No coercion," was general. Yet affairs steadily drifted on toward war.

[Footnote: Even the New York Tribune declared--"Whenever any considerable section of our Union shall deliberately resolve to go out, we shall resist all coercive measures to keep them in."]

FORT SUMTER--All eyes were now turned on Fort Sumter. Here Major Anderson kept the United States flag flying in Charleston harbor. He had been stationed in Fort Moultrie (map, p. 280), but fearing an attack, had crossed over (December 26) to Fort Sumter, a stronger position. The South Carolinians, looking upon this as a hostile act, took possession of the remaining forts, commenced erecting batteries, and prepared to reduce Fort Sumter. Major Anderson was compelled by his instructions to remain a quiet spectator of these preparations. The Star of the West, an unarmed steamer, bearing troops and supplies to the fort, was fired upon and driven back. The Southern leaders declared that any attempt to relieve Fort Sumter would be a declaration of war. The government seemed paralyzed with fear. All now waited for the new President.

STATES ADMITTED DURING THE FOURTH EPOCH.

The number of States increased during this epoch from thirteen to thirty-four. The following is the order in which they were received:

VERMONT, the fourteenth State, and the first under the Constitution, was admitted to the Union March 4, 1791. It was so called from its principal range of mountains (_verd_, green, and _mont_, mountain). Champlain discovered and explored much of it in 1609. The first settlement was made in 1724, in the present town of Brattleborough, where Fort Dummer was erected. The region was claimed by both New Hampshire and New York (see p. 110). In 1777, the inhabitants declared the "New Hampshire grants" an independent State, under the title "New Connecticut, alias Vermont." In 1791, however, New York consented to relinquish her claim on the payment of $30,000, and Vermont was accordingly admitted into the Union.

KENTUCKY, the fifteenth State, was admitted to the Union June 1, 1792. The name, "dark and bloody ground," had its origin in the fierce conflicts which took place between the whites and the Indians. Daniel Boone, a famous hunter, for two years rambled through the forests of this region, delighted with its scenery and the abundance of game. After many thrilling adventures and narrow escapes from the Indians, he established a fort at Boonesborough, and removed his family thither in June, 1775. This was the first permanent settlement in the State, then a part of Virginia, from which it was not separated till 1790.

TENNESSEE, the sixteenth State, was admitted to the Union June 1, 1796. It was named from the river Tennessee, the "river with the great bend." It is thought that DeSoto, in his wanderings, visited the spot where Memphis now stands. The first permanent settlement in the State was at Fort Loudon, thirty miles from the present site of Knoxville, in 1756. In 1780, James Robertson crossed the mountains with a party, and located where Nashville now stands, but which was then a wilderness. In 1789, North Carolina gave up her claim on the region, and the next year it was joined with Kentucky to form an independent territory. It received a distinct territorial government two years before it became a State.

[Footnote: This was the first permanent English settlement south of Pennsylvania and west of the Alleghanies.] was at Fort Loudon, thirty miles from the present site of Knoxville, in 1756. In 1780, James Robertson crossed the mountains with a party, and located where Nashville now stands, but which was then a wilderness. In 1789, North Carolina gave up her claim on the region, and the next year it was joined with Kentucky to form an independent territory. It received a distinct territorial government two years before it became a State.

OHIO, the seventeenth State, was admitted to the Union November 29, 1802. It was so called from the river of that name, signifying the "beautiful river." The first explorations were made by the French, under LaSalle, about 1680. The first permanent settlement was at Marietta, in 1788. It was the first State carved out of the great Northwestern Territory.

[Footnote: This territory was created in 1787, and included all the public land north of the Ohio. It embraced the present States of Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. It was a part of New France before the French authority ceased in 1763. The British held possession for twenty years, when the country was ceded to the United States (see Map of VIth Epoch, and p. 146)]

LOUISIANA, the eighteenth State, was admitted to the Union April 8, 1812. The territory was named in honor of Louis XIV, king of France. The French explored the river Mississippi to the sea in 1682 (see p. 34), but their first settlement was made by Iberville at Biloxi, near its mouth, in 1699. New Orleans was founded in 1718.

[Footnote: The colony was granted to the great Mississippi Company, organized by John Law, at Paris, for the purpose of settling and deriving profit from the French possessions in North America. When this bubble burst, the French crown resumed the country. (See Brief History of France, p. 176.)]

The territory was ceded to Spain in 1762, but in 1800 was receded to France. When the United States purchased it (see p. 155), Louisiana included all the region north and west between the Mississippi and the Pacific (except those portions then occupied by Spain: see California) and north to the British possessions. In 1804, this region was divided into two parts--the territory of Orleans, which included the present State of Louisiana, and the district of Louisiana, which comprised the remainder. The former was admitted to the Union as Louisiana, and the name of the latter changed to Missouri.

INDIANA, the nineteenth State, was admitted to the Union December 11, 1816. The name is derived from the word Indian. The exact date of the first settlement is undetermined. When Ohio was taken from the Northwestern Territory, the remainder was called Indiana. It was reduced to its present limits in 1809, and was the second State admitted from the Northwestern Territory. After the Indian difficulties which hindered its early development had subsided, its growth was very rapid. Between 1810 and 1820, its population increased five hundred per cent.

MISSISSIPPI, the twentieth State, was admitted to the Union December 10, 1817. It is named from the Mississippi River, the "Great Father of Waters." De Soto was the first European who traversed this region. In 1700, Chevalier de Tonty, with a party of Canadian French, ascended the river to the Natchez country, where they selected a site for a fort and called it Rosalie. A settlement called St. Peters was made in 1703, on the Yazoo. In 1728, the Indians swept every vestige of civilization from the present limits of the State. Under the French governors who followed, fierce and bloody wars were waged with the Natchez, Chickasaw, and Choctaw Indians. In 1763, Louisiana east of the Mississippi, including a part of what is now Mississippi and Alabama, was ceded to the British, and became a part of Georgia. The Mississippi Territory was created in 1798, and lands were afterward added until it embraced the present States of Mississippi and Alabama. The latter became a separate Territory in March, 1817.

ILLINOIS, the twenty-first State, was admitted to the Union December 3, 1818. Its name is derived from its principal river, signifying "River of men." Its first settlements were made by La Salle.

[Footnote: That enterprising traveler, after exploring the Illinois River, built a small fort which he called Crevecoeur (krave-kur), and left it in command of the Chevalier de Tonty. Three years afterward he returned with some Canadians and founded Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and other towns, which early became flourishing, though the settlers, in manners and habits, were assimilated to the Indians.]

After the States of Ohio and Indiana, and the Territory of Michigan had been taken from the Northwestern Territory, the remainder was styled the Illinois Territory, and comprised the present States of Illinois, Wisconsin, and a part of Minnesota. The settlement of this Territory was greatly impeded by Indian hostilities. The massacre at Fort Chicago, August 15, 1812, and the Black Hawk war, are instances of the dangers and trials which beset the pioneer. The great prosperity of the State dates from the year 1850, when munificent grants of land were made to the Central Railroad. The prairie wilderness was rapidly settled, and towns and cities sprang up as by magic.

ALABAMA, the twenty-second State, was admitted to the Union December 14, 1819. Its name is of Indian origin, and signifies "Here we rest." It was originally a part of Georgia. (See Mississippi.) The fierce contests with the Creek Indians, ended by Jackson, gave to the State a vast and fertile region. The first settlement was made by Bienville on Mobile Bay, in 1702. Nine years afterward, the present site of Mobile was occupied. Mobile was the original seat of the French colonization in Louisiana, and for many years the capital. Having been ceded to Great Britain and then to Spain, in 1813 it was surrendered to General Wilkinson, and has since remained in the possession of the United States (p. 146).

MAINE, the twenty-third State, was admitted to the Union March 15, 1820. (See p. 60.)

MISSOURI, the twenty-fourth State, was admitted to the Union August 10, 1821. Its name is derived from its principal river, and means "Muddy water." Its oldest town, St. Genevieve, was founded in 1755. St. Louis was settled nine years after, but was not incorporated as a town until 1809; its first newspaper was published in 1808, and the first steamboat arrived at its wharf in 1817. The District of Louisiana was organized as Louisiana Territory in 1805, with St. Louis as its capital. When Louisiana became a State, the name of the Territory was changed to Missouri.

ARKANSAS, the twenty-fifth State, was admitted to the Union June 15, 1836. It took its name from a now extinct tribe of Indians. It was discovered and settled by the French under Chevalier de Tonty, as early as 1685. It followed the fate of the other portions of Louisiana. On the admission of the State of Missouri, Arkansas was organized as a Territory, including the present State and a part of Indian Territory.

MICHIGAN, the twenty-sixth State, was admitted to the Union January 26, 1837. The name is of Indian origin, signifying "Great Lake." It was early visited by missionaries (see p. 33) and fur traders. Detroit was founded in 1701 by Cadillac. This region, first a part of the Northwestern Territory, then of Indiana Territory, was organized as a separate Territory in 1805. The country north of the present States of Indiana and Illinois was annexed to Michigan in 1818. The act of admission gave the State its present boundaries.

FLORIDA, the twenty-seventh State, was admitted to the Union March 3, 1845. The Spanish word _florida_, means "blooming" (see p. 27). Its early visitors, Ponce de Leon, De Narvaez, and De Soto, its first settlement at St. Augustine, its history under the Spaniards, and the Seminole war, have been incidentally described. It was organized as a Territory March 3, 1819.

TEXAS, the twenty-eighth State, was admitted to the Union December 27, 1845. It was explored by De Leon and La Salle. The latter, intending to found a French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi, sailed by it unawares, and, landing at Matagorda Bay, built Fort St. Louis on the Lavaca. The Spaniards afterward explored and partially settled the country, establishing missions at various points. These did not prosper, however, and the region was populated mainly by roving bands of Indians. Civil war had impoverished the few settlers who were unable to flee from the country, and Galveston was nearly deserted, when, in 1820, Moses Austin, a native of Connecticut, obtained from the Spanish authorities in Mexico a grant of land. Emigration from the United States was encouraged, and in 1830 there were twenty thousand Americans in Texas. The jealousy of Mexico being excited, acts of oppression followed, and in 1835 the Texans were driven to declare their independence. After a year of severe fighting and alternating victories, Santa Anna was conquered.

[Footnote: Santa Anna, with four thousand men, having attacked the Alamo, a fort garrisoned by only one hundred and seventy-two men, every one of that gallant few died at his post except seven, who were killed while asking for quarter. Here David Crockett, the famous hunter, who had volunteered to fight with the Texans for their liberty, fell, pierced with wounds, but surrounded by the corpses of those whom he had cut down ere he was overpowered. In the battle of San Jacinto, Santa Anna, with fifteen hundred men, was defeated by eight hundred, under General Sam. Houston (See Barnes's Popular History of the United States, p. 445.)]

The next year (1837) Texas sought admission into the Union. In 1844 the question was revived. The last act of Tyler's administration was to sign a bill for its admission. This bill was ratified by a convention of the State, July 5th of the same year.

IOWA, the twenty-ninth State, was admitted to the Union December 28, 1846. Its name is of Indian origin, signifying "Drowsy ones." Julien Dubuque, a Canadian Frenchman, obtained, in 1788, a large tract of land, including the present site of Dubuque. He there built a fort and traded with the Indians till 1810. The first permanent settlement was made at Burlington in 1833, by emigrants from Illinois. The same year, Dubuque was founded. This Territory belonged to the Louisiana tract and partook of its fortunes. It was successively a part of Missouri, Michigan, and Wisconsin Territories, but was organized separately in 1838. It then included all of Minnesota west of the Mississippi River, but when admitted as a State was reduced to its present limits.

WISCONSIN, the thirtieth State, was admitted to the Union May 29, 1848. Its name is derived from its principal river, and signifies "The gathering of the waters." It was explored by French missionaries and traders as early as 1639. Green Bay was founded in 1745. This region was also a part of the Northwestern Territory. It was comprised in the Territory of Illinois, then of Michigan, and in 1836 became a separate Territory.

CALIFORNIA, the thirty-first State, was admitted to the Union September 9, 1850 (see p. 190). Sir Francis Drake, in 1579, sailed along its coast, naming it New Albion, and visited San Francisco harbor (see p. 35). In 1769, the Spaniards established the mission of San Diego (de-a'-go), and in 1776 (the year of the Declaration of Independence), one at San Francisco.

[Footnote: In 1835, a shanty owned by one Richardson was the only human habitation and the vast bay was a solitude The first survey of streets and town lots was in 1839 The principal trade was in exporting hides and that was small. In 1846 an American man of war entered the harbor and took possession in the name of the United States. The town was known as Yerba Buena (good herb) until 1847 when it was changed to its present name. About that time it had a population of four hundred and fifty nine. The discovery of gold in 1848 gave the city its first start toward its present distinction. Within eighteen months following December 1849, the city lost by fire $16,000,000 of property though its population did not exceed thirty thousand. Such however, was the enterprise of its citizens that these tremendous losses scarcely interrupted its growth or prosperity. Its magnificent harbor and its railroad communications give it an extensive commerce on the Pacific Coast.]

In 1803, they had eighteen missions with over fifteen thousand converts, and the entire government of the country was in the hands of the Franciscan monks. The Mexican revolution, in 1822, overthrew the Spanish power in California, and in a few years the Franciscans were stripped of their wealth and influence. In 1831, the white population did not exceed five thousand. From 1843 to 1846, many emigrants from the United States settled in California, and, under the leadership of Fremont and others, wrested the country from Mexico (see p. 188). By the treaty at the close of the Mexican war, Upper California was ceded to the United States. It embraced about 450,000 square miles, comprising what is now known as California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and parts of Colorado and New Mexico. (Maps of IVth and VIth Epochs.)

MINNESOTA, the thirty-second State, was admitted to the Union May 11, 1858. It is so called from the river of that name, and signifies "Cloudy water." In 1680, La Salle and Hennepin penetrated this region. Other travelers followed, and within the present century the whole country has been thoroughly explored. Fort Snelling was established in 1819. St. Paul was settled in 1846 by emigrants from the East. The Territory of Minnesota was organized in 1849, with the Missouri and White rivers for its western boundary, thus embracing nearly twice the area of the present State. At this time its population was less than five thousand, consisting of whites and half-breeds settled about the various missions and trading-posts. In 1851, the Sioux ceded a large tract of land to the United States. After this, the population increased so rapidly that in six years Minnesota applied for admission into the Union.

OREGON, the thirty-third State, was admitted to the Union February 14, 1859. It is said to derive its name from the Spanish _oregano_, wild marjoram, abundant on its coast. It constituted a part of the Louisiana purchase, though for a long time little was known of this portion of that vast territory. In 1792, Captain Gray, of Boston, entered the river to which he gave the name of his ship, the Columbia. On his return, he made such a flattering report that there was a general desire to know more of the country. In 1804, the year after the Louisiana purchase, Jefferson sent an exploring party, under the command of Captain Lewis and Lieutenant Clark, which followed the Missouri to its source and descended the Columbia to the Pacific. The history of their adventures is one of the most romantic of the century. An extensive fur-trade soon began. Fort Astoria was built in 1811 by the American Fur Company, of which John Jacob Astor was a prominent member. Hunters and trappers in the employ of American and British companies roamed over the whole region. Fort Vancouver was occupied by the Hudson Bay Company, a British organization, till 1860. In 1839, the first American emigration set toward this region. The danger of war which had seriously threatened its dawning prosperity was averted when the northwest boundary was settled by the treaty of 1846. In 1848, it was organized as a Territory, and included all the possessions of the United States west of the Rocky Mountains. In 1850, Congress granted three hundred and sixty acres to every man, and the same to his wife, on condition of residence on the land for four years. Eight thousand claims were made for farms. In 1853, Washington Territory was organized north of Columbia River. When Oregon was admitted as a State, it was reduced to its present limits.

KANSAS, the thirty-fourth State, was admitted to the Union January 29, 1861. The name is of Indian origin, and is said to mean "Smoky water." This region was also a part of the Louisiana purchase. After the States of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota had been carved from it, there was left a vast, unoccupied tract at the west, which was organized by the Kansas and Nebraska Act of 1854. The history of the strife which decided whether it should be slave or free has been narrated.

Summary of the History of the Fourth Epoch, arranged in Chronological Order.

1789. Washington inaugurated, April 30
1791. Vermont admitted to the Union, March 4
1792. Kentucky admitted to the Union, June 1
Discovery of Columbia River by Captain Gray, May 11
1793. Difficulties with Genet
1794. The Indians defeated by Wayne, August 20
Whisky insurrection
1795. Jay's treaty ratified, June 24
1796. Tennessee admitted to the Union, June 1
1797. John Adams inaugurated, March 4
1799. Washington died at Mount Vernon, December 14
1800. Capitol removed to Washington
Treaty with France, September 30
1801. Thomas Jefferson inaugurated, March 4
War declared by United States against Tripoli, June 10
1802. Ohio admitted to the Union, November 29
1803. Louisiana purchased from France, April 30
Fleet sent against Tripoli
1804. Lieut. Decatur destroyed frigate Philadelphia, Feb. 15
Hamilton killed by Burr, July 11
1805. Treaty of peace with Tripoli, June 3
1807. The Chesapeake fired into by the Leopard, June 22
Embargo on American ships, December 22
Fulton first ascended the Hudson, September 14
1809. James Madison inaugurated, March 4
1811. Action between the President and the Little Belt, May 16
Battle of Tippecanoe, November 7
1812. Louisiana admitted to the Union, April 8
War declared against England, June 19
Hull invaded Canada, July 12
Mackinaw surrendered, July 17
Detroit surrendered, August 16
The Constitution captured the Guerriere, August 19
Battle of Queenstown, October 13
The Wasp captured the Frolic, October 13
1813. Battle of Frenchtown, January 22
Capture of York, April 27
Siege of Fort Meigs, May 1
Sackett's Harbor attacked, May 29
American frigate Chesapeake captured by the Shannon, June 1
1813. Battle of Fort Stephenson, Ohio, August 2,
Massacre of Fort Mimms, August 30,
Perry's victory on Lake Erie, September 10,
Battle of the Thames, October 5,
Battle of Chrysler's Field, November 11,
1814. Battle of Horse-shoe Bend (Tohopeka), March 27,
Battle of Chippewa, July 5,
Battle of Lundy's Lane, July 25,
Washington captured by the British, August 24,
Battle of Plattsburg and Lake Champlain, September 11,
Bombardment of Fort McHenry, September 13,
Hartford Convention, December 15,
Treaty of Peace, December 24,
1815. Battle of New Orleans, January 8,
War with Algiers,
1816. Indiana admitted to the Union, December 11,
1817. James Monroe inaugurated, March 4,
Mississippi admitted to the Union, December 10,
1818. Illinois admitted to the Union, December 3,
1819. Alabama admitted to the Union, December 14,
Florida purchased of Spain, February 22,
1820. Missouri Compromise passed, March 3,
Maine admitted to the Union, March 15,
1821. Missouri admitted to the Union, August 10,
1824. Visit of La Fayette, August 15,
1825. John Quincy Adams inaugurated, March 4,
1826. Adams and Jefferson died, July 4,
1829. Jackson inaugurated, March 4,
1832. Black Hawk War,
Nullification in South Carolina,
1835. Dade's massacre by the Seminoles, December 28,
1836. Arkansas admitted to the Union, June 15,
1837. Michigan admitted to the Union, January 26,
Martin Van Buren inaugurated, March 4,
Battle of Okechobee, Seminoles routed by Taylor, Dec. 25,
1837-8. The "Patriot War"--Canada,
1841. Wm. H. Harrison inaugurated, March 4,
President Harrison died, April 4,
John Tyler inaugurated, April 6,
1842. Dorr's Rebellion,
1845. Florida admitted to the Union, March 3,
James K. Polk inaugurated, March 4
Texas admitted to the Union, December 27,
1846. Battle of Palo Alto, May 8,
Battle of Resaca de la Palma, May 9,
Congress declared war against Mexico, May 11,
Monterey captured, September 24,
Iowa admitted to the Union, December 28,
1847. Battle of Buena Vista, February 23,
Vera Cruz captured, March 29,
Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18,
Battle of Contreras, August 20,
Capture of Chapultepec, September 13,
Mexico surrendered, September 14,
1848. Treaty of peace with Mexico, February 2,
Gold discovered in California, February,
Wisconsin admitted to the Union, May 29,
1849. General Taylor inaugurated, March 5,
1850. General Taylor died, July 9,
Millard Fillmore inaugurated, July 16,
California admitted to the Union, September 9,
1853. Franklin Pierce inaugurated, March 4,
1854. Commodore Perry's treaty with Japan, March,
Kansas-Nebraska Bill passed, May,
1857. James Buchanan inaugurated, March 4,
1858. Minnesota admitted to the Union, May 11,
1859. Oregon admitted to the Union, February 14,
1860. South Carolina seceded from the Union, December 20,
1861. Steamer Star of the West fired upon, January 9,
Kansas admitted into the Union as a State, January 29,
Southern Confederacy formed at Montgomery, Feb. 4,

* * * * *

REFERENCES FOR READING.

_Lossing's Field Book of the War of_ 1812.--_Lewis and Clarke's Journal_.--_Mackenzie's Life of Paul Jones_. --_Parton's Life of Jackson; also of Aaron Burr_.--_Cooper's History of the American Navy_.--_Irving's Astoria_. --_Powell's Life of Taylor_.--_Fremont's Explorations_. --_Benton's_ 30 _Years View of Public Affairs_. --_Street and Reid's Osceola_ (_Poem_).--_Ripley's War with Mexico_.--_Hull's Military and Civil Life_. --_Parker's Historic Americans_.--_Lossing's Eminent Americans_.--_McPherson's Political History of the United States_.--_Tome's Battles of America by Sea and Land_. --_Lowell's Bigelow Papers_.--_The Exiles of Florida, by Giddings_.--_Jay's Mexican War and Dawson's American Battle-fields_.--"_The Mississippi Scheme_" _in Mackay's Popular Delusions_.--_Mrs. John Adams's Correspondence_. --_Headley's Second War with England_.--_Whittier's Angel of Buena Vista_ (_Poetry_).--_Randall's and Tucker's Lives of Jefferson_.--_Griswold's Court of Washington_. --_Clarke's Campaign of_ 1812.--_Ingersoll's Second War with Great Britain_--_Wilson's Sketches of Illustrious Soldiers_.--_Martin's Civil Government_ (_Constitution of U. S._).

EPOCH V.

THE CIVIL WAR.

From 1861--Inauguration of Lincoln, To 1865--Surrender of Lee's Army.

LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION.

[Footnote: Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky, February 12, 1809; died in Washington, April 15, 1865. His father was unable to read or write, and his own education consisted of one-year's schooling. When he was eight years old his father moved to Indiana, the family floating down the Ohio on a raft. When nineteen years of age, the future President hired out as a hand on a flat-boat at $10 per month, and made a trip to New Orleans. On his return he accompanied the family to Illinois, driving the cattle on the journey. Having reached their destination he helped them to build a cabin, and to split rails to enclose the farm. He was now in succession a flat-boat hand, clerk, captain of a company of volunteers in the Black Hawk War, country store-keeper, postmaster, and surveyor, yet he managed to get a knowledge of law by borrowing books at an office before it closed at night, returning them at its opening in the morning. On being admitted to the bar, he rapidly rose to distinction. At twenty-five he was sent to the Legislature, and was thrice re-elected. Turning his attention to politics, he soon became a leader. He was sent to Congress; he canvassed the State, haranguing the people daily on great national questions; and, in 1858, he was candidate for Senator, a second time, against Stephen A. Douglas. The two rivals stumped the State together. The debate, unrivalled for its statesmanship, logic, and wit, won for Lincoln a national reputation, but he lost the election in the Legislature, his party being in the minority. After his accession to the Presidency, his history, like Washington's, is identified with that of his country. He was a tall, ungainly man, little versed in the refinements of society, but gifted by nature with great common sense, and everywhere known as "Honest Abe." Kind, earnest, sympathetic, faithful, democratic, he was anxious only to serve his country. His wan, fatigued face, and his bent form, told of the cares he bore, and the grief he felt. His only relief was when, tossing aside for a moment the heavy load of responsibility, his face would light up with a humorsome smile, while he narrated some incident whose irresistible wit and aptness to the subject at hand, convulsed his hearers, and rendered "Lincoln's stories" household words throughout the nation.]

(SIXTEENTH PRESIDENT: 1861-1865)

[Footnote: _Questions on the Geography of the Fifth Epoch_. --Locate the following places noted as battle-fields. Names of places in italic letters, as well as the Battles before Richmond, may be found on pages--and--. Philippi. Big Bethel. Boonville (Booneville). Carthage. Rich Mountain. Bull Run. Wilson's Creek. Hatteras Inlet. Lexington, Mo. Ball's Bluff. Belmont. Port Royal. Mill Spring. Fort Henry. Roanoke Island. Fort Donelson. Pea Ridge. New Berne (Newberne). Winchester. Pittsburg Landing. Island No. 10. Fort Pulaski. Fort Jackson. Fort Macon. Beaufort. Yorktown. Williamsburg. Corinth. _Fair Oaks._ Mechanicsville. _Gaines's Mill_. _Malvern Hill_. Cedar Mountain. South Mountain. Antietam. Fredericksburg. Holly Springs. Murfreesboro. Galveston. Fort Sumter (see map, p--). Chancellorsville. Vicksburg. Gettysburg. Port Hudson. Chickamauga. Chattanooga. Knoxville. Fort de Russy. Sabine Cross Roads. Fort Pillow. Wilderness. _Bermuda Hundred_. Spottsylvania Court House. Resaca. Dallas. _Cold Harbor_. Lost Mountain. Petersburg. Atlanta. Mobile. Fort Gaines. Fort Morgan. Cedar Creek. Fort McAlister (or McAllister). Nashville. Savannah. Fort Fisher. Columbia. Goldsboro. Fort Steadman. Five Forks. Appomattox Court House. (The battles above are named in chronological order)]

INAUGURATION.--Rumor of a plan to assassinate Lincoln impelled him to come to Washington in disguise. He was inaugurated March 4, 1861, surrounded by troops under the command of General Scott.

CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY--All was now uncertainty. The southern officers in the army and navy of the United States were daily resigning, and linking their fortunes with the Confederate cause.

There was still, however, a strong Union sentiment at the South. Many prominent men in both sections hoped that war might be averted. The Federal authorities feared to act, lest they should precipitate civil strife. In striking contrast to this indecision was the marked energy of the new Confederate government. It was gathering troops, voting money and supplies, and rapidly preparing for the issue.

CAPTURE OF FORT SUMTER (April 14).--Finding that supplies were to be sent to Fort Sumter, General Peter G. T. Beauregard (bo-re-gard), who had command of the Confederate troops at Charleston, called upon Major Anderson to surrender. Upon his refusal, fire was opened from all the Confederate forts and batteries.

[Footnote: The first gun of the war was fired at half-past four o'clock Friday morning, April 12, 1861.]

This "strange contest between seventy men and seven thousand," lasted for thirty-four hours, no one being hurt on either side. The barracks having been set on fire by the shells, the garrison worn out, suffocated, and half-blinded, were forced to capitulate. They were allowed to retire with the honors of war, saluting their flag before hauling it down.

_The Effect_ of this event was electrical. It unified the North and also the South. The war spirit swept over the country like wild-fire. Party lines vanished. The Union men at the South were borne into secession, while the republicans and democrats at the North combined for the support of the government, Lincoln issued a requisition for seventy-five thousand troops. It was responded to by three hundred thousand volunteers, the American flag, the symbol of Revolutionary glory and of national unity, being unfurled throughout the North. The military enthusiasm at the South was equally ardent. Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee, which had before hesitated, joined the Confederacy. Virginia troops seized the United States armory at Harper's Ferry, and the Navy Yard at Norfolk.

[Footnote: Here were foundries, ship-yards, machine shops, two thousand cannon, two hundred and fifty thousand pounds of gunpowder, great quantities of shot and shell, and twelve ships of war. The ships were scuttled or fired, but vast stores, which were of inestimable value at the beginning of the war, fell into the Confederate hands.]

Richmond, Va., was made the Confederate capital. Troops from the extreme South were rapidly pushed into Virginia, and threatened Washington. A regiment of Massachusetts militia hurrying to the defence of the national capital, was attacked in the streets of Baltimore, and several men were killed. Thus the first blood shed in the civil war was on April 19, the anniversary of Lexington and Concord.

[Footnote: A Union soldier who was shot in this affray, turned about, saluted the flag, and exclaiming, "All hail the stars and stripes!" fell lifeless.]

THE WAR IN VIRGINIA.

ARLINGTON HEIGHTS AND ALEXANDRIA

Were seized (May 24) by the national troops. This protected Washington from any immediate danger of attack.

[Footnote: Alexandria is on the southern side of the Potomac, eight miles below Washington. Arlington Heights are directly opposite the capital.]

[Footnote: Alexandria was occupied by Colonel Elmer E. Ellsworth and his Zouaves. After the capture, seeing the Confederate flag still flying from the roof of a hotel, he went up and took it down. As he descended, he was shot at the foot of the stairs, by the landlord, Jackson, who in turn fell at the hands of private Brownell.]

FORTRESS MONROE Was now garrisoned by a heavy force under General B. F. Butler.

[Footnote: This is located at the entrance of the Chesapeake, and is the most formidable fortification in the United States. It covers over sixty acres of ground, and is nearly a mile in circuit. Its walls are of granite, thirty-five feet high. Its garrison, at this time, consisted of a small body of artillerists, under General Dimick.]

[Footnote: At Hampton, which had been occupied by the Confederates, some negroes were captured who had been employed in building fortifications. Butler declared them "contraband of war," and this gave rise to the popular term, "Contrabands."]

An expedition made soon after against _Big Bethel_ was singularly mismanaged. On the route the troops fired into each other by mistake, and when they came to attack the Confederate defences, they were repulsed with loss.

[Footnote: In this attack, Major Theodore Winthrop, who had achieved some literary reputation, was killed; as was, also, Lieutenant Greble, who gave great promise as an officer.]

WESTERN VIRGINIA adhered to the Union, and was ultimately formed into a separate State. The Confederates, however, occupied it in force. The Federals, under General George B. McClellan, afterward commander of the Potomac army, defeated them at _Philippi, Rich Mountain_, and _Carrick's Ford_, thus wresting the entire State from their control. Shortly afterward, Governor Wise and General Floyd (President Buchanan's Secretary of War) led a Confederate force into that region; but Floyd was suddenly attacked by General Rosecrans at _Carnifex Ferry_, and, Wise failing to support him, was compelled to retreat. General Robert E. Lee, McClellan's future antagonist on the Potomac, having been repulsed at _Cheat Mountain_ (September 14), now came to the rescue. Nothing decisive being effected, the Confederate government recalled their forces. The only Union victories of this year were achieved in this region (map opp. p.223).

BATTLE OF BULL RUN (July 21).--The Northern people, seeing so many regiments pushed forward to Washington, were impatient for an advance. The cry, "On to Richmond!" became too strong to be resisted. General Irvin McDowell, in command of the Army of the Potomac, moved to attack the main body of the Confederates, who were strongly posted under Beauregard at Bull Run.

[Footnote: This is near Manassas Junction about twenty-seven miles from Alexandria]

After a sharp conflict the Confederates were driven from the field. They were rallied, however, by General T. J. Jackson and others, on a plateau in the rear. While the Federal troops were struggling to drive them from this new position, at the crisis of the battle, seventeen hundred men, under Kirby Smith, rushing across the fields from Manassas Station, struck the Union flank and poured in a cross fire. The effect was irresistible. McDowell's men fled. As the fugitives converged toward the bridge in the rear, a shell burst among the teamsters' wagons, a caisson was overturned, and the passage choked. The retreat now became a panic-stricken rout. Traces were cut, cannon abandoned, mounted men went plunging through the struggling mass, and soldiers threw away their guns and ran streaming over the country, many never stopping till they were safe across the Long Bridge at Washington.

[Footnote: General Bee, as he rallied his men shouted 'There's Jackson standing like a stone wall' "From that time" says Draper "the name he had received in a baptism of fire displaced that he had received in a baptism of water and he was known as Stonewall Jackson."]

[Footnote: These troops composed a part of General Johnston's command at Winchester. General Patterson, with twenty thousand men, had been left to watch him, and prevent his joining Beauregard. Johnston was too shrewd for his antagonist, and, slipping out of his hands, reached Bull Run in time to decide the battle.]

_The Effect_ of this defeat was momentous. At first the Northern people were chagrined and disheartened. Then came a renewed determination. They saw the real character of the war, and no longer dreamed that the South could be subdued by a mere display of military force. They were to fight a brave people--Americans--who were to be conquered only by a desperate struggle. Congress voted $500,000,000 and five hundred thousand men. General McClellan, upon whom all eyes were turned, on account of his brilliant campaign in Western Virginia, was appointed to the command of the Army of the Potomac.

[Footnote: Soon after, General Scott, weighed down by age, retired from active service, and General McClellan became General-in-Chief of all the armies of the United States.]

BALL'S BLUFF (October 21).--About two thousand Federals, who had crossed the Potomac at Ball's Bluff on a reconnoitering expedition, were attacked by the Confederates, and forced down the slippery, clayey bluff, fifty to one hundred and fifty feet high, to the river below. The two old scows in which they came were soon sunk, and, in trying to escape, many were drowned, some were shot, and scarcely half their number reached the other bank Colonel Baker, United States Senator from Oregon, was among the killed.

[Footnote: December 20, General E. O. C. Ord, having gone out on a foraging excursion to _Dranesville_, in a severe skirmish routed the Confederates. This little victory greatly encouraged the people at the North, who had been disheartened by the disastrous affair of Ball's Bluff.]

THE WAR IN MISSOURI.

This State was largely Union. The Convention had declined to pass an ordinance of secession; yet there was a strong effort made by Governor Jackson to preserve, at least, an armed neutrality. Captain Lyon foiled this attempt. He broke up Camp Jackson, saved the United States arsenal at St. Louis, and defeated Colonel Marmaduke at _Booneville_ (June 17). General Sigel (se-gel), however, having been defeated by the Confederates in an engagement at _Carthage_ (July 5), Lyon, now General, found that he must either fight the superior forces of Generals McCulloch and Price, or else abandon that part of the State. He chose the former course. At the head of about five thousand he attacked more than twice that number at _Wilson's Creek_ (August 10). He fell, gallantly leading a bayonet charge. His men were defeated. Colonel Mulligan was forced to surrender Lexington after a brave defence. General John C. Fremont now assumed charge, and drove Price as far south as Springfield. Just as he was preparing for battle, he was replaced by General Hunter, who took the Union army back to St. Louis. Hunter was soon superseded by General Halleck, who crowded Price south to Arkansas. Later in the fall, General Grant made an unsuccessful attack upon a Confederate force which had crossed over from Kentucky and taken post at _Belmont_ (map opp. p. 222).

[Footnote: The Confederates, in their final assault, fought behind a movable breastwork, composed of hemp-bales, which they rolled toward the fort as they advanced.]

[Footnote: Kentucky, like Missouri, had tried to remain neutral, but was unsuccessful. Soon both Confederate and Union troops were encamped on her soil, and the State was ravaged by hostile armies. In all the border States affairs were in a most lamentable condition. The people were divided in opinion, and enlisted in both armies. As the tide of war surged to and fro, armed bands swept through the country, plundering and murdering those who favored the opposite party.]

Early in the war, Davis issued a proclamation offering to commission privateers. In reply, Lincoln declared a blockade of the Southern ports. At that time there was but one efficient vessel on the Northern coast, and only forty-two ships in the United States navy; but at the close of the year there were two hundred and sixty-four.

[Footnote: The Savannah was the first privateer which got to sea, but this vessel was captured after having taken only a single prize. The Petrel, also from Charleston, bore down upon the United States frigate St. Lawrence, which the captain mistook for a merchant ship; his vessel was sunk by the first broadside of his formidable antagonist. The Sumter, under Captain Semmes, captured and burned a large number of Federal ships, but, at last, it was blockaded in the Bay of Gibraltar by a Union gunboat, and, being unable to escape, was sold.]

Two joint naval and military expeditions were made during the year. The first captured the forts at _Hatteras Inlet_, N. C. The second, under Commodore Dupont and General Thomas W. Sherman, took the forts at _Port Royal Entrance_, S. C., and Tybee island, at the mouth of the Savannah. Port Royal became the great depot for the Union fleet.

[Footnote: During this engagement the ships described a circle between the forts, each vessel delivering its fire as it slowly sailed by, then passing on, and another taking its place. The line of this circle was constantly changed to prevent the Confederates from getting the range of the vessels.]

THE TRENT AFFAIR.--England and France had acknowledged the Confederate States as _belligerents_, thus placing them on the same footing with the United States. The Southern people having, therefore, great hopes of foreign aid, appointed Messrs. Mason and Slidell commissioners to those countries. Escaping through the blockading squadron, they took passage at Havana on the British steamer Trent. Captain Wilkes, of the United States steamer San Jacinto, followed the Trent, took off the Confederate envoys, and brought them back to the United States. This produced intense excitement in England. The United States government, however, promptly disavowed the act and returned the prisoners.

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR.--The Confederates had captured the large arsenals at Harper's Ferry and Norfolk. They had been successful in the two great battles of the year--Bull Run and Wilson's Creek; also in the minor engagements at Big Bethel, Carthage, Lexington, Belmont, and Ball's Bluff. The Federals had saved Fort Pickens* and Fortress Monroe, and had captured the forts at Hatteras Inlet and Port Royal. They had gained the victories of Philippi, Rich Mountain, Booneville, Carrick's Ford, Cheat Mountain, Carnifex Ferry, and Dranesville. They had saved to the Union Missouri, Maryland, and West Virginia. Principally, however, they had thrown the whole South into a state of siege--the armies on the north and west by land, and the navy in the east by sea, maintaining a vigilant blockade.

[Footnote: This fort was situated near Pensacola. Lieutenant Slemmer, seeing that an attack was about to be made upon him, transferred his men from Fort McRae, an untenable position, to Fort Pickens, an almost impregnable fortification, which he held until reinforcements arrived.]

1862.

THE SITUATION.--The national army now numbered 500,000; the Confederate, about 350,000. During the first year there had been random fighting; the war henceforth assumed a general plan. The year's campaign on the part of the North had three main objects: (1) the opening of the Mississippi; (2) the blockade of the Southern ports; and (3) the capture of Richmond.

THE WAR IN THE WEST.

The Confederates here held a line of defence with strongly fortified posts at Columbus, Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Bowling Green, Mill Spring, and Cumberland Gap. It was determined to pierce this line near the centre, along the Tennessee River. This would compel the evacuation of Columbus, which was deemed impregnable, and open the way to Nashville (map opp p 222).

CAPTURE OF FORTS HENRY AND DONELSON.--Accordingly, General Giant with his army, and Commodore Foote with his gunboats, moved from Cairo (kay'-ro) upon Fort Henry.

[Footnote: As a part of the general movement, in January General Thomas had advanced against _Mill Spring_ and on the 19th driven out the Confederate force at that place, with the loss of General Zolhcoffer (tsol'le ko-fer) a favorite Southern leader]

A bombardment (Feb. 6) from the gunboats reduced the place in about an hour. The land troops were to cut off the retreat; but as they did not arrive in time, the garrison escaped to Fort Donelson. The fleet now went back to the Ohio, and ascended the Cumberland, while Grant crossed to co-operate in an attack on Fort Donelson. The fight lasted three days.

[Footnote: For four nights of inclement winter weather, amid snow and sleet, with no tents, shelter, fire, and many with no blankets, these hardy western troops maintained their position. The wounded suffered intensely, and numbers of them froze to death as they lay on the icy ground.]

The fleet was repulsed by the fire from the fort, and Commodore Foote seriously wounded. Grant, having been reinforced till he had nearly thirty thousand men, defeated the Confederates in an attempt to cut their way out, and captured a part of their intrenchments. As he was about to make the final assault, the fort was surrendered (Feb. 16), with about fifteen thousand men.

[Footnote: When General Buckner, commander of the fort, wrote to General Grant, offering capitulation, Grant replied that no terms would be received except an "unconditional surrender," and that he "proposed to move immediately upon their works." These expressions have been much quoted, and U. S. Grant has been often said to signify "Unconditional Surrender Grant."]

_Effect of these Victories_.--As was expected, Columbus and Bowling Green were evacuated, while General Buell at once occupied Nashville. The Confederates fell back to Corinth, the great railroad centre for Mississippi and Tennessee, where their forces were gradually collected under the command of Generals Albert Sidney Johnston and Beauregard. The Union army ascended the Tennessee to Pittsburg Landing. Grant was placed in command, and General Buell ordered to reinforce him.

The next movement was to capture the Memphis and Charleston railroad, thus cutting off Memphis and securing another section of the Mississippi Eiver.

BATTLE OF SHILOH (April 6, 7).--The Confederates determined to rout Grant's army before the arrival of Buell. On Sunday morning, at daylight, moving out of the woods in line of battle, they suddenly fell on the Union camps.

[Footnote: On the very heels of the pickets, who rushed in to give the alarm, came the shells, and then, pouring at double-quick from the woods, the regular lines of battle. Whether or not this attack was a surprise, has been one of the mooted questions of the war. Le Comte de Paris said, "The surprise was complete and unquestionable; the Union commanders sought in vain to excuse themselves;" and it was currently stated at the time that so unexpected was the attack that many of the "men were bayoneted in their beds." On the other hand, General Sherman asserts that his "troops were in line of battle and ready" before the engagement began, and he personally assures the writer that after the battle he offered in vain a reward for the body of any person killed by a bayonet-wound. General Grant, also, denies that the attack was a surprise to him, and declares that so well satisfied was he with the result of the first day's struggle, that at night he gave orders for a forward movement early in the morning.]

On the one side were the Southern dash, daring, and vigor; on the other, the Northern firmness and determination. The Federals slowly yielded, but for twelve hours obstinately disputed every inch of the way. At last, pushed to the very brink of the river, Grant massed his artillery, and gathered about it the fragments of regiments for the final stand. The Confederates, to meet them, had to cross a deep ravine, where, struggling through the mud and water, they melted away under the fire of cannon and musketry from above, and the shells from the gunboats below. Pew reached the slippery bank beyond. At the same time, Buell's advance came shouting on the field. The tide of battle was stayed. The Confederates fell back. They possessed, however, all the substantial fruits of victory. They had taken the Union camps, three thousand prisoners, thirty flags, and immense stores; but they had lost their commander, General Albert Sidney Johnston, who fell in the heat of the action (map opp. p. 222).

The next morning the tide turned. Buell's army had come, and fresh troops were poured on the wearied Confederates. Beauregard, obstinately resisting, was driven from the field. He retreated, however, in good order, and, unmolested, returned to Corinth.

General Halleck now assumed command, and by slow stages followed the Confederates. Beanregard, finding himself outnumbered, evacuated Corinth, and Halleck took possession (May 30).

ISLAND NO. 10.--The Confederates, on retreating from Columbus, fell back to Island No. 10. There they were bombarded by Commodore Foote for three weeks, with little effect. General Pope, crossing the Mississippi in the midst of a fearful rain-storm, took the batteries on the opposite bank, and prepared to attack the fortifications in the rear. The garrison, seven thousand strong, surrendered (April 7) the very day of the conflict at Shiloh.

[Footnote: The islands in the Mississippi are numbered in order from the mouth of the Ohio to New Orleans.]

[Footnote: Pope, with his army, was on the Missouri side of the river. He could not cross, as the Confederate batteries were planted on the opposite shore. A canal was therefore dug through Donaldson's Point. It was twelve miles long and fifty feet wide. Part of the distance was among heavy timber, where the trees had to be cut off four feet below the surface of the water. Yet the work was accomplished in nineteen days. Through this canal steamboats and barges were safely transferred below the newly-made island, while the two largest gunboats ran the batteries. Under their protection Pope crossed the river.]

_The Effects_ of the desperate battle at Shiloh were now fully apparent. The Union gunboats moved down the river and (May 10) defeated the Confederate iron-clad fleet. On the evacuation of Corinth, Fort Pillow was abandoned. The gunboats, proceeding, destroyed the Confederate flotilla in front of Memphis, took possession of that city, and secured the Memphis and Charleston railroad. The great State of Kentucky and all Western Tennessee had been wrenched from the Confederacy.

[Footnote: Besides the results here named, the concentration of troops at Corinth had absorbed the troops from the South. Thus New Orleans, as we shall see hereafter, fell an easy prey to Farragut.]

[Footnote: Gen. Halleck having been called to Washington as General-in-Chief of the armies of the United States, General Grant was appointed to the command of this army.]

The Union army now held a line running from Memphis, through Corinth, nearly to Chattanooga, toward which point General Buell was steadily pushing his troops. We shall next consider the efforts made by the Confederates to break through this line of investment. At this time they were concentrated under Bragg at Chattanooga, Price at Iuka, and Van Dorn at Holly Springs.

BRAGG'S EXPEDITION.--The first movement was made by General Bragg, who with rapid marches, hastened toward Louisville. General Buell fell back to Nashville, where he found out his enemy's plan. Now commenced a race between them of three hundred miles. Buell came out one day ahead. He was heavily reinforced to the number of one hundred thousand men. Bragg then fell back, Buell slowly following.

[Footnote: At Frankfort, Bragg was joined by the part of his army under Kirby Smith, who had marched from Knoxville, routed a Union force under General Manson at Richmond, Ky., inflicting a loss of six thousand, and had then moved north as far as Cynthiana. There he threatened to attack Cincinnati, but was repelled by the extensive preparation made by General Lew Wallace]

At _Perryville_ (October 8), Bragg fiercely turned upon Buell, and a desperate battle was fought. In the darkness, however, Bragg retreated, and finally escaped, though his wagon train extended a distance of forty miles. At this juncture (October 31), General Buell was superseded by General Rosecrans.

BATTLES OF IUKA AND CORINTH (September 19, October 4).--Every one of Grant's veterans who could possibly be spared had been sent north to help Buell. Price and Van Dorn, taking advantage of the opportunity, were manoeuvring to get possession of Corinth. Grant, thinking that he could capture Price and then get back to Corinth before Van Dorn could reach it from Holly Springs, ordered Rosecrans to move upon Iuka. Through some mistake, Rosecrans failed to occupy Price's line of retreat, and after a severe conflict (Sept. 19), the latter escaped. Thereupon the two Confederate generals joined their forces, and attacked Rosecrans in his intrenchments at Corinth. The Confederates exhibited brilliant courage, but were defeated, and pursued forty miles with heavy loss.